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Cellular Respiration and Fermentation

Overview of Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration is the process by which cells generate energy from the food they
consume. It is a complex process that involves the breakdown of organic molecules
to produce ATP, which is the energy currency of the cell.

Catabolic Pathways
Catabolic pathways are the series of chemical reactions that break down complex
molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy in the process. These pathways are
essential for cellular respiration and involve the transfer of electrons from one
molecule to another.

Catabolic pathways: A series of chemical reactions that break down

complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy in the process.

Redox Reactions
Redox reactions are chemical reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from one
molecule to another. These reactions are essential for cellular respiration and involve
the loss of electrons from one molecule oxidation and the gain of electrons by
another molecule reduction.

Redox reaction: A chemical reaction that involves the transfer of electrons

from one molecule to another.

The Principle of Redox

The principle of redox states that oxidation and reduction always occur together. The
electron donor is called the reducing agent, and the electron acceptor is called the
oxidizing agent.

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Term Definition

Reducing agent The molecule that donates electrons

Oxidizing agent The molecule that accepts electrons

Oxidation of Organic Fuel Molecules

During cellular respiration, organic fuel molecules such as glucose are oxidized,
releasing energy that is used to synthesize ATP.

The Stages of Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration can be divided into three stages:

1. Glycolysis: The breakdown of glucose into pyruvate

2. Pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle: The breakdown of pyruvate into
carbon dioxide and water
3. Oxidative phosphorylation: The synthesis of ATP from the energy released
during the previous stages

Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration and involves the breakdown of
glucose into pyruvate. It occurs in the cytoplasm and produces a net gain of 2 ATP
molecules.

Stage Reaction ATP Yield

Energy investment phase Glucose → 2 pyruvate -2 ATP

Energy payoff phase 2 pyruvate → 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 H2O +4 ATP

The Citric Acid Cycle

The citric acid cycle is the second stage of cellular respiration and involves the
breakdown of pyruvate into carbon dioxide and water. It produces 1 ATP molecule, 3
NADH molecules, and 1 FADH2 molecule per turn.

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Stage Reaction ATP Yield

Citric acid cycle Pyruvate → CO2, H2O 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2

Oxidative Phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation is the third stage of cellular respiration and involves the
synthesis of ATP from the energy released during the previous stages. It produces up
to 32 ATP molecules per glucose molecule.

Stage Reaction ATP Yield

Oxidative phosphorylation NADH, FADH2 → ATP up to 32 ATP

Fermentation
Fermentation is a process that allows cells to produce ATP without the use of
oxygen. It involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, which is then converted
into ethanol or lactic acid.

Type of Fermentation Reaction Product

Alcohol fermentation Pyruvate → ethanol Ethanol

Lactic acid fermentation Pyruvate → lactic acid Lactic acid

Comparison of Fermentation and Respiration

Process Oxygen Required ATP Yield Product

Fermentation No 2 ATP Ethanol or lactic acid

Anaerobic respiration No 2 ATP ATP
Aerobic respiration Yes up to 32 ATP ATP

Catabolic Pathways and Energy Yield

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Catabolic pathways are a series of chemical reactions that break down complex
molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy in the process. This energy is then
used to produce ATP, which is the primary energy currency of the cell.

Catabolic pathways: A series of chemical reactions that break down

complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy in the process.

The energy released from catabolic pathways is used to produce ATP through a
process called oxidative phosphorylation.

Glycolysis: The First Stage of Cellular Respiration

Glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration and takes place in the cytoplasm of
the cell. It involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing a small
amount of ATP and NADH in the process.

Step Reaction Products

1 Glucose → Pyruvate 2 ATP, 2 NADH

2 Pyruvate → Acetyl-CoA 2 ATP, 2 NADH

The Citric Acid Cycle: The Second Stage of Cellular

Respiration
The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or tricarboxylic acid T CA cycle, is
the second stage of cellular respiration. It takes place in the mitochondria and
involves the breakdown of acetyl-CoA into carbon dioxide, producing ATP, NADH,
and FADH2 in the process.

Step Reaction Products

1 Acetyl-CoA → Citrate 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 FADH2

2 Citrate → Oxaloacetate 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 FADH2

Oxidative Phosphorylation: The Third Stage of Cellular

Respiration

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Oxidative phosphorylation is the third and final stage of cellular respiration. It takes
place in the mitochondria and involves the transfer of electrons from NADH and
FADH2 to oxygen, producing a large amount of ATP in the process.

Step Reaction Products

1 NADH → Oxygen 3 ATP

2 FADH2 → Oxygen 2 ATP

Fermentation: An Alternative to Cellular Respiration

Fermentation is an alternative to cellular respiration that takes place in the absence
of oxygen. It involves the breakdown of glucose into pyruvate, producing a small
amount of ATP and lactic acid or ethanol in the process.

Type of Fermentation Reaction Products

Lactic Acid Fermentation Glucose → Pyruvate → Lactic Acid 2 ATP

Ethanol Fermentation Glucose → Pyruvate → Ethanol 2 ATP

Regulation of Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration is regulated by feedback mechanisms that prevent the
overproduction of ATP. The main regulatory mechanisms include:

Feedback inhibition: The inhibition of an enzyme by its end product.

Allosteric control: The regulation of an enzyme by the binding of an allosteric
regulator.

Key Concepts

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Catabolic pathways: A series of chemical reactions that break down complex

molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy in the process.
Oxidative phosphorylation: The process by which energy is produced in the
form of ATP during cellular respiration.
Glycolysis: The first stage of cellular respiration that takes place in the
cytoplasm.
Citric acid cycle: The second stage of cellular respiration that takes place in the
mitochondria.
Fermentation: An alternative to cellular respiration that takes place in the
absence of oxygen.## Cellular Respiration and Energy Flow

Energy Flow and Chemical Recycling

Energy flows into an ecosystem as sunlight and exits as heat, while chemical
elements essential to life are recycled. Photosynthesis generates oxygen and organic
molecules used by the mitochondria of eukaryotes as fuel for cellular respiration.

Catabolic Pathways and Production of ATP

Catabolic pathways are metabolic pathways that release stored energy by breaking
down complex molecules. These pathways play a major role in cellular respiration.

Catabolic pathways are linked to work by a chemical drive shaft, ATP.

ATP AdenosineT riphosphate is the molecule that drives most cellular work.

Types of Catabolic Pathways

Pathway Description

A partial degradation of sugars or other organic fuel that occurs

Fermentation
without the use of oxygen.
Aerobic A catabolic pathway that consumes oxygen as a reactant along
Respiration with the organic fuel.
Anaerobic A process that harvests chemical energy without oxygen, using
Respiration substances other than oxygen as reactants.

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Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration is the process by which cells generate energy from the food they
consume. It is a catabolic pathway that breaks down glucose and other organic
molecules to produce ATP.

"Cellular respiration is the process by which cells generate energy from

the food they consume."

Redox Reactions: Oxidation and Reduction

Redox reactions are chemical reactions that involve the transfer of electrons from one
substance to another.

Oxidation is the loss of electrons from one substance.

Reduction is the gain of electrons by another substance.

The Principle of Redox

"In a redox reaction, the loss of electrons from one substance is called
oxidation, and the addition of electrons to another substance is known as
reduction."

Example of a Redox Reaction

The reaction between sodium Na and chlorine Cl to form table salt is an example of
a redox reaction.

Na + Cl → NaCl

Sodium Na is the reducing agent, as it donates electrons to chlorine Cl.

Chlorine Cl is the oxidizing agent, as it accepts electrons from sodium Na.

Oxidation of Organic Fuel Molecules During Cellular

Respiration

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The oxidation of glucose and other organic molecules in food is the main energy-
yielding process of cellular respiration.

"The oxidation of glucose transfers electrons to a lower energy state,

liberating energy that becomes available for ATP synthesis."

Energy Yield of Cellular Respiration

The energy yield of cellular respiration is 686 kcal −2, 870kJ per mole of glucose
decomposed.

Energy Yield Description

686 kcal Energy released per mole of glucose decomposed

-2,870 kJ Energy released per mole of glucose decomposed inkilojoules

Food as a Reservoir of Electrons

Foods, such as carbohydrates and fats, are reservoirs of electrons associated with
hydrogen, often in the form of CH bonds. The barrier of activation energy holds back
the flood of electrons to a lower energy state.

Stepwise Energy Harvest via NAD+ and the Electron

Transport Chain
If energy is released from a fuel all at once, it cannot be harnessed efficiently for
constructive work. Cellular respiration breaks down glucose in a series of steps, each
one catalyzed by an enzyme. At key steps, electrons are stripped from the glucose
and passed to an electron carrier, a coenzyme called nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide NAD+.

NAD+: A coenzyme that functions as an electron carrier, well suited to

cycle easily between its oxidized form NAD+ and its reduced form
NADH .

How NAD+ Traps Electrons from Glucose

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Enzymes called dehydrogenases remove a pair of hydrogen atoms

2electronsand2protons from the substrate glucose, thereby oxidizing it. The enzyme
delivers the 2 electrons along with 1 proton to its coenzyme, NAD+, forming NADH.

NAD+ NADH

Two nucleotides joined at their phosphate

Two nucleotides joined at
Structure groups, with one more hydrogen attached in the
their phosphate groups
reduced form
Electron acceptor,
Function Electron donor, reduced form
oxidizing agent

The Electron Transport Chain

The electron transport chain is a series of molecules, mostly proteins, built into the
inner membrane of mitochondria. Electrons removed from glucose are shuttled by
NADH to the top, higher-energy end of the chain. At the bottom, lower-energy end,
O2 captures these electrons along with hydrogen nuclei H+, forming water.

Comparison to a Simple Reaction

The reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to form water is a simpler reaction that
can be compared to cellular respiration.

Uncontrolled Reaction Cellular Respiration

Reaction 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O instages

Energy Explosive release of heat and Controlled release of energy, stored in
Release light ATP

Electron Transfer from NADH to Oxygen

Electron transfer from NADH to oxygen is an exergonic reaction with a free-energy
change of 53 kcal/mol 222kJ/mol. Instead of this energy being released all at once, it
is broken down into smaller steps, storing some of the energy in a form that can be
used to make ATP.## Cellular Respiration: Energy Harvesting

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The Electron Transport Chain

The transfer of electrons from NADH to oxygen is an exergonic reaction with a free-
energy change of 53 kcal/mol 222kJ/mol. This energy is released in a series of redox
reactions, with each step losing a small amount of energy until the electrons finally
reach oxygen, the terminal electron acceptor.

"Exergonic reaction: a reaction that releases energy, often in the form of

heat or light."

The electrons transferred from glucose to NAD+, reducing it to NADH, fall down an
energy gradient in the electron transport chain to a far more stable location in an
electronegative oxygen atom from O2. This process can be thought of as an energy-
yielding tumble, similar to gravity pulling objects downhill.

The Stages of Cellular Respiration: A Preview

The harvesting of energy from glucose by cellular respiration is a cumulative function
of three metabolic stages:

Glycolysis color − codedblue: the breakdown of glucose into two molecules of

pyruvate
Pyruvate oxidation lightorange and the citric acid cycle darkorange: the
breakdown of pyruvate into carbon dioxide
Oxidative phosphorylation: electron transport and chemiosmosis purple: the
conversion of chemical energy into ATP

Cellular Respiration: A Big Picture

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Stage Location Process Energy Yield

Breakdown of glucose into

Glycolysis Cytosol 2 ATP, 2 NADH
pyruvate
Breakdown of pyruvate into 2 NADH, 2
Pyruvate oxidation Mitochondrion
acetyl CoA FADH2
Breakdown of acetyl CoA into 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2
Citric acid cycle Mitochondrion
carbon dioxide FADH2
Oxidative Conversion of chemical
Mitochondrion 32-34 ATP
phosphorylation energy into ATP

Substrate-Level Phosphorylation
Substrate-level phosphorylation is a mechanism of ATP synthesis that occurs during
glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. In this process, an enzyme transfers a phosphate
group from a substrate molecule to ADP, rather than adding an inorganic phosphate
to ADP as in oxidative phosphorylation.

"Substrate molecule: an organic molecule generated as an intermediate

during the catabolism of glucose."

ATP Production: A Cash-In Analogy

The process of cellular respiration can be thought of as cashing in a large
denomination of energy banked in a single molecule of glucose 686kcal/mol for the
small change of many molecules of ATP, each with 7.3 kcal/mol of free energy. This
allows the cell to spend energy more easily on its work.

Glycolysis: Sugar Splitting

Glycolysis is the breakdown of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate. This process
can be divided into two phases:

Energy investment phase: the cell spends ATP

Energy payoff phase: ATP is produced by substrate-level phosphorylation and
NAD+ is reduced to NADH by electrons released from the oxidation of glucose

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The net energy yield from glycolysis, per glucose molecule, is 2 ATP plus 2 NADH.##
Glycolysis ️

Glycolysis is the first step in cellular respiration, where glucose is converted into
pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP and NADH.

Equation
Glucose + 2 H2O → 2 Pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H+

Steps of Glycolysis
Hexokinase: transfers a phosphate group from ATP to glucose, making it more
chemically reactive and trapping it in the cell.
Phosphoglucoisomerase: converts glucose 6-phosphate to fructose 6-
phosphate.
Phosphofructokinase: transfers a phosphate group from ATP to fructose 6-
phosphate, investing energy in the molecule.

Energy Yield

Energy Source Energy Yield

ATP 2 ATP
NADH 2 NADH

Oxidation of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA

Pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA, a high-energy molecule that can enter the citric
acid cycle.

Equation
Pyruvate + CoA + NAD+ → Acetyl CoA + CO2 + NADH

Steps of Pyruvate Oxidation

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1. Pyruvate dehydrogenase: releases CO2 and reduces NAD+ to NADH.

2. Coenzyme A: attaches to the two-carbon intermediate, forming acetyl CoA.

Energy Yield

Energy Source Energy Yield

NADH 1 NADH

The Citric Acid Cycle

The citric acid cycle is a metabolic furnace that further oxidizes organic fuel derived
from pyruvate.

Equation
Acetyl CoA + 3 NAD+ + FAD + GDP + Pi → 2 CO2 + 3 NADH + FADH2 + ATP

Steps of the Citric Acid Cycle

Citrate synthase: adds the acetyl group from acetyl CoA to oxaloacetate,
producing citrate.
Aconitase: converts citrate to isocitrate.
Isocitrate dehydrogenase: oxidizes isocitrate, reducing NAD+ to NADH.
α-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase: oxidizes α-ketoglutarate, reducing NAD+ to
NADH.
Succinyl-CoA synthetase: converts succinyl-CoA to succinate, generating ATP.
Succinate dehydrogenase: oxidizes succinate, reducing FAD to FADH2.
Fumarase: converts fumarate to malate.
Malate dehydrogenase: oxidizes malate, reducing NAD+ to NADH.

Energy Yield

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Energy Source Energy Yield

NADH 3 NADH
FADH2 1 FADH2
ATP 1 ATP

Definition: The citric acid cycle is also known as the tricarboxylic acid
cycle or the Krebs cycle, named after Hans Krebs, who worked out the
pathway in the 1930s.## Electron Transport Chain

The electron transport chain is a collection of molecules embedded in the inner

membrane of the mitochondrion in eukaryotic cells. In prokaryotes, these molecules
reside in the plasma membrane.

Components of the Electron Transport Chain

Complex Electron Carrier Description

Flavoprotein A protein with a prosthetic group called flavin

I
F MN mononucleotide F MN
Iron-sulfur
I A protein with both iron and sulfur tightly bound
protein F eS
A small hydrophobic molecule, the only member of the
I Ubiquinone Q
electron transport chain that is not a protein
Proteins with a prosthetic group called a heme group,
II Cytochromes which has an iron atom that accepts and donates
electrons
Proteins with a prosthetic group called a heme group,
III Cytochromes which has an iron atom that accepts and donates
electrons
The last cytochrome of the chain, which passes its
IV Cytochrome a3
electrons to oxygen inO2

Electron Transport Chain Process

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Electrons acquired from glucose by NAD+ during glycolysis and the citric acid
cycle are transferred from NADH to the first molecule of the electron transport
chain in complex I.
The electrons are passed through a series of redox reactions, with each
component of the chain becoming reduced when it accepts electrons from its
uphill neighbor and returning to its oxidized form as it passes electrons to its
downhill neighbor.
The electrons ultimately pass to oxygen inO2, which is very electronegative
and picks up a pair of hydrogen ions protons from the aqueous solution,
neutralizing the 2- charge of the added electrons and forming water.

Energy Yield of the Electron Transport Chain

The electron transport chain provides about one-third less energy for ATP
synthesis when the electron donor is FADH2 rather than NADH.
The overall energy drop G for electrons traveling from NADH to oxygen is 53
kcal/mol.

Chemiosmosis: The Energy-Coupling Mechanism

Chemiosmosis is a mechanism that couples electron transport and energy
release to ATP synthesis.

The electron transport chain makes no ATP directly, but instead eases the fall of
electrons from food to oxygen, breaking a large free-energy drop into a series
of smaller steps that release energy in manageable amounts.
The mitochondrion ortheplasmamembraneinprokaryotes uses the energy of an
existing ion gradient to power ATP synthesis through the enzyme ATP
synthase.

ATP Synthase
ATP synthase is the enzyme that makes ATP from ADP and inorganic
phosphate.

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ATP synthase works like an ion pump running in reverse, using the energy of an
existing ion gradient to power ATP synthesis.
Under the conditions of cellular respiration, rather than hydrolyzing ATP to
pump protons against their concentration gradient, ATP synthase uses the
energy of the ion gradient to drive the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP.##
Chemiosmosis

Chemiosmosis is an energy-coupling mechanism that uses energy stored in the form

of an H+ gradient across a membrane to drive cellular work.

Chemiosmosis is the process by which energy stored in the form of a

hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane is used to drive cellular work
such as the synthesis of ATP.

The Structure of ATP Synthase

ATP synthase is a multisubunit complex with four main parts, each made up of
multiple polypeptides. The enzyme is embedded in the inner mitochondrial
membrane and uses the energy from the H+ gradient to drive the synthesis of ATP.

Part Description

Stator Anchored in the membrane, provides a channel for H+ ions to flow through
Rotor Spins within the membrane, driven by the flow of H+ ions
Rod Extends from the rotor, activates catalytic sites in the knob
Knob Held stationary by the stator, contains catalytic sites for ATP synthesis

The Electron Transport Chain

The electron transport chain is a series of protein complexes embedded in the inner
mitochondrial membrane. It uses the energy from the transfer of electrons to pump
H+ ions across the membrane, creating a proton-motive force.

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Complex Description

Receives electrons from NADH, pumps H+ ions into the intermembrane

Complex I
space
Receives electrons from FADH2, pumps H+ ions into the intermembrane
Complex II
space
Complex III Receives electrons from Q, pumps H+ ions into the intermembrane space
Complex Receives electrons from Cyt c, pumps H+ ions into the intermembrane
IV space

The Process of Chemiosmosis

1. Electron Transport: Electrons are passed through the electron transport chain,
pumping H+ ions into the intermembrane space.
2. Proton-Motive Force: The H+ gradient created by the electron transport chain
drives the flow of H+ ions back across the membrane through ATP synthase.
3. ATP Synthesis: The energy from the flow of H+ ions is used to drive the
synthesis of ATP from ADP and Pi.

Accounting of ATP Production

Stage ATP Yield

Glycolysis 2 ATP
Pyruvate Oxidation 2 NADH
Citric Acid Cycle 2 NADH, 2 FADH2
Electron Transport Chain 26-28 ATP

Note: The numbers in the table are inexact due to the following reasons:

Phosphorylation and redox reactions are not directly coupled to each other.
The ratio of NADH molecules to ATP molecules is not a whole number.
The exact number of H+ ions required to generate 1 ATP is still debated.

However, based on experimental data, most biochemists agree that a single

molecule of NADH generates enough proton-motive force for the synthesis of 2.5
ATP.## Electron Transport Chain: Factors Affecting ATP Yield

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The electron transport chain is a crucial process in cellular respiration that generates
ATP. However, the yield of ATP can vary due to several factors.

Why are the numbers in Figure 9.15 inexact?

There are three reasons why the numbers in Figure 9.15 are not exact:

Phosphorylation and redox reactions are not directly coupled: The ratio of
NADH molecules to ATP molecules is not a whole number.
The type of shuttle used to transport electrons: The mitochondrial inner
membrane is not permeable to NADH, so NADH in the cytosol must be
conveyed into the mitochondrion by one of several electron shuttle systems.
The use of proton-motive force to drive other kinds of work: The proton-
motive force generated by the redox reactions of respiration can be used to
drive other kinds of work, such as the uptake of pyruvate from the cytosol.

ATP Yield from NADH and FADH2

Electron Carrier ATP Yield

NADH 2.5 ATP

FADH2 1.5 ATP

Electron Shuttle Systems

Glycerol phosphate shuttle: Electrons are passed to FAD in the mitochondrial
matrix.
Malate-aspartate shuttle: Electrons are passed to NAD+ in the mitochondrial
matrix.

Efficiency of Respiration
The efficiency of respiration can be estimated by calculating the percentage of
chemical energy in glucose that is transferred to ATP.

"Efficiency of respiration is the percentage of chemical energy in glucose

that is transferred to ATP."

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Energy Released from Glucose Energy Stored in ATP Efficiency

686 kcal/mol 7.3 kcal/mol x 32 mol 34%

Comparison to Other Energy Conversion Processes

Automobiles: Even the most efficient automobiles convert only about 25% of
the energy stored in gasoline to energy that moves the car.
Hibernating mammals: Hibernating mammals have a unique adaptation that
allows them to reduce the efficiency of cellular respiration to generate heat.

Brown Fat and Heat Generation

Brown fat: A type of tissue that is packed with mitochondria and is used for
heat generation.
Uncoupling protein: A channel protein that allows protons to flow back down
their concentration gradient without generating ATP.

Scientific Skills Exercise: Thyroid Hormone Level and O2

Consumption
Independent variable: Thyroid hormone level
Dependent variable: O2 consumption rate
Units: nmol O2/min/mg protein
Thyroid Hormone Level O2 Consumption Rate

Low 10.2 ± 0.5

Normal 12.1 ± 0.6
Elevated 14.5 ± 0.7

Concept Check 9.4

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1. What effect would an absence of O2 have on the process shown in Figure

9.14?
2. In the absence of O2, what would happen if you decreased the pH of the
intermembrane space of the mitochondrion?
3. How does the operation of the electron transport chain support the assertion
that membranes must be fluid to function properly?

Fermentation and Anaerobic Respiration

Fermentation and anaerobic respiration are two mechanisms by which cells can
produce ATP without the use of O2.

Anaerobic Respiration
Electron transport chain: Anaerobic respiration uses an electron transport
chain, but does not use O2 as a final electron acceptor.
Final electron acceptors: Other substances, such as sulfate ions, can serve as
final electron acceptors.

Fermentation
No electron transport chain: Fermentation does not use an electron transport
chain.
Harvesting chemical energy: Fermentation is a way of harvesting chemical
energy without using O2 or an electron transport chain.

Comparison of Anaerobic Respiration and Fermentation

Anaerobic Respiration Fermentation

Electron Transport Chain Yes No

Final Electron Acceptor Not O2 Not applicable
ATP Yield Variable Variable

Oxidation and Cellular Respiration

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Oxidation is the loss of electrons to an electron acceptor. This process does not
require oxygen O2. Glycolysis, a metabolic pathway, oxidizes glucose to two
molecules of pyruvate using NAD+ as the oxidizing agent.

Glycolysis: a metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate,

generating a net gain of 2 ATP molecules.

Fermentation
Fermentation is a process that allows cells to generate ATP without the use of
oxygen O2 or an electron transport chain. It is an extension of glycolysis that enables
continuous ATP production through substrate-level phosphorylation.

Fermentation: a metabolic process that generates ATP without the use of

oxygen O2 or an electron transport chain.

Types of Fermentation
There are two main types of fermentation:

Alcohol Fermentation: pyruvate is converted to ethanol ethylalcohol in two

steps, releasing CO2 and regenerating NAD+.
Lactic Acid Fermentation: pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form
lactate, regenerating NAD+ without releasing CO2.
Type of Fermentation End Product Electron Acceptor

Alcohol Fermentation Ethanol Acetaldehyde

Lactic Acid Fermentation Lactate Pyruvate

Lactate Production in Humans

Lactate production in humans is more complex than previously thought. There are
two types of skeletal muscle fibers:

Red Muscle: preferentially oxidizes glucose completely to CO2

White Muscle: produces significant amounts of lactate from pyruvate, even
under aerobic conditions

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Lactate production is not anaerobic, but rather a result of glycolysis in these cells.
During strenuous exercise, lactate accumulates and is later oxidized by red muscle
cells or exported to liver or kidney cells for glucose formation.

Comparison of Fermentation, Anaerobic Respiration, and

Aerobic Respiration

Process Mechanism of NAD+ Regeneration ATP Yield

Fermentation Organic molecule pyruvateoracetaldehyde 2 ATP

Anaerobic Respiration Electron transport chain 2-4 ATP
Aerobic Respiration Electron transport chain up to 32 ATP

Note: Aerobic respiration yields up to 16 times more ATP than fermentation.##

Cellular Respiration and Metabolism

Facultative Anaerobes and Metabolic Pathways

Facultative anaerobes are organisms that can survive using either fermentation or
respiration. In yeast cells, pyruvate is a key juncture in the metabolic road that leads
to two alternative catabolic routes.

Metabolic Pathway Description

Pyruvate is converted to acetyl CoA, and oxidation continues in

Aerobic Respiration
the citric acid cycle.
Anaerobic Pyruvate is diverted from the citric acid cycle, serving as an
Fermentation electron acceptor to recycle NAD+.

The Evolutionary Significance of Glycolysis

"Glycolysis is a metabolic heirloom from early cells that continues to
function in fermentation and as the first stage in the breakdown of organic
molecules by respiration."

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Glycolysis is the most widespread metabolic pathway among Earth's organisms,

suggesting that it evolved very early in the history of life. The cytosolic location of
glycolysis also implies great antiquity, as it does not require any of the membrane-
enclosed organelles of the eukaryotic cell.

Connections to Other Metabolic Pathways

Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are major intersections of the cell's catabolic
breakdown and anabolic biosynthetic pathways.

Catabolism: The breakdown of organic molecules to produce energy in the

form of ATP.
Anabolism: The synthesis of organic molecules from simpler precursors,
requiring energy in the form of ATP.

Catabolism of Various Molecules

Molecule Catabolic Pathway

Carbohydrates Glycolysis and citric acid cycle

Fats Beta oxidation and citric acid cycle
Deamination and conversion to intermediates of glycolysis and citric
Proteins
acid cycle

Biosynthesis AnabolicP athways

Cells need substance as well as energy. Compounds formed as intermediates of
glycolysis and the citric acid cycle can be diverted into anabolic pathways as
precursors from which the cell can synthesize the molecules it requires.

Essential Amino Acids: Amino acids that must be obtained in the diet, as the
body cannot synthesize them.
Non-Essential Amino Acids: Amino acids that can be synthesized by the body
from intermediates of the citric acid cycle.

Regulation of Cellular Respiration via Feedback

Mechanisms

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The cell controls its catabolism and anabolism through feedback mechanisms,
regulating the activity of enzymes at strategic points in the metabolic pathway.

Feedback Inhibition: The end product of an anabolic pathway inhibits the

enzyme that catalyzes an early step of the pathway.
Allosteric Enzymes: Enzymes with receptor sites for specific inhibitors and
activators, such as phosphofructokinase.

Phosphofructokinase: The Pacemaker of Cellular Respiration

Phosphofructokinase is an allosteric enzyme that catalyzes an early step in glycolysis.
It is stimulated by AMP derivedfromADP but is inhibited by ATP and citrate.

Inhibitor/Activator Effect on Phosphofructokinase

ATP Inhibition
AMP Stimulation
Citrate Inhibition

Regulation of Glycolysis
Glycolysis is regulated by the enzyme phosphofructokinase, which is sensitive to
ATP and citrate levels.

When ATP accumulates, it inhibits phosphofructokinase, slowing down

glycolysis.
When citrate accumulates in the mitochondria, some of it passes into the
cytosol and inhibits phosphofructokinase, synchronizing the rates of glycolysis
and the citric acid cycle.

Cellular Respiration Overview

Cellular respiration is the process by which cells generate energy from the food they
consume. It involves the breakdown of glucose and other organic molecules to
produce ATP.

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"Cellular respiration is the process by which cells generate energy from

the food they consume. It involves the breakdown of glucose and other
organic molecules to produce ATP."

Key Concepts
Catabolic pathways: yield energy by oxidizing organic fuels
Fermentation: a process that results in the partial degradation of glucose
without the use of oxygen
Aerobic respiration: a more complete breakdown of glucose that uses oxygen
as a reactant
Anaerobic respiration: a process that uses other substances in place of oxygen

Energy Yield of Cellular Respiration ️

Process Energy Yield

Glycolysis 2 ATP
Citric Acid Cycle 2 ATP
Oxidative Phosphorylation 32-34 ATP
Total 36-38 ATP

Electron Transport Chain

The electron transport chain is a series of protein complexes that generate a proton
gradient across the mitochondrial membrane. This gradient is used to produce ATP
through the process of chemiosmosis.

ATP Synthase
ATP synthase is an enzyme that uses the energy from the proton gradient to produce
ATP from ADP and Pi.

"ATP synthase is an enzyme that uses the energy from the proton
gradient to produce ATP from ADP and Pi."

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Regulation of Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration is regulated by allosteric enzymes at key points in glycolysis and
the citric acid cycle.

Phosphofructokinase: regulates glycolysis

Citrate: regulates the citric acid cycle

Intersection of Catabolic and Anabolic Pathways

Catabolic pathways funnel electrons from many kinds of organic molecules into
cellular respiration. Anabolic pathways use small molecules from food directly or
build other substances using intermediates of glycolysis or the citric acid cycle.

Pathway Description

Glycolysis Breaks down glucose into pyruvate

Citric Acid Cycle Completes the energy-yielding oxidation of organic molecules
Anabolic Pathways Use small molecules from food to build other substances

Fermentation and Anaerobic Respiration

Fermentation and anaerobic respiration are processes that produce ATP without the
use of oxygen.

Fermentation: regenerates NAD+ by passing electrons to pyruvate or a

derivative of pyruvate
Anaerobic Respiration: uses an electron transport chain with a final electron
acceptor other than oxygen## Regulation of Phosphofructokinase Activity

Phosphofructokinase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in glycolysis. Its activity is

regulated by ATP concentration.

Allosteric regulation: a type of regulation where the binding of a

molecule to a site other than the active site affects the enzyme's activity.

The graph of phosphofructokinase activity versus fructose 6-phosphate concentration

shows two curves: one for high ATP concentration and one for low ATP
concentration.

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ATP
Phosphofructokinase Activity
Concentration

Rises with increasing steepness, inflects, then rises with

High
decreasing steepness
Low Rises rapidly, then levels out

It makes sense that regulation of phosphofructokinase has evolved to work this way
because high ATP levels indicate that the cell has sufficient energy, and therefore,
glycolysis can be slowed down. On the other hand, low ATP levels indicate that the
cell needs more energy, and glycolysis should be increased.

The Effect of Inhibiting ATP Synthase on the

pH Difference Across the Inner Mitochondrial
Membrane ️
The graph shows the pH difference across the inner mitochondrial membrane over
time in an actively respiring cell. When a metabolic poison is added to inhibit all
function of mitochondrial ATP synthase, the pH difference will decrease.

Time pH Difference

Before inhibition Increasing

After inhibition Decreasing

This is because ATP synthase is responsible for generating the proton gradient
across the inner mitochondrial membrane. When it is inhibited, the gradient will
dissipate, and the pH difference will decrease.

Evolutionary Relationship Between Eukaryotic

Organelles and Prokaryotes
Endosymbiotic theory: the theory that mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved from
prokaryotic cells that were engulfed by eukaryotic cells.

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Mitochondria Chloroplasts Prokaryotes

ATP synthase Present Present Present

Amino acid Similar to prokaryotic ATP Similar to prokaryotic ATP
-
sequences synthase synthase

The amino acid sequences of ATP synthases from different sources support the
endosymbiotic theory, suggesting that mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved from
prokaryotic cells.

The Effect of Dinitrophenol DNP on Cellular

Respiration
DNP is a compound that uncouples the chemiosmotic machinery by making the lipid
bilayer of the inner mitochondrial membrane leaky to H+. This can cause weight loss
and death.

Effect of DNP Reason

Increased cellular respiration Increased proton leak

Increased heat production Increased cellular respiration
Weight loss Increased heat production
Death Cellular damage due to increased heat production

Oxidative Phosphorylation and the Biological

Hierarchy
Oxidative phosphorylation is an example of how new properties emerge at each level
of the biological hierarchy.

Level Property

Molecular Electron transport chain

Cellular Chemiosmosis
Organismal Energy production

Coenzyme Q CoQ and Its Role in Cellular

Respiration

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CoQ is a coenzyme that plays a crucial role in the electron transport chain.

Claim Critique

"Give your heart the fuel it CoQ is not a fuel, but a coenzyme that helps generate
craves most" energy
CoQ may help improve heart function by increasing
Benefit to the heart
energy production

CoQ is not used as a fuel during cellular respiration, but rather as a coenzyme that
helps generate energy.

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