Computer Networks – Notes for Grade 12

Introduction to Computer Networks

A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices that can communicate and

share resources such as files, printers, and the internet. These devices include computers,
routers, switches, and servers.

Evolution of Networking

1. ARPANET (1969)
o The first network, created by the U.S. Department of Defense.
o Connected universities for research.
o First message sent between UCLA and Stanford University.
2. NSFNET (1986)
o Developed for research and education.
o Faster than ARPANET and connected more institutions.
o Helped expand the internet.
3. Internet (1990s – Present)
o WWW (World Wide Web) was introduced in 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee.
o Made the internet popular for everyone.
o Used for emails, social media, online shopping, and more.

Network Devices

Network devices help in communication between computers and other devices in a network.
Some important network devices are:

1. Modem (Modulator-Demodulator) – Connects a computer to the internet by

converting digital signals to analog and vice versa.
2. Internet Card (Network Interface Card – NIC) – A hardware component that
allows a computer to connect to a network.
3. Repeater – Boosts weak network signals and extends the range of a network.
4. Hub – A basic device that connects multiple computers in a network and transmits
data to all devices.
5. Switch – A smart device that connects multiple computers and sends data only to the
intended device.
6. Router – Connects different networks, such as a home network to the internet, and
directs data between them.
7. Gateway – Acts as a bridge between different types of networks and protocols.
8. Wi-Fi Card – A wireless network adapter that allows devices to connect to a Wi-Fi
network.
Types of Networks

Computer networks are classified based on their size and geographical coverage.

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

• Smallest network, connecting personal devices within a few meters.

• Example:
o Bluetooth connection between a mobile phone and a smartwatch.
o Personal hotspot from a mobile phone to a laptop.

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

• Covers a small area like a home, office, or school.

• Used for resource sharing like files, printers, and the internet.
• Example:
o Computer network in a school or office.
o Wi-Fi connection in a house.

3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

• Covers a city or large campus, connecting multiple LANs.

• Used by universities, businesses, and government organizations.
• Example:
o City-wide Wi-Fi network.
o University campus network.

4. Wide Area Network (WAN)

• Covers a large geographical area, like a country or the world.

• Uses satellites, fiber optics, or telephone lines.
• Example:
o The Internet (largest WAN).
o Banking networks connecting ATMs across cities.

Network Topology

network topology refers to the arrangement of various elements (links, nodes, etc.) in a
computer network.
1. Bus Topology

In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single central cable, known as the bus.

Advantages:

• Cost-Effective: Requires less cabling, making it inexpensive to implement.

• Easy Installation: Simpler setup due to the straightforward linear connection.

Disadvantages:

• Single Point of Failure: If the main cable fails, the entire network goes down.
• Difficult Troubleshooting: Identifying the exact location of a problem can be
challenging.

2. Star Topology

In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub or switch.

Advantages:

• Easy to Manage: Centralized control simplifies network management.

• Fault Isolation: Failure in one cable doesn't affect the rest of the network.

Disadvantages:

• High Cabling Cost: Requires more cables, increasing the overall cost.
• Central Point of Failure: If the central hub fails, the entire network is affected.
3. Tree Topology

A tree topology combines characteristics of star and bus topologies, with groups of star-

configured networks connected to a central bus.

Advantages:

• Scalability: Easily expandable by adding new nodes.

• Hierarchical Management: Simplifies network management through a structured
layout.

Disadvantages:

• Complexity: More complex to design and maintain.

• Dependency on Central Backbone: If the main backbone line fails, it can segment
the network.

Concept of Communication

Communication in data networks refers to the exchange of data between two or more devices.
This process ensures that information is accurately transmitted from a source to a destination.

Components of Data Communication

1. Sender: The device that initiates the message.

o Example: A computer sending an email.
2. Receiver: The device that receives the message.
o Example: A smartphone receiving a text message.
3. Message: The actual data being transmitted.
o Example: The content of an email or a file.
4. Communication Medium: The physical path or channel through which the message
travels from sender to receiver.
o Example: Twisted pair cables, fiber optics, or wireless signals.
5. Protocols: A set of rules that govern data communication, ensuring proper data
formatting and error handling.
o Example: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
Measuring Capacity of Communication Media

1. Bandwidth: The maximum rate at which data can be transferred over a communication
channel, typically measured in bits per second (bps).
o Example: A fiber optic cable with a bandwidth of 1 Gbps.
2. Data Transfer Rate: The actual speed at which data is transmitted between devices,
which may be less than the maximum bandwidth due to various factors like network
congestion.
o Example: Downloading a file at 500 Mbps on a 1 Gbps connection.

IP Address and MAC Address

• IP Address (Internet Protocol Address): A unique numerical label assigned to each

device connected to a network that uses the IP for communication.
o Example: 192.168.1.1 (IPv4)
• MAC Address (Media Access Control Address): A hardware identifier assigned to
a network interface card (NIC) that uniquely identifies each device on a network.
o Example: 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E.

Switching Techniques

1. Circuit Switching: A dedicated communication path is established between two

devices for the duration of the transmission.
o Advantages:
▪ Consistent and reliable connection.
▪ Fixed data transfer rate.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Inefficient use of resources as the dedicated path remains idle if no
data is transmitted.
▪ Setup time can introduce delays.
o Example: Traditional telephone networks.
2. Packet Switching: Data is divided into packets, each of which can take different
paths to reach the destination, where they are reassembled.
o Advantages:
▪ Efficient use of network resources.
▪ Packets can be rerouted in case of network issues.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Potential for packet loss or delay.
▪ Requires complex protocols for packet management.
o Example: The Internet.

Transmission media
 Transmission media are the physical pathways that connect devices and facilitate data
transfer. They are broadly categorized into wired (guided) and wireless (unguided) media.

Wired Communication Media

1. Twisted Pair Cable

o Description: Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together. The
twisting reduces electromagnetic interference.
o Types:
▪ Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Commonly used in telephony and
local area networks (LANs).
▪ Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Includes a shielding layer to further
prevent interference.
o Advantages:
▪ Cost-effective and easy to install.
▪ Flexible and lightweight.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Limited bandwidth and distance capabilities.
▪ Susceptible to external interference and crosstalk.
2. Coaxial Cable
o Description: Features a central copper conductor surrounded by an insulating
layer, a metallic shield, and an outer insulating layer.
o Applications: Widely used for cable television and internet connections.
o Advantages:
▪ Higher bandwidth than twisted pair cables.
▪ Better protection against electromagnetic interference.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Bulkier and less flexible.
▪ More expensive and challenging to install.
3. Fiber-Optic Cable
o Description: Utilizes thin strands of glass or plastic fibers to transmit data as
light signals.
o Applications: Ideal for high-speed data transmission over long distances, such
as in backbone networks and undersea cables.
o Advantages:
▪ Extremely high bandwidth and data rates.
▪ Immune to electromagnetic interference.
▪ Secure and suitable for long-distance communication.
o Disadvantages:
▪ More expensive than other cable types.
▪ Fragile and requires specialized equipment for installation and
maintenance.
Wireless Communication Media

1. Radio Waves
o Description: Electromagnetic waves with frequencies ranging from 3 kHz to
300 GHz.
o Applications: Used in broadcasting (radio and television), Wi-Fi networks,
and mobile communications.
o Advantages:
▪ Capable of covering large areas.
▪ Supports mobility and wireless communication.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Susceptible to interference from other electronic devices.
▪ Potential security vulnerabilities due to signal interception.
2. Microwaves
o Description: Electromagnetic waves with frequencies between 1 GHz and 300
GHz.
o Applications: Employed in point-to-point communication links, satellite
communications, and radar systems.
o Advantages:
▪ Supports high data rates and bandwidth.
▪ Effective for long-distance communication when using satellites.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Requires line-of-sight between transmitting and receiving antennas.
▪ Weather conditions can affect signal quality.
3. Infrared Waves
o Description: Electromagnetic waves with frequencies between 300 GHz and
400 THz.
o Applications: Commonly used in remote controls, short-range communication
between devices, and certain wireless peripherals.
o Advantages:
▪ Simple and inexpensive technology.
▪ Immune to radio frequency interference.
o Disadvantages:
▪ Limited to line-of-sight communication.
▪ Short-range and cannot penetrate walls or obstacles.

Network Protocols
Protocols are a set of rules that govern data communication. They define how data is
transmitted, received, and interpreted between devices in a network.

1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):

 • Facilitates the transfer of hypertext documents on the World Wide Web.
• Operates over TCP/IP and uses port 80.

2. HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure):

• An extension of HTTP that ensures secure communication over a computer

network.
• Encrypts data using SSL/TLS protocols.
• Uses port 443.

3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):

• Standard network protocol used to transfer files between a client and server.
• Operates over TCP and uses ports 20 and 21.

4. PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol):

• Internet standard for transmitting IP packets over serial lines.

• Commonly used to establish a direct connection between two networking
nodes, enabling IP communication over this direct connection.
• Provides features like authentication, encryption, and compression.

5. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):

• Protocol for sending emails across networks.

• Operates over TCP and uses port 25.

6. POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3):

• Protocol used by local email clients to retrieve emails from a remote server.
• Operates over TCP and uses port 110.

7. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol):

• Fundamental suite of protocols for the internet.

• TCP: Ensures reliable transmission of data.
• IP: Handles addressing and routing of packets.

8. TELNET (Teletype Network):

• Provides a command-line interface for communication with a remote device.

• Operates over TCP and uses port 23.

9. VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol):

• Technology that allows voice communication over IP networks.

• Enables voice calls using the internet rather than traditional telephone lines.
Introduction to web services:

WWW: World Wide Web is an information system where websites and

webpages are interconnected and accessible through URL. It is also known
as Web.

HTML: HTML is the standard markup language for creating Web pages.

• HTML stands for Hyper Text Markup Language

• HTML describes the structure and design of Web pages using markup

• HTML elements are represented by tags

• Browsers do not display the HTML tags, but use them to render the content of

the page The current version of HTML is HTML 5.0

A simple HTML Code: OUTPUT

<html>
<head>
<title>My first web page</title>
</head>
<body>
<h1> My First Heading </h1>
<p> My first paragraph </p>
</body>
</html>

XML :

• XML stands for EXtensible Markup Language

• XML is a markup language much like HTML
• XML was designed to store and transport data
 • XML was designed to be self-descriptive XML is a W3C
Recommendation

S.
HTML XML
No.
1 HyperText Markup Language. eXtensible Markup Language.

XML was designed to be a software and hardware

Designed to display data with focus on how
2 independent tool used to transport and store data,
data looks.
with focus on what data is.
3 HTML is case insensitive. XML is case sensitive.
HTML is used for designing a web-page to be XML is used basically to transport data between
4
rendered on the client side. the application and the database.
5 HTML has its own predefined tags. Uses custom tags defined by the user.

HTML is not strict if the user does not use the XML makes it mandatory for the user the close
6
closing tags. each tag that has been used.
7 HTML does not preserve white space. XML preserves white space.
XML is about carrying information hence
8 HTML is about displaying data, hence static.
dynamic.
8.10.4 Domain Name:

Domain names are used to identify one or more IP addresses. Domain names are
used in URLs to identify particular web page.
For example, http://www.kvongcbrd.com/english-results.htm
URL http://www.kvongcbrd.com/english -results.htm
Domain Name kvongcbrd.com
Web Page english-results.htm
Protocol http

Every domain name has a suffix that indicates which top level domain (TLD) it
belongs to. There are only a limited number of such domains. For example:
▪ gov - Government agencies
▪ edu - Educational institutions
 ▪ org - Organizations (nonprofit)
▪ mil - Military
▪ com - commercial business
▪ net - Network organizations
▪ in - India
▪ th – Thailand

Because the Internet is based on IP addresses, not domain names, every Web
server require a Domain Name System (DNS) server to translate domain names
into IP addresses.

URL: Uniform Resource Locator. It is the global address of documents and

other resources on the World Wide Web.

Website: Collection of web pages which are interlinked to one another. These
pages are hypertext pages and link between pages is known as hyperlink.

Web browser: It is application software though which user can access internet.
Example: internet explorer, Google chrome, Mozilla Firefox, opera, UC browser

Webpage: A web page is a document on the World Wide Web that contains
hypertext links. When a person searches for any information, the server sends

the web page to the user. Every Web page is given a unique Uniform Resource
Locator (URL). When a user enters the URL, the web browser downloads the
file of that page and displays it to the user.

Web Server: A web server is a system that uses HTTP to accept request and
serve the web pages as response to users. Every web server has IP address.

Example: Apache web server, Microsoft's Internet

Information Server (IIS) and nginx (pronounced engine X) from
NGNIX.

Web Hosting:
o Web hosting is a service that allows organizations and individuals to post
a website on to the Internet.
o A web host, or web hosting service provider, is a business that provides
the technologies and services needed for the website or webpage to be
viewed in the Internet.
Websites are hosted, or stored, on special computers called s