ECE 421/599

Electric Energy Systems

5 – Line Model and Performance

Instructor:
Kai Sun
Fall 2014

1
Line Models
• Short Line Model
– 80km (50 miles) or less, 69kV or lower
– Ignoring capacitance
• Medium Line Model
– 80km (50 miles) ~ 250km (150 miles)
– Lumped line parameters
• Long Line Model
– 250km (150 miles) or longer
– Distributed line parameters

• Example: L=1mH/km, C=0.01µF/km and r=0.01Ω/km

ω=2π×60=377Hz l=80km l=250km
R=r×l (Ω) 0.8=0.027XL 2.5=0.027XL
XL=ωL×l (Ω) 30.2 94.3
XC=1/(ωC) ×l (Ω) 3315.6=109.8XL 1061.0=11.3XL

2
Short Line Model
• Capacitance is ignored.

Z  ( r  j L)l  R  jX

VS   A B  VR 
 I  = C D  I 
 S    R

VS  VR + ZI R  1 Z  VR 

= I  =  0 1   I 
 S  I R    R

=A 1=B Z=
C 0=
D 1
S S (3φ ) = 3V I *
S S
PR (3φ )
η=
S=
L (3φ ) S S (3φ ) − S R (3φ ) PS (3φ )
3
 •Voltage Regulation (VR):
| VR ( NL ) | − | VR ( FL ) |
=
Percent VR ×100%
| VR ( FL ) |

| VS | − | VR ( FL ) |
= × 100%
| VR ( FL ) |

– It is a measure of line voltage drop

– Depends on the load power factor: VR is poorer at low lagging power factor
– Perhaps, VR<0 for a leading power factor (i.e. |VS|<|VR|). See Example 5.1

ZIR ZIR ZIR

4
Medium Line Model
• Model the total shunt admittance of the line by

( g + jωC ) ≈ jωC 
Y=
– g, the shunt conductance per unit length, represents the leakage current
over the insulators is negligible under normal condition.
– C is the line to neutral capacitance per unit length
• Nominal π model:
– Half of C is considered to be lumped at each end of the line

5
• Find VS, IS ↔ VR, IR

Y
I=
L IR + VR
2
V=
S VR + ZI L
Y
=
VR + Z ( I R + VR )
2  ZY 
1 + Z
VS   A B  VR   2  VR 
ZY = I  =  I     
VS =
(1 + )VR + ZI R  S  C D   R  Y (1 + ZY
) 1+
ZY  IR 
2  4 2 
ZY ZY ZY
A= 1+ B= Z C= Y (1 + ) D= 1+
Y 2 4 2
I=
S I L + VS
2
A B
Y Y ZY  det   = AD − BC = 1
=( I R + VR ) + (1 + )VR + ZI R  C D 
2 2 2 
VR   D −B VS 
 I  =  −C A   
ZY ZY  R  IS 
I S = Y (1 + )VR + (1 + )IR Linear, passive, bilateral two-port network
4 2 (no source) 6
Long Line Model
• Series impedance per unit length

z  r  j L
• Shunt admittance per unit length

y  g  j C
• Consider a small segment of ∆x at distance x from the receiving end

V (x + ∆
=x) V ( x) + z ∆xI ( x) V ( x + ∆x) − V ( x)
= zI ( x)
∆x
I ( x + ∆x) − I ( x)
I ( x + ∆=
x ) I ( x ) + y∆xV ( x + ∆x ) = yV ( x + ∆x)
∆x

dV ( x)
= zI ( x)
dx d 2V ( x) dI ( x)
dI ( x) = z= zyV ( x)
= yV ( x) dx 2 dx
dx
7
 d 2V ( x) γ 2 = zy
= zyV ( x) d 2V ( x)
dx 2
2
− γ 2
V ( x) =
0
dx
∆
γ - Propagation constant
γ =α + j β = zy = (r + jω L)( g + jωC )
α - Attenuation constant (≥0)
β - Phase constant (≥0)
If line losses are neglected, i.e. r=0 and g=0
Principal square root:
γ =α + j β = −ω LC =jω LC
2
=z re jϕ with − π < ϕ < π
∆

=α 0,=β ω LC z = re jϕ /2

( x) A1eγ x + A2 e −γ x
V=

1 dV ( x ) γ y
I ( x) = = ( A1eγ x − A2e −γ x ) = ( A1eγ x − A2e −γ x )
z dx z z
1
= ( A1eγ x − A2e −γ x ) ZC = 𝑧/𝑦 - Characteristic impedance
ZC
8
 ( x) A1eγ x + A2 e −γ x
V=
ZC = 𝑧/𝑦 - Characteristic impedance
1
=
I ( x) ( A1eγ x − A2 e −γ x )
ZC

• Find A1 and A2: at the receiving end, x=0, V(x)=VR and I(x)=IR
VR + Z C I R
= V=
V (0) R A1 + A2 A1 = |A1|>|A2| or
2
= I=
1
( A1 − A2 ) V − ZC I R |A1|<|A2|?
I (0) R
ZC
A2 = R
2

VR + Z c I R γ x VR − Z c I R −γ x eγ x + e −γ x eγ x − e − γ x
V ( x) = e + e = VR + Z c IR
2 2 2 2
VR VR
+ IR − IR γx −γ x γx −γ x
Zc γx Z − γ 1 e − e e + e
I ( x) = e − c e x
= VR + IR
2 2 Zc 2 2

e x  e x e x  e x
cosh x  sinh x 
2 2
9
 V ( x) cosh γ xVR + Z c sinh γ xI R
=

1
=I ( x) sinh γ xVR + cosh γ xI R
Zc

10
• At the sending end, x=l, V(l)=VS, I(l)=IS
Compared to the medium line π model:
Vs cosh γ VR + Z c sinh γ I R ZY
VS =
(1 + )VR + ZI R
1 2
Is sinh γ VR + cosh γ xI R I S = Y (1 +
ZY
)VR + (1 +
ZY
)IR
Zc 4 2
ZY
VS   A B  VR  A=
1+ B=
Z
 I  = C D 
2
I  ZY ZY
 S    R C=
Y (1 +
4
) D=
1+
2

Z ′Y ′ z sinh γ 
A = cosh γ  = 1 + =Z ′ Z=
C sinh γ  zy 
γ
2 y
B = Z C sinh γ  = Z ′ sinh γ 
=Z
1 Z ′Y ′ γ
C= sinh γ=
 Y ′(1 + ) γ
ZC 4 tanh
Y ′ cosh γ  − 1 cosh γ  − 1 y
Z ′Y ′ = = = zy  2
D = cosh γ  = 1+ 2 Z′ Z C sinh γ  z γ
2
γ
tanh
A=D, AD-BC=1 Y 2
=
2 γ
Linear, passive, bilateral two-port network 2
(no source) 11
Equivalent π Model for Long Length Lines

Z  zl  (r  j L)l

Y  yl  ( g  jC )l

γ=zy =(r + jω L)( g + jωC )

Y’/Y = tanh(γl/2)/(γl/2)

Z’/Z = sinh(γl)/(γl)

|γl| (pu)
12
Example 4.1 in Bergen and Vittal’s Book
• A 60-Hz 138kV 3-phase transmission line is 225 mi long. The distributed line
parameters are r=0.169Ω/mi, L=2.093mH/mi, C=0.01427µF/mi, g=0. The transmission
line delivers 40MW at 132kV with 95% power factor lagging.
– Find the sending-end voltage and current.
– Find the transmission line efficiency
Solution:
ω=2π×60=377rad/s
z=r+jωL=0.169+j377×2.093 ×10-3= 0.169+j0.789 = 0.807∠77.9o Ω/mi
y=jωC=j377×0.01427 ×10-6 = j5.38×10-6 =5.38×10-6 ∠90o S/mi
|A1|=72.1kV
ZC = 𝑧/𝑦=387.3∠-6.05o Ω/mi ≈ Real number
|A2|=1.57kV
γ=α+jβ= 𝑧𝑧=0.136 ×10-6 +j1.29×10-6
γl =225 𝑧𝑧=0.4688∠83.95o=0.0494+j0.466 ≈ Imaginary number
2sinhγl=eγl - e-γl=e0.0494 ej0.466-e-0.0494 e-j0.466=1.051∠0.466 rad -0.952∠-0.466 rad
sinhγl=0.452∠84.4o. Similarly, coshγl=0.8950∠1.42o

Let ∠VR=0. VR=132 ×103/ 3=76.2kV

Pload=0.95|VR||IR|=40/3=13.33MW θ=cos-1(0.95)=18.195o IR=184.1∠-18.195o A
Vs = cosh γ VR + Z c sinh γ I R = 89.28∠19.39 kV Pload 13.33
=η = *
= 92%
1 Re(V I ) 14.45
Is = sinh γ VR + cosh γ xI R = 162.42∠14.76° A S S
Zc 13
Voltage and Current Waves =v (t ) 2 | V | cos(ωt + θ v )

V ( x) =A1eγ x + A2 e −γ x =A1eα x e j β x + A2 e −α x e − j β x
V | V | ∠θ v
=

•Instantaneous voltage as a function of t and x

v (t , x ) 2 Re  A1eα x e j (ωt + β x )  + 2 Re  A2e −α x e j (ωt − β x ) 
v1 (t , x ) + v2 ( t , x )

v1 (t , x ) 2 | A1 | eα x cos(ωt + β x + ∠A1 )
Incident wave: amplitude ↑ when x ↑

v2 ( t , x ) 2 | A2 | e −α x cos(ωt − β x + ∠A2 )
Reflected wave: amplitude ↓ when x ↑

14
 v1(t, x) (V) v2(t, x) (V)

Sending Sending

x(mi)
x(mi) t(s) t(s)
Receiving Receiving

v(t, x) (V)

Sending

x(mi) t(s)
15
Receiving
Velocity and Wavelength of Propagation
• Consider
= v2 ( t , x ) 2 | A2 | cos(ωt − β x ) coming from the receiving end (x=0)

– For a point on the traveling wave: ωt − β x = constant

– Its moving speed (velocity of propagation) and the wavelength
dx ω 2π f = 2π
=
v = = λ v=/ f
dt β β β

L
– If α=0, β = ω LC ZC = Surge impedance
C
0.0556
1 1 C= µ F/km
v= λ= L = 0.2ln
GMD
mH/km ln
GMD
f LC GMRL GMRC
LC
1
– GMRL≈GMRC =
For 3 bundled conductors: GMRC / GMRL
3
r /=
r ' e= 1.09
3×4

1 1 1
v = = 3 × 108 m/ s λ = 5000km
µ0ε 0 4π × 10 × 8.85 × 10
−7 −12 60 µ0ε 0

1 µ0 GMD GMD
ZC  ln  60ln
2π ε 0 GMRc GMRC 16
 Lossless Lines
V ( x) cosh γ xVR + Z c sinh γ xI R
1
I ( x) sinh γ xVR + cosh γ xI R
Zc

γ = jβ e j x  e j x e j x  e j x
cosh  x  cosh j x   cos  x sinh  x  sinh j x   j sin  x
2 2

=VS cos β VR + jZ C sin β I R

V ( x ) cos β xVR + jZ C sin β xI R
=
Sending
1
1 =
end IS j sin β VR + cos β I R
I ( x) j sin β xVR + cos β xI R ZC
ZC
1
A= D= cos β , B= jZ C sin β , C= j sin β 
• Open circuit at the receiving end: ZC

IR  0 VR ( nl ) = VS cos β  ≥ VS VR ( nl ) ≈ VS
For short lines
• Short circuit at the receiving end:
β ≈ 0
VR = 0 VS = jZ C sin β I R
IS ≈ IR → ∞
I S = cos β I R 17
Surge Impedance Loading

• When ZL=ZC ZL
V
IR = R
ZC

– For a lossless line, ZC is purely resistive.

• Surge impedance loading (SIL) is the loading when ZL=ZC at rated voltage

3 | VR |2 3 | VLrated / 3 |2 ( kVLrated ) 2
=
SIL 3=
V I = *
R R = MW
ZC ZC ZC

V ( x ) cos β xVR + jZ C sin=

= β xI R (cos β x + j sin β x )VR = VR ∠β x

1
I ( x) j β xI R (cos β x + j sin β x ) I R = I R ∠β x
sin β xVR + cos=
ZC

18
Observations from SIL
) VR ∠β x
V ( x= I ( x )= I R ∠β x
ZL
• |V(x)|=|VS|=|VR|, |I(x)|=|IS|=|IR|
• PF=1 for any x

• QS=QR=0: Q losses due to line inductance are exactly offset by

Q supplied by shunt capacitance, i.e.
2 2
 L I R  C VR

•SIL is a useful measure of transmission line capacity:

– For load >>SIL, shunt capacitors may be needed to minimize voltage
drop along the line
– For load <<SIL, shunt inductors may be needed to avoid over-voltage
issues at the receiving end

19
20
(Source: Kundur’s book)
21
Complex Power Flow Through Transmission Lines
VS   A B  VR 
 I  = C    =
A D, AD − BC = 1
 S  D  IR 
=C ( AD − 1) / B
VR   D − B  VS 
 I  =  −C A   I 
 R    S

• Define VR  VR 0 VS  VS  A  A  A B  B B
VS − AVR | VS | ∠δ − | A || VR | ∠θ A | VS | ∠(δ − θ B )− | A || VR | ∠(θ A − θ B )
=IR = =
B | B | ∠θ B |B|
S R (3φ ) =PR (3φ ) + jQR (3φ ) =3V I * | VS || VR | | A || VR |2
=
R R 3 ∠(θ B − δ ) − 3 ∠(θ B − θ A )
|B| |B|
| VS ( L− L ) || VR ( L− L ) | | A || VR ( L− L ) |2
= ∠(θ B − δ ) − ∠(θ B − θ A ) θA≈0, θB≈90o
|B| |B|
DVS − VR | A || VS | ∠θ A + δ − | VR | ∠0 | A || VS | ∠(θ A − θ B + δ ) | VR | ∠ − θ B
IS = = −
B | B | ∠θ B |B| |B|

A || VS ( L− L) |2
∠(θ B − θ A ) | VS ( L − L ) || VR ( L − L ) | ∠(θ B + δ )
S S (3φ ) =PS (3φ ) + jQS (3φ ) =3VS I S =
*
−
|B| |B| 22
• Sending end:
Sending end Q
2
| A || VS ( L − L ) | | VS ( L − L ) || VR ( L − L ) | circle (SL)
PS (3φ ) cos(θ B − θ A ) − cos(θ B + δ )
|B| |B| π+θB

| A || VS ( L − L ) |2 | VS ( L − L ) || VR ( L − L ) |
QS (3φ ) sin(θ B − θ A ) − sin(θ B + δ ) θA δ
|B| |B|

• Receiving end: Radius θA≈0, θB≈90o θB-θA

(PS, QS)
PS(3φ)max
0 PR(3φ)max
2 P
| A || VR ( L − L ) | | VS ( L − L ) || VR ( L − L ) |
PR (3φ ) =
− cos(θ B − θ A ) + cos(θ B − δ ) θA
|B| |B| δ (PR, QR)
θB
2
| A || VR ( L − L ) | |V || V |
QR (3φ ) =
− sin(θ B − θ A ) + S ( L − L ) R ( L − L ) sin(θ B − δ )
|B| |B|
Receiving end
• For a lossless line, B=jX’, θA=0, θB=90o, and A=cosβl circle (SR)

| VS ( L − L ) || VR ( L − L ) |
P=
S (3φ ) P=
R (3φ ) =
sin δ P3φ
X′
| VS ( L − L ) || VR ( L − L ) | | VR ( L − L ) |2
P=
L (3φ ) PS (3φ ) − PR (3φ )
QR (3φ ) cos δ − cos β 
X′ X′
Q=
L (3φ ) QS (3φ ) − QR (3φ )
| VS ( L − L ) || VR ( L − L ) | | VS ( L − L ) |2
QS (3φ ) =
− cos δ + cos β 
X ′ X ′ 23
Sending & Receiving End Power Circle Diagram
Q
| A || VS ( L− L ) |2 | A || VR ( L− L ) |2
CS ∠θ B − θ A =CR ∠θ B − θ A + π Sending end
|B| |B| circle

| VS ( L− L ) || VR ( L− L ) | π+θB
R=
|B| CS
R
θA δ
• Can two circles intersect? (PR=PS and QR=QS)
| A| 2 | VS ( L − L ) || VR ( L − L ) |
| CS | + | CR |≤ 2 R (| VS ( L − L ) |2 + | VR ( L − L ) |2 ) ≤ θB-θA
(PS, QS)
|B| |B|
P
2 | VS ( L − L ) || VR ( L − L ) | θA
| A |≤ ≤1 (=1 iff |VS|=|VR|) δ
(PR, QR)
| VS ( L − L ) | + | VR ( L − L ) |
2 2

R
A necessary condition: CR θB

= γ  | | cosh(α  + j=
| A | | cosh= β ) | | cosh( zy ⋅ ) |≤ 1 Receiving end
circle
• Lossless line:
|A|=|cosβl|≤1. Two circles may intersect, e.g. when |VS|=|VR|
A special case is when PS=PR=SIL and QS=QR=0
24
25
Power Transmission Capacity
•Thermal loading limit:
– Conductors are stretched if its temperature increases due to real power
loss, which will increase the sag between transmission towers
– With the current-carrying capacity (Ithermal) of the conductor provided by the
manufacturer, the thermal loading limit is

Sthermal = 3Vφ rated I theramal

•Steady-state stability limit (ignoring losses)

– Theoretical limit: δ=90o X ′ = Z c sin β 
| VS ( L − L ) || VR ( L − L ) | | VS ( L − L ) || VR ( L − L ) |
P3φ max = sin 90 L
sin(ω LC ⋅ )
X′ Z c sin β = C
– Practical line loadability: δ<30o~45o
2
| VS ( L − L ) | | VR ( L − L ) | Vrated sin δ sin δ
P3φ = ( )( )( ) =| VSpu || VRpu | SIL
Vrated Vrated Z C sin β  sin β 
| VSpu || VRpu | SIL 1
= sin δ λ=  5000km if f =60Hz
sin(2π  / λ ) f LC
26
Example 5.6

| VSpu || VRpu | SIL

P3φ = sin δ
sin(2π  / λ )

27
 Sending & Receiving End Power Circle Diagram
2500

R=1167 (MVA) = P3φ(max)

2000
CS=0+j1196 (MVA)
1500
CS CR= -j969 (MVA)

1000
Assume δ<30o
R Practical line loadability =583.5MW
30o
500
Q (Mvar)

0
400
1167
300
-500 30o
200

Q (Mvar)
100
-1000
0
CR -100 583.5
-1500
-200

-300
-700 -600 -500 -400 -300 -200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
-2000 P (MW)

-2500
-1500 -1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500
P (MW)

28
 Line Loadability Curves
• Assume VR≈VS=400kV, Ithermal=3000A, SIL=499.83MW and δmax=30o
– SThermal =2078MW
– Line loadability curve vs. Line length:
5000

Loading Limit (MVA)

5000
0
4500

4000
Theoretical limit
3500
Loading Limit (MVA)

3000 -5000
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Line Length (km)
2500

2000 2078
Thermal Limit
1500

1000 Practical line

SIL loadability
500

0
50 100 150 200 250 300
Line Length (km) 29
Line Compensation
•Voltage Improvement:
•A long transmission line loaded at its SIL has no net Mvar flow
into or out of the line, and has approximately a flat voltage
profile along its length.
– A light load << SIL may cause high voltage at the receiving
end
– A heavy load >>SIL may cause low voltage at the receiving
end
– A reactor or capacitor may be installed at the receiving end to
improve voltage profiles
•Other purposes of line compensation:
– Changing the impedance of a line

30
Use of Capacitors and Reactors
•Can be designed to be a permanent part of the system (fixed)
or be switched in and out of service via circuit breakers or
switchers
– Shunt capacitors: supply Mvar to the system at a location
and increase voltages near that location.
– Shunt reactors: absorb excessive Mvar from the system at a
location and reduce voltages near that location.
– Series capacitors: reduce the impedance of the path by
adding capacitive reactance (to improve stability and reduce
reactive losses).
– Series reactors: increase the impedance of the path by
adding inductive reactance (to limit fault currents or reduce
power oscillations between generators)

31
Shunt Capacitors
•Locations:
– Connected directly to a bus bar or to the tertiary winding of
a main transformer
•Advantage:
– Low cost and flexibility of installation and operation
•Disadvantage:
– Reactive power output Q is proportional to its V2, and is hence
reduced at low voltages (when it is likely to be needed most)
– For example, if a 25 Mvar shunt capacitor normally rated at 115
kV is operated at 109 kV (0.95pu) the output of the capacitor is
22.5 Mvar or 90% of the rated value (Q=0.952=0.90pu).

32
 Shunt Reactors
• Use XLsh to limit the receiving end Long line
open-circuit voltage to VR
VR
IR =
jX Lsh
Z =VS cos β VR + jZ C sin β I R
VS VR (cos β  + C sin β )
X Lsh 1
=IS j sin β VR + cos β I R
ZC
VS and VR are in phase
(no real power is transmitted over the line)
sin β  IS =
(−
1
sin β X Lsh + cos β ) I R = − I R
X Lsh = ZC
VS ZC
− cos β 
VR
What does IS= -IR mean?
• If VR=VS
Prove, at the mid-point of the line (x=l/2):
sin β 
X Lsh = ZC
1 − cos β  Vm =
VR
β Im = 0
cos
2 33
34
Series Capacitors Long line

| VS ( L− L ) || VR ( L− L ) |
P3φ = sin δ
X ′ − X Cser
X Csr
=
% Compensation × 100%
X ′

• Advantage:
– “Self-regulating” nature: unlike a shunt capacitor, series capacitors produce
more reactive power with heavier power current flows
• Disadvantage:
– Sub-synchronous resonance (SSR) is often caused by the series-resonant circuit

X Cser 1
= f r f= f
X′ L′Cser
s s

If fs=60Hz, fr= 30Hz for 25% compensation

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Homework #6

•Read through Saadat’s Chapter 5

•ECE421: 5.8-5.13, and draw the sending & receiving end power
circles for Example 5.6 (slide 27) with VS=VR=1pu and indicate on
both circles the operating points with SIL, the practical line
loadability with δ=45o and the theoretical maximum power
transfer.
•ECE599: plus proving Vm and Im in slide 33
•Due date: 10/31 (Friday)

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