Nervous System Part 1

Functions of the Nervous System

- Receiving sensory input - Maintaining homeostasis

- Integrating information - Establishing and maintaining mental
- Controlling muscles and glands activity

Divisions of the Nervous System

Central Nervous System
- Consists of the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

- Consists of all the nervous tissue outside the CNS, including nerves and ganglia.
- Is the communication link between the CNS and the various parts of the body.

- Carries information about different tissues of the body to the CNS and delivers
commands from the CNS to the other body parts.

Stimuli —-> Receptor (receiving sensory input) —-> Integrating information (Central Nervous
System) —-> Sending response command by CNS (Peripheral Nervous System) —-> Effector
(muscles and glands) —-> Action

1
The peripheral nervous system is divided into two divisions: sensory and motor division.

1
Sensory Divsion is known also as afferent “toward” division. The word afferent comes from Latin
“afferens” meaning carrying towards. Therefore, the sensory division refers to the processing of the
stimuli received by the body. *Apply the formula to the motor division.
Sensory (Afferent) Division
- Conducts action potentials from sensory receptors to the CNS.
- Sensory Neurons are the neurons that transmit action potentials from the periphery to
the CNS.

2
Motor (Efferent) Division
- PNS conducts action potentials from the CNS to effector organs.
- Motor neurons are the neurons that transmit action potentials from the CNS toward the
periphery.

Motor Division is subdivided into two components: the somatic nervous system and
the autonomic nervous system.

Somatic Nervous System

- Transmit action potentials from CNS to skeletal muscles (voluntary muscle).

Autonomic Nervous System

- Transmits action potentials from the CNS to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands.
- It is divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

Sympathetic Division
- prepares the body for stressful or emergencies, often called the "fight or flight"
response. It increases heart rate, releases stored energy, and diverts blood flow to
muscles, among other effects, enabling the body to respond quickly to threats.

Parasympathetic Division
- helps the body to rest and digest. It's often called the "rest and digest" or "feed
and breed" system. This division decreases heart rate, increases intestinal and gland
activity, and promotes relaxation and recovery after a stressful event.

Enteric Nervous System

- A special nervous system found only in the digestive tract.

2
These divisions are named based on the direction of information flow relative to the CNS: "afferent"
towards the CNS and "efferent" away from the CNS, highlighting their roles in the body's response to
stimuli.
The sensory division of the peripheral nervous system detects stimuli an conducts action
potentials to the central nervous system. The CNS interprets incoming action potentials and initiates that
are conducted through the motor division to produce a response.
Cells of the Nervous System

Neurons

- Receive stimuli, conduct action potentials, and transmit signals to other neurons or
effector organs.

Glial Cells

- Supportive cells of the CNS and PNS, meaning these cells do not conduct action
potentials.
- Glial cells perform different functions that enhance neuron function and maintain normal
conditions with nervous tissue.

- Astrocytes serve as the major supporting cells in the CNS.

- Ependymal cells line the cavities in the brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid.
- Microglial cells act in an immune function in the CNS by removing bacteria and cell
debris.
- Oligodendrocytes provide myelin to axons of neurons in the CNS.
- Schwann cells provide myelin to the axons
of neurons in the PNS.

Neurons

Cell Body - contains a single nucleus.

Dendrite - a cytoplasmic extension from the

cell body, that usually receives information
from other neurons and transmits the
information to the cell body.

Axon - a single long cell process that leaves

the cell body at the axon hillock and
conducts sensory signals to the CNS motor
signals away from the CNS.
Structural Types of Neurons

Multipolar - neurons have many dendrites and a single axon.

Bipolar - neurons have two processes: one dendrite and one axon.

Pseudo-unipolar - neurons have a single process extending from the cell body, which
divides into two processes as short distance from the cell body3.

Myelin Sheath and Unmyelinated Neurons

Myelin Sheath

- Myelin Sheaths are specialized layers that wrap around the axons of some neurons,
those neurons are termed myelinated.

- The sheaths are formed by Oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS.

- Myelin is an excellent insulator that prevents almost all ion movement across the cell
membrane.

- Gaps in the myelin sheath, called nodes of Ranvier, occur about every millimeter.

- Multiple sclerosis is a disease of the myelin sheath that causes loss of muscle function.
3
Astrocytes can stimulate or inhibit the signaling activity of nearby neurons and form the blood-brain
barrier.
Unmyelinated Neurons

- Unmyelinated axons lack the myelin sheaths.

- A typical small nerve, which consists of axons of multiple neurons, usually contains more
unmyelinated axons than myelinated axons.

4
feeefOrganization of Nervous Tissue

- Nervous tissue varies in color due to the abundance or absence of myelinated axons.
- Nervous tissue exists as gray matter and white matter.
- Gray matter consists of groups of neuron cell bodies and their dendrites, where there is
very little myelin.
- White matter consists of bundles of parallel axons with their myelin sheaths, which are
whitish in color.

Resting Membrane Potential

- All cells have electrical properties, which are evident at their cell membranes.
- The phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane is impermeable to ions but ions ca cross
the membrane through ion channels.
- There are two types of ion channels: leak channels and gated channels.

Leak channels are always open so ions can diffuse across the membrane, down their
concentration gradient.
Gated channels are closed until opened by specific signals.

• Chemically gated channels are opened by chemicals such as neurotransmitters.

• Voltage-gated channels are opened by a change in the electrical property of the cell
membrane.
4
Most of the neurons within the CNS and nearly all motor neurons are multipolar. Bipolar neurons are
located in some sensory organs, such as in the retina of the eye and in the nasal cavity. The two
extensions function as a single axon with small, dendriite-like sensory receptors at the periphery.
- In most cells, the inside of the membrane has a negative charge relative to the outside of
the membrane, which has a positive charge.
- The membrane is said to be polarized.
- When the cell is at rest, this voltage is called the resting membrane potential.

NOTES
Nerve Cell Communication
- Nerve cells are excitable
- The resting membrane potential can change in response to a stimuli.
- In nerve cells, this change in a means by which the cell communicates with other cells.
- The changes in membrane potential that nerve cells use to communicate with other cells
are called action potentials.

Gated Membrane Channels

- The stimuli that cause action potentials activate gated channels which are closed until
opened by specific signals.
- The opening and closing of gated ion channels changes the permeability of the
membrane to ions and can therefore change the membrane potential,
- Action potential may result.

Synapse
- A neuroneuronal synapse is a junction where the axon of one neuron interacts with
another neuron.
- The end of the axon forms a presynaptic terminal and the membrane of the next neuron
forms the postsynaptic membrane, with a synaptic cleft between the two membranes.
- Chemical substances called neurotransmitters are stored in synaptic vesicles in the
presynaptic terminal.

Neurotransmitters
- There are many neurotransmitters, with the best known being acetylcholine and
norepinephrine.
- Neurotransmitters do not normally remain in the synaptic cleft indefinitely, thus their
effects are short duration.
- Acetylcholinesterase an enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine.
- Norepinephrine is either actively transported back into the presynaptic terminal or
broken down by enzymes.

Neuronal Pathway (Converging)

- The CNS has simple to complex neuronal pathways.
- A converging pathway is a simple pathway in which two or more neurons synapse with
the same postsynaptic neuron.
- This allows information transmitted in more than one neuronal pathway to converge into
a single pathway,

Neuronal Pathway (Diverging)

- A diverging pathway is a simple pathway in which an axon from one neuron divides and
synapses with more than one other postsynaptic neuron.
- This allows information transmitted in one neuronal pathway to diverge into two or more
pathways.
Summation

- A single presynaptic action potential usually does not cause a sufficiently large
postsynaptic local potential to reach the threshold and produce an action potential in the
target cell.
- Many presynaptic action potentials are needed in a process called summation.
- Summation of signals in neuronal pathways allows integration of multiple subthreshold
local potentials.
- Summation of the local potentials can bring the membrane potential to the threshold and
trigger an action potential.

Spatial summation
- Occurs when the local potentials originate from different location on the postsynaptic
neuron—for example, form converging pathways.

Temporal summation
- Occurs when local potentials overlap in time.

This can occur from a single input that fires rapidly, which allows the resulting local potentials to
overlap briefly.

Spatial and temporal summation can lead to stimulation or inhibition, depending on the type of
signal.
 Nervous System Part 2 Reviewer

Central Nervous System - brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System - spinal nerves and root of ganglia

Autonomic Nervous System

- innervates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands

- controlled unconsciously
- composed of sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
- Sympathetic - prepares the individual for a flight or fight response
- Parasympathetic - activates involuntary functions rest and digest
- two neurons in series extends from the CNS to the effector organs
- first neuron - preganglionic neuron
- second neuron - postganglionic neuron

Enteric Nervous System

- capable of monitoring and controlling the digestive tract independently of the CNS
through local reflexes.

For example, stretching of the digestive tract is detected by enteric sensory neurons,
which stimulate enteric interneurons. The enteric interneurons stimulate enteric motor
neurons, which stimulate glands to secrete.

Spinal Cord

- extends from the foramen magnum to the 2nd lumbar vertebra.

- it is protected by the vertebral column.
- Spinal nerves allow movements, and if damaged, paralysis can occur.

Gray Matter

- center of the spinal cord

- looks like the letter H or a butterfly
- there’s a small amount of myelin, which is the reason for its color.

White Matter

- the outer layer of the spinal cord

- contains myelinated fiber

Reflex

- an involuntary movement/reaction to a stimulus applied to the PNS and transmitter to the

CNS.
 - allow a person to react to stimuli more quickly than is possible if conscious thought is
involved.
- It occurs in the spinal cord or brainstem rather than in the higher brain centers.

Reflex arc

- Is the neuronal pathway by which a reflex occurs and has five basic components;
- Sensory receptor – detects stimuli
- Sensory neuron – where the stimuli pass
- Interneurons – a place where sensory neurons and motor neurons interact to process
the stimuli.
- Motor neuron – sends the command to respond to the stimuli.
- Effector organ – received and made a reaction based on the command.

Reflexes

- The simplest reflex is the stretch reflex, it occur when muscle contract in response to a
stretching force applied to them. (e.g. knee-jerk reflex or patellar reflex).
- Withdrawal reflex, is a reaction to removing any body part from a painful stimulus.
- Sensory receptors are pain receptors, and stimulation of these receptors initiates the
reflex.

Spinal Nerves

- Arise along the spinal cord from the union of dorsal roots and ventral roots, which
contains axons of sensory and somatic motor neurons.
- These are located between the vertebra and categorized by the region of the vertebral
column from which it emerges.
- Cervical plexus, Brachial plexus, and Lumbosacral plexus

Cervical Plexus

- Spinal nerves C1-C4

- Innervates muscles attached to;
o hyoid bone
o skin of neck
o back of head

Brachial Plexus

- spinal nerves C5-T1

- supply nerves to the upper limbs, shoulders, and hand.

Lumbosacral Plexus

- spinal nerves L1-S4

- supply nerves in lower limbs.
 NOTES

The Brain

Four major regions of the brain are: the brainstem, cerebellum, diencephalon, and
cerebrum. (BraCe the DiCer – Brace the Dicer)

Brainstem

Components Location Function

Medulla oblongata Continuous with spinal cord - regulates heart rate

- blood vessels diameter
- breathing & balance
- swallowing
 - vomiting,
- hiccupping
- coughing
- sneezing
- involved in conscious
control of skeletal muscles.

Pons - Above medulla - Breathing

- Bridge between - Chewing
cerebrum and - Salivation
cerebellum - Swallowing
- Relay station between
cerebrum and cerebellum

Midbrain - Above pons - Coordinated eye

movement
- Pupil diameter
- Turning head toward noise

Reticular Formation - Scattered throughout - Regulates cyclical motor

brainstem function
- Regulates sleep-wake
cycle
- Respiration, & walking
- Chewing
- Arousing
- Maintain consciousness

Cerebellum

Characteristics Location Functions

- Means “little - Attached to the - Controls balance

brain” brainstem by the - Muscle tone
- Cortex is cerebellar peduncles - Coordination of fine motor
composed of function
gyri, sulci, and
gray matter
 Diencephalon

Components Characteristics/Loc Function

ation

Thalamus - The largest portion of - Influences moods and

the diencephalon detects pain

Epithalamus - Above thalamus - Emotional and visceral

- Epi means outside or response to odors
superficial - Contains an endocrine
gland called pineal gland
that plays a role in
controlling some long-term
cycles that are influences
by the light-dark cycle.

Hypothalamus - Below Thalamus - Controls;

- Controls pituitary - homeostasis,
gland and is - body temp,
connected to it by - thirst,
infundibulum - hunger,
 - Hypo means low or - fear, rage, and sexual
below emotions

Cerebrum1

- It is the largest portion of the brain.

- Divided into two: the right hemisphere and the left hemisphere.
- These divisions of the brain are separated by longitudinal fissures.
- Lobes: front, parietal, occipital, and temporal

Components - Location - Function

Cerebral - surface of cerebrum, - controls;

Cortex composed of gray - thinking
matter - communication
- remembering
- understanding
- initiates voluntary
movements

Cerebrum Surface Features

Longitudinal Fissure - divides the cerebrum into

the left and right
hemisphere
Gyri - folds on cerebral cortex
that increase surface area

Sulci - shallow indentations

Fissure - deep indentations

Cerebral Hemisphere

Left hemisphere - controls right side of the

body
- responsible for math,
analytic, and speech
Right hemisphere - controls left side of body

1
Applying existing knowledge: Just like how the skull is separated by sutures, the
cerebrum is separated by fissures. The two hemispheres are further divided into
different lobes by sulci (sulcus–singular) or grooves in the outer layer of the brain.
 - responsible for music, art,
and abstract ideas
Corpus callosum - the connection between the
two hemisphere
*The separation of the brain by the longitudinal fissure resulted in the right and left
hemispheres. These two hemispheres are further divided into lobes that have specific
functions.
Lobes of the Brain
Lobes Location Function
Frontal lobe anterior - controls voluntary motor
functions, aggression,
moods, smell
Parietal lobe top - evaluates sensory input
such as touch, pain,
pressure, temperature,
taste.
Occipital lobe posterior - vision
Temporal lobe lateral - hearing, smell, and
memory
Speech mainly in the left hemisphere

Sensory speech - parietal lobe

(Wernicke’s area) - where words are heard and comprehend

Motor Speech (Broca’s - frontal lobe

area) - where words are formulated

Meninges are three connective tissue layers that surround the brain
and spinal cord.

Dura Mater - outermost meningeal

layer
- the toughest of all the
meninges

Arachnoid Mater - the second meningeal

membrane is very
thin.

Pia Mater - third meningeal

membrane
- very tightly bound to
the surface of the
brain and spinal cord.

Subdural space the space between the dura mater and the arachnoid
mater.

Subarachnoid space - between the arachnoid mater and pia mater.

- filled with cerebrospinal fluid and contains blood
vessels.

Ventricles - fluid cavities found in the CNS

Lateral Ventricle - a relatively large cavity found in each cerebral

hemisphere.

Cerebrospinal fluid - bathes the brain and spinal cord, providing a

protective cushion around the CNS.
- it fills the brain ventricles, the central canal of the
spinal cord, and the subarachnoid space

Ependymal cells - located in the choroid plexuses of the ventricles,

produce the CSF.
Cranial Nerves - 12 pairs of cranial nerves
- named by roman numerals
- 2 categories of functions: sensory and
motor

Cranial Nerve I (Olfactory) is a pure sensory nerve for smell

Cranial Nerve II (Optic) is a pure sensory nerve for vision

Cranial Nerve III (Occulomotor) is a pure motor nerve for eye movement

Cranial Nerve IV (Trochlear) is a pure motor nerve for eye movement

Cranial Nerve V (Trigeminal) is both a motor and sensory nerve. It is

sensory for pain, touch, and
temperature for the eye and lower and
upper jaws. It is for muscles of
chewing

Cranial Nerve VI (Abducens) is a pure motor nerve for eye movement

Cranial Nerve VII (Facial) is both a sensory and motor nerve. It is

sensory for taste and motor for facial
 expression.

Cranial Nerve VIII (Vestibulocochlear) is a pure sensory nerve for hearing and
equilibrium

Cranial Nerve IX (Glossopharyngeal) is both a motor and sensory nerve. It is

sensory for taste and motor for
swallowing.

Cranial Nerve X (Vagus) is both a motor and sensory nerve, It is

sensory and motor for organs in the
thoracic and abdominal cavities.

Cranial Nerve XI (Accessory) is a pure motor nerve for the trapezius,

sternocleidomastoid, and muscles of
the larynx

Cranial Nerve XII (Hypoglossal) is a pure motor nerve for the tongue
 NOTES

Additional Information:

Preganglionic and postganglionic neurons are two types of nerve cells found in the autonomic
nervous system, which controls involuntary functions like heart rate, digestion, and breathing.

● Preganglionic neurons are located in the brain or spinal cord. They send signals to
ganglia, which are clusters of nerve cells located outside the brain and spinal cord.
● Postganglionic neurons receive signals from the preganglionic neurons and then send
them to target organs, like the heart, lungs, or intestines.

Essentially, think of preganglionic neurons as the "messengers" that send messages from the
brain or spinal cord to the ganglia, and postganglionic neurons as the "delivery drivers" that take
those messages to the final destination (the organs).
 Sensory Reviewer Rawrrr

Senses Ability to perceive stimuli

Senses Conscious awareness of stimuli received by sensory

neurons.
Sensory Receptors Sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli by developing
action potentials
Classification of Senses
General Senses Receptors distributed over a large part of the body.
Somatic Senses Provide Located in skin, • Touch
information about muscles, joints • Pressure
body and • Proprioception
environment • Temperature
• Pain

Visceral Senses Provide Located in • Pain

information about internal organs • Pressure
internal organs
Special Senses Receptors localized within • Smell
specific organs • Taste
• Vision
• Hearing
• Balance
Types of Receptors
Mechanoreceptors Detects movement • Touch
• Pressure
• Vibration
Chemoreceptors Detect chemicals • Odors
• Taste
Photoreceptors Detect light
Thermoreceptors Detect temperature changes
Nociceptors Detect pain
Types of Touch Receptors
Merkel’s disk Detect light touch and pleasure
Hair follicle receptors Detect light touch
Meissner corpuscle - Deep in epidermis
- Localizing tactile sensations
Ruffini corpuscle - Deep tactile receptors
- Detects continuous pressure in skin
Pacinian corpuscle - Deepest receptors
- Associated with tendons and joints
- Detect deep pressure, vibration, position
Pain pain is an unpleasant perceptual and emotional experience. In
addition, pain can be localized or diffuse.
Localized - Sharp, pricking, cutting pain
- Rapid action potential
Diffuse - Burning, aching pain
- Slower action potential
Pain Control Local anesthesia - Action potentials suppressed
from pain
- Receptors in local areas
- Chemicals are injected near
sensory.
General anesthesia - Loss of consciousness
- Chemicals affect reticular
formation
Olfaction - Sense of smell
- Occurs in response to. Odorants
- Receptors are located in superior portion of the nasal
cavity
- We can detect 10.000 different smells
Taste Taste buds - Sensory structures that detect
taste
- Located on papillae on tongue,
hard palate, throat.
- Inside each taste bud are taste
cells
- Each taste cell has taste hairs
that extend into taste pores
Types of Tastes - Sweet - Certain taste buds are more
- Sour sensitive to certain dishes
- Salty - Taste is also linked to smell
- Bitter
- Umami
Vision - Accessory structures
Eyebrow - Protects from sweat
- Shade from sun
Eyelid/Eyelashes - Protects from foreign objects
- Lubricates by blinking

The Eye and Accessory Structures

Conjunctiva Thin membrane that covers inner surface of eyelid
Lacrimal apparatus Produces tears
Extrinsic eye Help move eyeball
muscles
Lacrimal Gland Structures
 Extrinsic Eye Muscles

Fibrous Tunic made up of the sclera and cornea

Outermost Tunic
Sclera - Firm, white outer part
- Helps maintain eye shape, provides attachment sites for
muscles, protects internal structures.
Cornea - Transparent structure that covers iris and pupil
- Allows light to enter and focuses light
Vascular Tunic - also known as the uvea, is the middle layer of the
eyeball.
Middle tunic - contains blood supply
Choroid - black part (melanin)
- delivers O2 and nutrients to retina
Ciliary body - helps hold lens in place
Ciliary muscle - controls shape of lens via suspensory ligaments
Suspensory - help hold lens in place
ligaments
Lens - flexible disk
- focuses light onto retina
Iris - colored part of eye
- surrounds and regulates pupil
Pupil - regulates amount of light entering
- lots of light = constricted
- little light = dilated
Nervous Tunic - The innermost layer of the wall of the eye is made up of
the retina (also called the neural tunic).
Retina - Contains 2 layers
Pigmented retina - Outer layer
- Keeps light from reflecting back in eye
Sensory retina - Contains photoreceptors (rods and cons)
- Contains interneurons
Rods - Photoreceptors sensitive to light
- 20 times more rods than cones
- Can function in dim light
Cones - Photoreceptors provide color vision
- 3 types blue, green, and red

Chambers of the Eye

Anterior Chamber - located between cornea and lens
- filled with aqueous humor b (watery)
- aqueous humor helps maintain pressure, refracts light,
and provide nutrients to inner surface of eye
Posterior Chamber - located behind anterior chamber
- contains aqueous humor
Vitreous Chamber - located in retina region
 - filled with vitreous humor: jelly-like substance
- vitreous humor helps maintain pressure, holds lens, and
retina in place, refracts light
Neural Pathway for Vision
Optic Nerve - leaves eye and exits orbit through optic foramen to enter
cranial cavity
Optic Chiasm - where 2 optic nerves connect
Optic tracts - rout of ganglion axons
Visual Pathway

Color Blindness - the absence of perception of one or more colors

 - the loss may involve perception of all three colors or one
or two colors
- most forms of color blindness occur more frequently in
males and are X – linked genetic traits
The Ear - the organs of hearing and balance are located int the
ears:
- Each ear is divided into three areas:
- The external ear
- The middle ear
- The inner ear
External - Extends from outside of head to eardrum
Ear

Auricle – fleshy part on outside

External auditory meatus – canal that leads to
eardrum
Tympanic membrane – eardrum
Thin membrane that separates external and
middle ear
Middle Ear - Air filled chamber with ossicles
Malleus (hammer) – bone attached to tympanic
membrane
Incus (anvil) – bone that connects malleus to
stapes.
Stapes (stirrup) – bone located at base of oval
window.
Oval window – separates middle and inner ear
Eustachian or auditory tube – opens into
pharynx
- Equalizes air pressure between outside air
and middle ear.
Inner Ear - Set of fluid filled chambers
Bony labyrinth – tunnels filled with fluid
- 3 regions: cochlea, vestibule,
semicircular canals
Membranous labyrinth – inside bony labyrinth
- Filled with endolymph
Endolymph – clear fluid in membranous
labyrinth
Perilymph – fluid between membranous and
bony labyrinth
Cochlea – snail – shell shaped structure
- Where hearing takes place
 Hearing Process
Sound travels in waves through air and is funneled into
ear by auricle.
Sound travels through external auditory meatus to tympanic membrane. C

Tympanic membrane vibrates and sound is amplified by

malleus, incus, stapes which transmit sound to oval window.

Oval window produces waves in perilymph of cochlea.

Vibrations of perilymph cause vestibular membrane and
endolymph to vibrate.
Endolymph vibrations C

Hair cells become bent and cause action potentials to be

created.
Balance (Equilibrium)
Static equilibrium Evaluates position of head relative to gravity.
Dynamic equilibrium - Associated with semicircular canals
- Evaluates changes in direction and rate of head
movement.