COMPUTER

ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE

Data Representation

Dr. Bore Gowda S B

Additional Professor
Dept. of ECE
MIT, Manipal
 Introduction

• A bit is the most basic unit of information in a computer.

• It is a state of “on” or “off” in a digital circuit.
• Sometimes these states are “high” or “low” voltage instead of “on” or “off..”
• A byte is a group of eight bits.
• A byte is the smallest possible addressable unit of computer storage.
• The term, “addressable,” means that a particular byte can be retrieved according
to its location in memory.

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 2

 Positional Numbering Systems

• Bytes store numbers using the position of each bit to represent a power
of 2.
– The binary system is also called the base-2 system.
– Our decimal system is the base-10 system. It uses powers of 10 for each position in a
number.
– Any integer quantity can be represented exactly using any base (or radix).

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 3

 Positional Numbering Systems

• The decimal number 947 in powers of 10 is:

9  10 2 + 4  10 1 + 7  10 0

• The decimal number 5836.47 in powers of 10 is:

5  10 3 + 8  10 2 + 3  10 1 + 6  10 0 + 4  10 -1 + 7  10 -2

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 4

 Positional Numbering Systems

• The binary number 11001 in powers of 2 is:

1  24+ 1  23 + 0  22 + 0  21 + 1  20
= 16 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 1 = 25

• When the radix of a number is something other than 10, the base is
denoted by a subscript.
– Sometimes, the subscript 10 is added for emphasis:
110012 = 2510

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 5

 Converting Between Bases
• Converting 190 to base 2
19010 = 101111102
2 190
2 95 0
2 47 1
2 23 1
2 11 1
2 5 1
2 2 1
2 1 0
0 1

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 6

 Converting Between Bases
• Converting 0.8125 to binary . . .
– You are finished when the product is zero, or until you
have reached the desired number of binary places.
– Our result, reading from top to bottom is:
0.812510 = 0.11012
– This method also works with any base. Just use the
target radix as the multiplier.

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 7

Positional Numbering Systems
Decimal Binary Hexadecimal Octal
0 00000 0 0
1 0001 1 1
2 0010 2 2
3 0011 3 3
4 0100 4 4
5 0101 5 5
6 0110 6 6
7 0111 7 7
8 1000 8 10
9 1001 9 11
10 1010 A 12
11 1011 B 13
12 1100 C 14
13 1101 D 15
14 1110 E 16
15 1111 F 17
Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 8
 Numbering Systems

Numbers we can represent using binary representations

– Positive numbers
• Unsigned binary
– Negative numbers
• Two’s complement
• Sign/magnitude numbers

What about fractions?

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 9

 Numbering Systems

Two common notations:

• Fixed-point: binary point fixed
• Floating-point: binary point floats to the right of the most significant 1

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 10

 Numbering Systems
• 6.75 using 4 integer bits and 4 fraction bits:
01101100
0110.1100
22 + 21 + 2-1 + 2-2 = 6.75
• Binary point is implied
• The number of integer and fraction bits must be agreed upon beforehand

• Represent 7.510 using 4 integer bits and 4 fraction bits.

01111000
Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 11
 Numbering Systems

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 12

 Signed Integer Representation

• To represent signed integers, computer systems allocate the high-order bit

to indicate the sign of a number.
– The high-order bit is the leftmost bit. It is also called the most significant bit.
– 0 is used to indicate a positive number;
– 1 indicates a negative number.
• The remaining bits contain the value of the number (but this can be
interpreted different ways)

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 13

 Signed Integer Representation

• There are three ways in which signed binary integers may be expressed:
– Signed magnitude
– One’s complement
– Two’s complement
• In an 8-bit word, signed magnitude representation places the absolute
value of the number in the 7 bits to the right of the sign bit.

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 14

 Signed Integer Representation

• For example, in 8-bit signed magnitude representation:

+3 is: 00000011
- 3 is: 10000011
• Computers perform arithmetic operations on signed magnitude numbers in
much the same way as humans carry out pencil and paper arithmetic.
– Humans often ignore the signs of the operands while performing a calculation,
applying the appropriate sign after the calculation is complete.

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 15

 Signed Integer Representation
• Binary addition is as easy as it gets. You need to know only four rules:
0 + 0 = 0 0 + 1 = 1
1 + 0 = 1 1 + 1 = 10
• The simplicity of this system makes it possible for digital circuits to carry out
arithmetic operations.

• Example:
– Using signed magnitude binary arithmetic, find the sum of 75 and 46.
• First, convert 75 and 46 to binary, and arrange as a sum, but separate the
(positive) sign bits from the magnitude bits.

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 16

 Signed Integer Representation
Disadvantage of signed magnitude representation
• Signed magnitude representation is easy for people to understand, but it
requires complicated computer hardware.
• Another disadvantage of signed magnitude is that it allows two different
representations for zero: positive zero and negative zero.
• For these reasons (among others) computers systems employ complement
systems for numeric value representation

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 17

 Signed Integer Representation

• In complement systems, negative values are represented by some

difference between a number and its base.
• The diminished radix complement of a non-zero number N in base r with d
digits is (rd – 1) – N
• In the binary system, this gives us one’s complement. It amounts to little
more than flipping the bits of a binary number.

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 18

 Signed Integer Representation

• For example, using 8-bit one’s complement representation:

+ 3 is: 00000011
- 3 is: 11111100
• In one’s complement representation, as with signed magnitude, negative
values are indicated by a 1 in the high order bit.
• Complement systems are useful because they eliminate the need for
subtraction. The difference of two values is found by adding the minuend to
the complement of the subtrahend.

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 19

 Signed Integer Representation

• With one’s complement

addition, the carry bit is
“carried around” and added
to the sum.
– Example: Using one’s
complement binary arithmetic,
find the sum of 48 and - 19

We note that 19 in binary is 00010011,

so -19 in one’s complement is: 11101100.

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 20

 Signed Integer Representation

• Although the “end carry around” adds some complexity, one’s complement is
simpler to implement than signed magnitude.
• But it still has the disadvantage of having two different representations for
zero: positive zero and negative zero.
• Two’s complement solves this problem.
• Two’s complement is the radix complement of the binary numbering system;
the radix complement of a non-zero number N in base r with d digits is rd – N.

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 21

 Signed Integer Representation

• To express a value in two’s complement representation:

– If the number is positive, just convert it to binary and you’re done.
– If the number is negative, find the one’s complement of the number and then add 1.
• Example:
– In 8-bit binary, 3 is: 00000011
– -3 using one’s complement representation is: 11111100
– Adding 1 gives us -3 in two’s complement form: 11111101.

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 22

 Signed Integer Representation

• With two’s complement arithmetic, all we do is add

our two binary numbers. Just discard any carries
emitting from the high order bit.
– Example: Using two’s
complement binary
arithmetic, find the sum of
48 and - 19.

We note that 19 in binary is: 00010011

so -19 using one’s complement is: 11101100
and -19 using two’s complement is: 11101101

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 23

 Signed Integer Representation
• When we use any finite number of bits to represent a number, we always
run the risk of the result of our calculations becoming too large or too small
to be stored in the computer.
• While we can’t always prevent overflow, we can always detect overflow.
• In complement arithmetic, an overflow condition is easy to detect.
• Example:
• Using two’s complement binary arithmetic, find the
sum of 107 and 46.
• We see that the nonzero carry from the seventh
bit overflows into the sign bit, giving us the
erroneous result: 107 + 46 = -103.
But overflow into the sign bit does not
always mean that we have an error.

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 24

 Signed Integer Representation

• Example:
– Using two’s complement binary
arithmetic, find the sum of 23 and
-9.
– We see that there is carry into the
sign bit and carry out. The final
result is correct: 23 + (-9) = 14.

Rule for detecting signed two’s complement overflow: When

the “carry in” and the “carry out” of the sign bit differ,
overflow has occurred. If the carry into the sign bit equals the
carry out of the sign bit, no overflow has occurred.

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 25

 Floating-Point Representation
• The signed magnitude, one’s complement, and two’s complement
representation that we have just presented deal with signed integer values
only.
• Without modification, these formats are not useful in scientific or business
applications that deal with real number values.
• Floating-point representation solves this problem.
• The Floating point representation is a way to the encode numbers in a format that
can handle very large and very small values.
• It is based on scientific notation where numbers are represented as a fraction and
an exponent.
• In computing, this representation allows for trade-off between range and
precision.

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 26

 Floating-Point Representation
• Need for Floating Point Representation
• The Floating point representation is crucial because:

✓ Range: It can represent a wide range of values from the very large to very small numbers.
✓ Precision: It provides a good balance between the precision and range, making it suitable for
the scientific computations, graphics and other applications where exact values and wide
ranges are necessary.
✓ Flexibility: It adapts to different scales of numbers allowing for the efficient storage and
computation of real numbers in the computer systems.

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 27

 Floating-Point Representation
• Floating-point numbers allow an arbitrary number of decimal places to the
right of the decimal point.
– For example: 0.5  0.25 = 0.125
• They are often expressed in scientific notation.
– For example:
0.125 = 1.25  10-1
5,000,000 = 5.0  106

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 28

 Floating-Point Representation
• Computers use a form of scientific notation for floating-point representation
• Numbers written in scientific notation have three components:

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 29

 Floating-Point Representation
• Computer representation of a floating-point number consists of three fixed-
size fields:

• This is the standard arrangement of these fields

Note: Many people use “significand” and “mantissa” terms interchangeably. We use the
term “significand” to refer to the fractional part of a floating point number.

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 30

 Floating-Point Representation
• a hypothetical “Simple Model” to explain the concepts
• In this model:
– A floating-point number is 14 bits in length
– The exponent field is 5 bits
– The significand field is 8 bits

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 31

 Floating-Point Representation
• Example:
– Express 3210 in the simplified 14-bit floating-point model.
• We know that 32 is 25. So in (binary) scientific notation 32 = 1.0 x 25
• Using this information, we put 101 (= 510) in the exponent field and 0 in the
significand as shown.

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 32

 IEEE Standard 754 Floating Point Numbers
• The IEEE Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic (IEEE 754) is a technical
standard for floating-point computation which was established in 1985 by
the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
• The standard addressed many problems found in the diverse floating point
implementations that made them difficult to use reliably and reduced their
portability.
• IEEE Standard 754 floating point is the most common representation today
for real numbers on computers, including Intel-based PC’s, Macs, and most
Unix platforms.

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 33

 IEEE Standard 754 Floating Point Numbers
• IEEE 754 has 3 basic components:
• The Sign of Mantissa –
✓ 0 represents a positive number while 1 represents a negative number.
• The Biased exponent –
✓ The exponent field needs to represent both positive and negative exponents.
✓ A bias is added to the actual exponent in order to get the stored exponent.
• The Normalised Mantissa –
✓ The mantissa is part of a number in scientific notation or a floating-point
number, consisting of its significant digits.
✓ Here we have only 2 digits, i.e. O and 1. So a normalised mantissa is one
with only one 1 to the left of the decimal..

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 34

 IEEE Standard 754 Floating Point Numbers
• Types
❑ 32-bit Single-Precision Floating-Point Numbers

❑ 64-bit Double-Precision Floating-Point Numbers

TYPES SIGN BIASED EXPONENT NORMALISED MANTISA BIAS

Single precision 1(31st bit) 8(30-23) 23(22-0) 127
Double precision 1(63rd bit) 11(62-52) 52(51-0) 1023

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 35

 IEEE Standard 754 Floating Point Numbers
❑ Express the number (85.125)10 in IEEE 754 single and double precision methods
• 85 = 1010101
• 0.125 = 001
• 85.125 = 1010101.001
• Normalized number =1.010101001 x 26
• sign = 0
• Single precision:
• biased exponent 127+6=133
• 133 = 10000101
• Normalised mantisa = 010101001
• we will add 0's to complete the 23 bits

• The IEEE 754 Single precision is: = 0 10000101 01010100100000000000000

• This can be written in hexadecimal form 42AA4000

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 36

 IEEE Standard 754 Floating Point Numbers
❑ Express the number (85.125)10 in IEEE 754 single and double precision methods
• 85 = 1010101
• 0.125 = 001
• 85.125 = 1010101.001
• Normalized number =1.010101001 x 26
• sign = 0
• Double precision
• biased exponent 1023+6=1029
• 1029 = 10000000101
• Normalised mantisa = 010101001
• we will add 0's to complete the 52 bits

• The IEEE 754 Double precision is:

• = 0 10000000101 0101010010000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
• This can be written in hexadecimal form 4055480000000000
Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 37
 IEEE Standard 754 Floating Point Numbers
❑ Example 1: Suppose that IEEE-754 32-bit floating-point representation pattern is
0 10000000 110 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000.
Determine the number

• Example 2: Suppose that IEEE-754 32-bit floating-point representation pattern is

1 01111110 100 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000.

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 38

 Numbering Systems

Dr. Bore Gowda S B, Additional Professor, Dept. of ECE, MIT, Manipal 39