OE-QB-3

1. Different types of chemical engineering tools used for analysis and design of energy
processes.
MS Excel
Microsoft Office Excel is a spreadsheet application that features calculations via rows and columns,
graphing tools, tables and a macro programming language with Visual Basic. The main advantage of
Excel is that it is readily avail able and widely used in industry and academia. Thus, it is a perfect tool
for calculations or interface with different software so that users can interact with Excel and behind
the scenes, other software packages such as Chemcad, Polymath, Matlab, etc., are running and
reporting the results back to Excel [1].
Its principal features are:
Built-In-functions and formulas: There are a large number of built-in functions defined, such as
statistics, (MEAN, AVERAGE, t-test), Algebraic, (SUM, ROUND, LOG, LOG10), logical (IF, FALSE, etc.),
reference, database and information.
• Operations with rows and columns: It is easy to find and sort data and use them in replicated
formulas, etc.
• Plotting: There is a large number of options depending on the requirements.
• Solver: It is a tool to use within Excel to solve numerically a set of equations, problem optimization
including fitting a set of data to a given linear and nonlinear equation and more. This is an add-in
tool that needs to be activated when required.
• Building functions in Visual Basic for Application: Excel has a built-in capability to generate cus
tomized functions using Visual Basic for Applications (VBA). This is a powerful tool that saves time
for the user without becoming an expert in programming, since it allows the user to build large
equa tions that are used in several areas of the worksheet (e.g., polynomials for the estimation of
specific heat of components) and allows the user to read the calculations easily when looking at
the formulas in the cells.
• Link Excel with Other Software: Excel has become a standard package so that a number of other
specialized software use it as a source of information to report data since it is more user-friendly.
T herefore, we can use the information in Excel to be loaded in Matlab, Hysys, or Chemcad or
trans ferred back to Excel.

Mathworks Matlab
This is one of the most-used software packages in engineering and also in chemical engineering. It is
a programming language, which can be divided into two classes; scripts and functions. A script is a
number of operations that are performed in a certain sequence. Functions are a particular type of
scripts that must begin with the word “function” at the top of them. Functions can be user-friendly
or typical operations such as equation solving or differential equa tions. This language has algebraic,
statistical functions predefined along with plotting capabilities.
Matlab has a number of functions that allow solving linear and nonlinear equations, optimizing a
function and solving differential equations or partial differential equations. Some examples of the use
of Matlab in chemical engineering include:
• Momentum, Mass and Energy Transfer: There are a number of examples in the transport
phenomena field that can be described using a partial differential equation.
• Distillation Column Operation: McCabe Thiele Method – typical shortcut approach for the initial
conceptual estimation of the operation of binary distillation columns.
• Modeling of different kinds of process equipment: heat exchangers, pumps, valves, evaporators,
columns, reactors, etc.
• Reactor design: The models are based on explicit algebraic equations and differential equations.
ODEXX function in Matlab is used to solve the concentration, temperature, and/or pressure
profiles along the operation of such equipment.
• Control loops analysis: control design and tuning.

Process Simulators
The simulation, design, and optimization of a chemical process plant, which comprises of several
processing units interconnected by process streams are the core activities in processing engineering.
These tasks require performing material and energy balancing, equipment sizing, and cost estimation.
A computer package that can accomplish these duties is known as a computer-aided-process design
package or a process simulator.
The process simulation market has undergone a transformation over two decades, and relatively few
systems have survived, and these include: Chemcad, SimSci/Pro II, Aspen Plus, Aspen Hysys, ProSim
Plus, SuperPro Designer, gPROMS, and UniSim Design. Generally, these simulation software packages
provide the same features with modi f ications, and we shall review two of these simulation software
packages.

Chemstations Chemcad
Chemcad features include process development, equipment design, equipment sizing,
thermophysical property calculations, dynamic simulations, process intensification studies, energy
efficiency/optimization, data reconciliation, process economics, troubleshooting/process
improvement, Microsoft Visual Basic, etc. The Chemcad suite includes six products that can be
purchased individually or bundled as needed for specific indus tries, projects and processes.

CC-steady state simulations of continuous chemical processes, features libraries of chemical

components, thermo-dynamic methods, and unit operations. This allows the user to simulate
processes from laboratory scale to full-scale plant. It is ideal for users who want to design processes
or rate existing processes in the steady state.

CC-dynamics is used to conduct dynamic flowsheet analysis, operability check-out, PID loop tuning,
operator training, online process control and soft sensor functionality. It is ideal for users who want
to design or rate dynamic processes.

CC-Therm is used for sizing heat exchangers, covers shell-and-tube, plate and frame, air-cooled and
double pipe exchangers. Rigorous designs are based on physical property and phase equilibria data.

CC-Batch allows users to design or rate a batch distillation column.

CC-Safety Net: Used for analysis of any pipe network with the piping and safety relief network
simulation software.

CC-Flash: Used to calculate physical properties and phase equilibria (VLE, LLE, VLLE) for pure
components and mixtures with good accuracy.
 Aspen Hysys and Aspen Plus
Two similar software packages with all the functionalities that process simulator should have, are
widely used by chemical engineers. AspenTech has a wide portfolio of modeling tools, and the suites
of process simulation tools are Aspen Hysys and Aspen Plus. Aspen Hysys (or Hysys) is a chemical
process simulator used to model chemical processes from unit operations to full-scale chemical plants
and refineries. Hysys performs many of the core calculations of chemical engineering, including those
concerned with mass balance, energy balance, vapor-liquid equilibrium, heat transfer, mass transfer,
chemical kinetics, fractionation, and pressure drop. Hysys is used extensively in industry and
academia for steady-state and dynamic simulation, process design, performance modeling and
optimization.
Aspen Plus is a process modeling tool for conceptual design, optimization, and performance
monitoring for the chemical, polymer, speciality chemical, metals and minerals, and coal power
industries. It can also be used for mass and energy balances, physical chemistry, thermodynamics,
chemical reaction engineering, unit operations, process design and process control.
UniSim Design (Honeywell) is a simulation software package that is used extensively in refinery and
petrochemical industries, and has all the functionalities that a process simulator should have, and it
is widely used by chemical/ process engineers.

Specialized Software
Computational Fluid Dynamics
Computational fluid dynamics, known as CFD is the numerical method of solving, mass momentum,
energy and species conservation equations and related phenomena on computers by using
programming languages.
CFD and Multiphysics modeling and simulation can be applied to many science and engineering
disciplines. The main areas in chemical engineering are:
• Combustion processes.
• Food process engineering.
• Fuel cells, batteries, and supercapacitors.
• Microfluidic flows and devices.
• Pipe flows and mixing.
• Reaction engineering.

The basics of CFD are partial differential equations, and the knowledge of numerical mathematics is
essential to solve them with the appropriate numerical techniques. Since these conservation
equations are designed and solved on computers, knowledge of programming languages such as
FORTRAN, C++, Java or Matlab is important. T he most widely used commercial software tools such
as ANSYS Fluent, STAR-CD, and STAR-CCM+ are based on the finite volume method, whereas ANSYS
CFX uses the finite element-based control volume method. Lukec [1, 2] has provided descriptions of
commercial process simulation software with features and their applications.

2. Any two types of gasifiers

3. Explain the working of a bioreactor with a diagram

In recent times, however, a fermentor is simply an optimal environment for bacteria and / or fungi to
grow in, and the cultivation of said organisms will yield a desirable substance.

A bioreactor is a vessel in which is carried out a chemical process which involves organisms or
biochemically active substances derived from such organisms. Bioreactors are commonly cylindrical,
ranging in size from some liter to cube meters, and are often made of stainless steel. In brief
bioreactor can be considered as a large scale operation whose volume/capacity ranges to several
litres. Bioreactor is a system used for the growth and maintenance of a population of mammalian or
insect cells whereas Fermentor is a system used for the growth and maintenance of a population of
bacterial or fungal cells.

Bioreactor configuration

Design criteria
Reactor design and scale up considerations are driven by the need to provide the organism optimal
conditions for producing the desired product uniformly in the reactor.

a) Mechanical aspects
Mechanical design aspects are important for the successful operation of any fermentation plant.
Some practical aspects of vessel design are:
1. Space requirements: The vessel dimensions must be chosen to meet plant space limitations.
Poor choice of equipment sizes can cause inordinately high building costs.
2. Transportation: Shop built vessels are usually less expensive and of higher quality than field
built vessels.
3. Special heads: A hemispherical bottom gives better mixing and fewer shears than does a
standard dished head.

b) Process aspects
The fermentation process guidelines commonly employed without proper consideration of the
process aspects do very little to promote good design. These include:
1. Aeration rate: The airflow rate to the fermentor must be generally one volume of air per liquid
volume per minute (1 vvm).
2. Impeller tip speed: The tip speed of a fermentor impeller must not exceed 7.6 m/s.
3. Arrest of fermentative metabolism: At the end of fermentation, the fermentor broth must be
cooled immediately and stored at 4°C, to arrest the fermentative metabolism.
4. The maximum production rate cell mass theory: Process optimization is achieved by obtaining
very high cell mass concentrations at very high growth rates.
5. Oxygen transfer rate: The consequences of increasing OTR by increasing air flow rate and
agitation could lead to foaming, increased gas holdup, higher gas velocities, higher vessel
pressure, and oxygen enrichment.
6. Heat transfer rate: Heat transfer usually is the limiting constraint for highly aerobic large scale
fermentors.
c) Jackets and coils
Jackets are used for the circulation of steam and cooling water during the heating and cooling
cycles of sterilization of the fermentor. Since microbial reactions are exothermic, the heat
produced during fermentations leads to a rise in the temperature of the broth, necessitating the
need to maintain the temperature at the optimal value. Normally, steam is used as the heating
fluid; and water, chilled water, or chilled brine is used as cooling fluids. The contact surface area
of the jacket with the fermentor should be maximal and the pressure drop of the circulating fluids
in the jacket should be minimal for better process performance.

d) Safety codes
The vessel must be fabricated in accordance with the Standard Code for unfired pressure vessels
and tested at design conditions to insure that the vessel can withstand all forces generated under
the specified operating conditions. If operation is required at high operating pressures, one should
consider ways to minimize the metal thickness to allow the use of cold rolled sheet rather than
plate. This results in better heat transfer, a better interior finish, and a lower price.

e) Material of construction Stainless steel is the more commonly employed material for the
fabrication of biotechnology equipment. The selection of the right steel quality in biotechnology
is based on a compromise between material costs, availability, and the physical and chemical
requirements of the process. The low carbon steels, SS 304L and SS 316L, are known worldwide
as standard steels. Generally, vessels used in biological processes are fabricated with 316 or 316L
steel. The vessels widely used in food technology or harvest storage tanks are fabricated with a
cheaper and less corrosion resistant steel of grade 304 or 304L.
The selection of a vessel material for fabrication should take into consideration:
1. Sensitivity of the organism, particularly eukaryotic cells
2. Extent of vessel corrosion on exposure to fermentation media and utilities
3. Aseptic operation requires use of SS316, SS316L, SS304, or SS304L.

f) Baffles
Baffles are usually welded to the interior of the vessel. Baffles usually take the form of metal strips,
roughly one tenth of the vessel diameter in width, extending vertically down the height of the
vessel and attached radially to the wall. Removable baffles mean unsealed joints. Baffles should
be set off from the wall, to minimize solids build up and to simplify cleaning. Slots between the
baffle and the vessel wall prevent the formation of dead spots. The provision of baffles increases
the turbulence in the liquid and results in a more efficient utilization of power.

g) Sparger
A device for introducing air below the liquid level in the fermentor vessel is called a sparger. The
use of spargers with very small orifices is more efficient than a single orifice delivering the same
volume of air. However, aerobic fermentations, e.g., penicillin, produce large quantities of
mycelium and mechanical agitation must be used in order to ensure adequate dispersion of air
and other nutrients in large scale fermentations. As the degree of agitation is increased, the
relative efficiencies of the various types of spargers tend to converge, and at high agitation levels,
all spargers give approximately the same performance. The types of spargers in general use may
be classified as nozzle spargers, orifice spargers, and porous spargers. Sparger

h) Nozzles and manways Nozzle design must take into consideration the following:
1. To ensure aseptic connections to external piping,
2. In order to facilitate free draining
3. For proper and safe cleaning of the nozzles, protrusions inside the vessel should be as minimal
as possible.
 4. Addition of feed through nozzles to the fermentor to take care that the added liquids do not
dribble down the interior surfaces.
5. The use of manways obviates the need for full opening heads on larger vessels.

i) Piping and valves

Piping materials: The most commonly used piping materials for biotechnology plants, in order of
usage, are stainless steel, thermoplastics (polypropylene, polyethylene, polyvinylidine fluoride),
carbon steel, copper, iron, glass, and lined pipe (glass and plastic liners).
Valves used on sterile lines have given cause for thought for a considerable time. For robust
industrial processes such as alcohol fermentation, or even for yeast cultivation, the use of the
standard type of gate valve is normally acceptable.

j) Steam locks
A good steam lock assembly should have the following features:
1. Elimination of the chances of dead spots with inefficient sterilization
2. Thorough steaming of sterile lines to be done during non usage to avoid contamination
3. Lines from feed addition tanks should be able to be steamed through their entire lengths at any
time after they are connected to the assembly
4. Steam locks to be checked for leakage of steam during steaming
5. Self draining of condensate through steam traps
6. Easy cleaning and maintenance of the steam lock assembly

k) Welds and joints

Vessel welds of high quality are required to adhere to code purposes, ensure maximum
smoothness and cleanability, and to minimize corrosion problems. Welding for aseptic fermentors
should be carried out under an inert gas shield to minimize oxidation and flux residue, and create
smoother, pit free welds.

l) Surface treatment and finish

The surface treatment of a vessel is required for any surface that comes in contact with the
product. It is imperative that all stainless steel surfaces are treated and cleaned in a way that
prevents corrosion under the operating conditions. Stainless steels are corrosion resistant due to
the formation of a microscopically thin, invisible chromium oxide layer, which occurs on clean
metal and polished surfaces only. The three main surface treatment methods used are
mechanical, chemical, and electrochemical.

m) Agitation system design

Typical agitation equipment consists of the prime mover (usually an electric motor) coupled to
the shaft through a reduction gear. Impellers and baffles are fitted to the shaft and vessel,
respectively, to give the desired liquid motion. The shaft may enter from the top, side or bottom,
and is usually fitted with a mechanical seal at the vessel wall. The number and location of impeller
units depends on the vessel. In a smooth walled tank, the liquid swirls round in the same general
direction as the agitator. As the impeller speed is increased, a vortex is formed and the liquid level
at the wall is raised above the average liquid level. This is normally undesirable for the following
reasons:
1. Power is wasted in holding up the liquid at the wall
2. The relative speed of the impeller to the liquid is reduced
3. Slight radial movements of the vortex cause the liquid to swirl unevenly, and undesirable side
thrusts are set up
4. Write a note of reaction kinetics
REACTION KINETICS
Chemical Kinetics is a part of physical chemistry that focuses on the rate of chemical reactions and
the reasons behind them. It involves figuring out the speed and details of chemical reactions,
studying the factors that affect how fast they happen, and how molecules interact during these
changes.
This field is important in various scientific areas, from improving industrial processes to
understanding complicated reactions in biological systems. By focusing on how molecules interact,
chemical kinetics helps us to understand the complex movements of atoms and molecules in the
world of chemistry.

What is Chemical Kinetics?

The term "kinetics" originates from the Greek word 'kinesis,' meaning movement. Unlike
thermodynamics, which addresses the feasibility of a reaction, chemical kinetics focuses on
explaining the rate of a reaction.
The study of chemical kinetics is important because Factors such as concentration, temperature,
pressure, and catalysts play pivotal roles in controlling reaction rates. Chemical reactions are often
categorized based on their rates.
Examples include fast reactions, such as the reaction of sodium with water (Na + H2O), moderate
reactions, like the reaction of magnesium with water (Mg + H2O), and slow reactions, as observed
in esterification processes.
What is the Rate of Reaction?
The rate of a reaction, or its speed, is defined as the change in concentration of a reactant or
product per unit of time.

Specifically, it can be defined in terms of either the rate of decrease in the concentration of a
reactant or the rate of increase in the concentration of a product. In every chemical reaction, as
the reaction proceeds, the quantity of reactants decreases while the amount of products rises.

By plotting the concentration of reactants and products against time, one can readily compute the
rates of product formation and reactant disappearance based on the slopes of their respective
curves. Notably, the overall reaction rate may or may not be equal to the formation and
disappearance rates.

Factors Affecting Reaction Rates

The rate of a reaction can be modified by changing certain parameters. Here are the key factors:

• Concentration of Reactants: According to collision theory, an increase in the concentration of

reactants leads to more collisions between molecules, consequently elevating the reaction rate.
 Example: In a reaction A + B → C, if the concentration of A and B is increased, the rate of the
reaction will likely increase due to a higher frequency of collisions.

• Nature of the Reactants: The reaction rate is influenced by the types of substances involved.
Acid/base reactions and salt formation tend to be fast, while reactions resulting in the
formation of larger molecules through covalent bonds are usually slower. The nature and
strength of bonds in reactant molecules play a significant role in the rate of transformation into
products.
Example: Acid/base reactions and salt formation often exhibit faster rates. Conversely, the
formation of larger molecules through covalent bonds, like in the reaction C6H12O6 →
2C2H5OH + 2CO2, tends to be slower.

• Physical State of Reactants: The physical state (solid, liquid, or gas) of a reactant affects the
rate of change. Homogeneous phases (e.g., both in an aqueous solution) allow for increased
collisions, while different phases limit reactions to interfaces between reactants.
Example: In the reaction between solid magnesium (Mg) and hydrochloric acid (HCl), the
physical state influences the rate. When Mg is in a powdered form, the reaction proceeds faster
than when it is in larger solid pieces.

• Surface Area of Reactants: Increasing the surface area, such as by crushing a solid into
smaller particles, enhances the frequency of collisions between reactant particles, leading to a
faster reaction.
Example: For the reaction 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g), finely divided powdered iron as a
catalyst increases the surface area, promoting a faster reaction.

• Temperature: An increase in temperature results in more collisions between reactant

molecules per second, thereby boosting the reaction rate. Depending on whether the reaction is
endothermic or exothermic, temperature influences the rates of forward or backward reactions.
Example: In the combustion of methane (CH4) with oxygen (O2), increasing the temperature
leads to a higher reaction rate, as more collisions occur between the molecules.

• Effect of Solvent: The nature of the solvent influences the reaction rate of solute particles. For
instance, reactions may occur faster in organic solvents like DMF compared to solvents like
methanol due to specific bonding characteristics.
Example: The reaction of sodium acetate with methyl iodide occurs faster in organic solvents
like DMF (dimethylformamide) than in CH3OH (methanol) due to specific bonding
characteristics.

• Catalyst: Catalysts modify the reaction rate by altering the reaction mechanism. Two types of
catalysts, promoters, and poisons, respectively increase and decrease reaction rates.
Example: The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (2H2O2) is catalyzed by manganese dioxide
(MnO2), increasing the rate of the reaction without being consumed in the process.

Average and Instantaneous Rate

Average Rate of Reaction
The rate of a reaction is categorized into average and instantaneous rates based on the period
considered. When the period is finite, it is referred to as the average rate and is denoted as:
• ravg = ΔC/Δt
• Where ravg average rate, ΔC change in concentration, Δt change in time.
• Instantaneous Rate of Reaction
• The average rate often needs to provide precise information regarding the completion of a
reaction. For instance, consider the hydrolysis of esters into acid and alcohol in the presence
of water
 • RCOOR’ → RCOOH + R’OH

Unit of Rate of Reaction

The unit of rate is commonly expressed as Molarity per second (Mol s-1) or mol per liter per second
(mol/L/s), representing the ratio of concentration to time (mol L-1 divided by seconds).
The units of the rate constant, k, depend on the overall reaction order, and for a zero-order
reaction, the units of k are M/s, for a first-order reaction, the units are 1/s, and for a second-order
reaction, the units are 1/(M·s)

Rate Law
Rate Law or Law of Mass Action is a principle stating that the rate of a chemical reaction is directly
proportional to the product of the masses of the reactants, each raised to a power equal to its
coefficient in the balanced chemical equation.
Equilibrium Constant (Kc)
At equilibrium, the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant at a given
temperature. Consider a simple reversible reaction where A and B are reactants, and C and D are
products:
aA + bB → cC + dD
An equilibrium mixture, comprising both products and reactants, maintains a specific relationship
between their concentrations. This relationship is expressed through the equilibrium constant, Kc,
as follows
• Kc=[C]c [D]d /[A]a[B]b
• Here, Kc represents the equilibrium constant measured in moles per litre.
• In this equation, the concentrations of A, B, C, and D at equilibrium are denoted by
[A],[B],[C], and[D] respectively, with stoichiometric coefficients for each species.
• Order of Reaction
• In the rate equation, we know,
• Rate = k [A]x [B]y
Where x and y indicate how sensitive the rate is to the change in concentration of A and B.
The sum of these exponents, i.e., x + y gives the overall order of a reaction whereas x and y
represent the order concerning the reactants A and B respectively.
Read More about Order of Reaction.
Different types of chemical reactions are categorized based on how the rate of the reaction
depends on the concentration of the reactants:
• Zero Order Reactions
• First-Order Reactions
• Pseudo-First Order Reactions
• Second Order Reactions

Zero Order Reactions

The rate of reaction in these reactions is unaffected by the concentration of the reactants. Changes
in the concentration of the reactants do not impact the reaction speed.
Example: Enzyme-catalyzed oxidation of ethanol (CH3CH2OH) to acetaldehyde (CH3CHO).

First-Order Reactions
The rates of these reactions depend on the concentration of only one reactant (order of reaction
is 1). Even if multiple reactants are present, only one reactant has a first-order concentration, while
the others have zero-order concentration.
• Example: 2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2.
Pseudo-First Order Reactions
In pseudo-first-order reactions, one reactant's concentration remains constant and is included in
the rate constant in the rate expression. This constant concentration may be due to an excess
compared to other reactants or because it acts as a catalyst.
• Example: CH3COOCH3 + H2O → CH3COOH + CH3OH (pseudo-first order kinetics due to
excess water).

Second-Order Reaction
A second-order reaction has an order of 2. The rate of these reactions can be expressed as the
square of the concentration of one reactant or as the product of the concentrations of two separate
reactants.
• Example: r = k[A]2 or r = k[A][B], e.g., NO2+ CO → NO + CO2

Integrated Rate Law

Integrated rate law is a fundamental concept in chemical kinetics that describes the concentration
of reactants or products over time during a chemical reaction. It provides a mathematical
relationship between the concentration of a reactant or product and time, thereby allowing for the
determination of reaction kinetics and rate constants.

Zero-Order Reaction Rate

In a zero-order reaction, the reaction rate is independent of the concentration of the reactant. The
integrated rate equation for a zero-order reaction is:
[A]t = −k.t+[A]0

First-Order Reaction Rate

• In a first-order reaction, the reaction rate is directly proportional to the concentration of
the reactant. The integrated rate equation for a first-order reaction is:
• ln[A]t = −k.t +ln[A]0
• Second-Order Reaction Rate
• In a second-order reaction, the reaction rate is proportional to the square of the
concentration of the reactant. The integrated rate equation for a second-order reaction is:
1/[A]t= k.t+1/[A]0
Where,
• [A]t is the concentration of the reactant at time t,
• k is the rate constant,
• [A]0 is the initial concentration of the reactant.

Half-Life of a Reaction
In chemical kinetics, the concept of half-life represents the time required for the concentration of
a reactant to decrease to half of its initial value. The half-life is particularly useful in understanding
the kinetics of first-order reactions, where the reaction rate is directly proportional to the
concentration of the reactant.
For a first-order reaction, the relationship between the half-life (t1/2), the rate constant k, and the
initial concentration of the reactant [A0]can be expressed as
t1/2=0.693/k
This equation indicates that the half-life of a first-order reaction is inversely proportional to the
rate constant k. As the rate constant increases, the half-life decreases, indicating a faster rate of
reaction.
5. Explain the working of a pyrolysis plant.
Pyrolysis plant principle
The principle of this type of pyrolysis plant is as follows: the reactor heats the raw materials to
generate oil gas. The oil gas then goes into a condenser that converts the gas into liquid oil. This liquid
oil is used in vehicles and other industries as fuel. The oil gas that doesn’t react in the condenser
recycles into the burner for another cycle. This ensures that the plant uses recyclable energy.

How does the pyrolysis plant work?

As already mentioned, worn-out tires and waste plastic are two of the main ingredients in this plant.
The plant recycles these waste materials and produces fuel, thus saving natural resources
significantly. Here’s how the plant works:

1. Feeding raw materials

The first step is to feed raw materials into the pyrolysis reactor using an automatic feeding
machine. You need to keep at least one-third of the reactor empty to allow the raw materials to
rotate properly. Make sure the feeding machine’s inlet closes tightly so that the ingredients mix
thoroughly.

2. Heating the reactor

Heating the reactor gently burns the raw materials inside. This step is crucial to converting the
waste materials into combustible fuel. The reactor releases oil gas when the chamber reaches
100o C. Soon, the heavy oil gas separates by manifold and enters the condenser. Here the oil gas
liquefies and drops down into a heavy oil tank. On the other hand, the lighter gas rises up into the
oil condensers and liquefies into the oil tank above. The non-condensable gas goes through a
dedusting and desulfurization system, leading to the furnace that connects to the heat pyrolysis
reactor for recycling.

3. Cooling down
The reactor cools down once it produces a batch of fuel oil. This allows the reactor of the tire
pyrolysis plant to discharge carbon black automatically as the temperature falls below 40o C. If
you are only using waste tires as raw materials, you should take the steel wires out from the
reactor using hooks when the temperature is at least 50o C or lower. Purifying leftover gas You
will still have a small percentage of gas left in the chamber. This gas is recyclable if you purify it by
passing it through a smoke cleaning system. It helps to make the gas meet the emission standards.
Moreover, you hardly leave any waste if you use every cubic meter of gas. This also allows you to
prepare the reactor for your next batch. Leaving residues in the reactor and condenser may affect
the next batch’s production, thus reducing the fuel’s overall quality. A pyrolysis plant is one of the
most crucial plants that help to keep the environment clean. It recycles waste materials like tires
and plastic to make fuel that you can use for various purposes.

4. Semi-Continuous Pyrolysis Plant

Semi-continuous pyrolysis plants represent a middle ground between batch and continuous
plants. They operate in cycles, with a series of steps involved in the pyrolysis process: loading,
heating, reaction, cooling, and unloading. The feedstock is loaded into a reactor, heated to a high
temperature, and allowed to decompose. The resulting products are then collected and cooled
before the reactor is unloaded and reloaded. This cyclical nature allows for more f lexibility in
handling different types of waste plastics compared to fully continuous plants.

Batch Pyrolysis Plant

Batch pyrolysis plants are characterized by their intermittent operation. The feedstock is loaded into
a reactor, heated to a specific temperature, and allowed to decompose for a predetermined period.
Once the reaction is complete, the products are collected and the reactor is emptied. This process is
 then repeated for the next batch. Batch pyrolysis plants are often smaller in scale and more suitable
for processing smaller quantities of waste plastics.

Continuous Waste Plastic Pyrolysis Plant

Continuous plastic pyrolysis plants offer a high throughput capacity and continuous operation. The
feedstock is continuously fed into the reactor, where it is heated and pyrolyzed. The products are
continuously removed from the reactor and processed further. This type of plant is well-suited for
large-scale waste plastic management operations.

Factors Influencing Pyrolysis Plant Cost

The pyrolysis plant cost is influenced by several factors, including:

• Plant Capacity: The size and throughput capacity of the plant directly affect the initial investment.
Larger plants tend to have higher upfront costs but may offer economies of scale in terms of
operating expenses.
• Type of Plant: The choice between semi-continuous, batch, or continuous operation will impact
the cost. Continuous plants generally have higher upfront costs but may offer lower operating
costs due to their higher efficiency.
• Technology: The specific pyrolysis technology used can vary in terms of complexity and cost. Some
technologies may require more advanced equipment or specialized expertise, leading to higher
costs.
• Feedstock Composition: The type and composition of the waste plastics being processed can
influence the design and cost of the plant. For example, plastics with high levels of contaminants
or impurities may require additional processing steps, increasing costs.
• Product Value: The value of the products generated by the pyrolysis plant can affect its
profitability and, consequently, its cost. Higher-value products can offset some of the initial
investment costs.
• Location: The location of the pyrolysis plant can impact costs due to factors such as land prices,
infrastructure, and labor costs.

6. Explain role of any two types of storage amendments for biomass.

Storage Amendments
The application of amendments to biomass to promote stability prior to anaerobic storage is common
place in the forage industry. The goal of these amendments is to promote the fastidious formation of
a low pH environment that result in stable storage and maintain desirable qualities for forage.
Amendments may include acids or alkali applied directly to the biomass or microbial amendments to
encourage a specific fermentation pathway, and either of these can be effective at reducing storage
losses. Storage amendments are so commonplace that forage choppers are often equipped with
sprayers that can apply liquid inoculants during harvest. The following section describes some of the
primary amendments that have been used over the last century for forage silage and may have
applicability for bioenergy systems.

Microbial Amendments
Lactic acid bacteria are commonly added to silage during harvesting to promote the proliferation of
these organisms and thus more rapid fermentation during ensiling (Muck and Kung, 2007).
Homofermentative lactic acid bacteria that produce primarily lactic acid have demonstrated reduced
aerobic
stability upon removal from storage compared to the acetic acid containing biomass produced by
heterofermentative lactic acid bacteria (Muck and Kung, 2007; Muck et al., 2018). A wide range of
microbial inoculants are available commercially, and they generally contain a mixture of bacterial
species to improve the palatability of the feedstock for livestock (Muck et al., 2018). Anaerobic
storage with microbial inoculants has been suggested to positively influence performance in
bioenergy conversion systems. The combination of high-moisture storage with bacterial inoculants
have been demonstrated to increase sugar release in wheat and rice straw, corn stover and corn
silage, and forage sorghum (Linden and Murphy, 1990; Henk and Linden, 1996; Oleskowicz-Popiel et
al., 2011).
Enzymes have also been added to silage in order to increase the level of soluble carbohydrates for
consumption by lactic acid bacteria (Kung et al., 1991; Kung, 1998). Common enzymes include
cellulases, xylanases, and pectinases, and most are applied in combination with a lactic acid bacteria
inoculant that can utilize the sugars released enzymatically (Muck et al., 2018). Organisms that
produce ferulic acid esterase have also been added to silage with mixed success in improving
digestibility of livestock feed (Lynch et al., 2015). Enzymes also have a role in bioenergy conversion
systems, where depolymerization of structural hemicellulose in long-term storage could be utilized
to reduce pretreatment severity at the biorefinery. Low-moisture corn stover ( 20%, wet basis)
amended with xylanase increased recovery of hemicellulose-related sugars by 10% over untreated
controls during long-term storage(Smithetal.,2009). A common concern when adding enzymes during
long-term storage is the excessive hydrolysis of carbohydrates (Kung and Muck, 2015), which results
in elevated substrate for fermentation in anaerobic storage or excessive loss upon aerobic exposure.
This balance must be carefully managed based on feedstock type and utilization strategy.

Acidic Amendments
Organic and mineral acids have been used extensively in silage to rapidly decrease pH and preserve
the nutrient content of the biomass. Virtanen used a blend of hydrochloric and sulfuric acids to
preserve silage, and this work demonstrated that a pH of 4.0 was necessary to inhibit soluble
carbohydrate and protein degradation along with butyric acid formation (Virtanen, 1933). Virtanen
received a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1945 for this and delete Contribution To The Field (The Nobel
Prize in Chemistry, 1945). Sulfuric acid is a strong acid and is used specifically to reduce pH, however,
Virtanen recommended that it not be applied alone due to poor digestibility by rumen. Formic acid
is common silage additive that is considered to reduce pH rapidly as well as provide antimicrobial
effects. Formic acid is proposed to disrupt the electron transport chain by inhibiting cytochrome
oxidase (Keyhani and Keyhani, 1980). While this may be desired for the suppression of spoilage
microorganisms, this same mechanism has resulted in histotoxic hypoxia in farmers exposed to vapors
while making silage (Liesivuori and Kettunen, 1983). It has also been noted that yeasts have a higher
tolerance to formic acid treated silages than lactic acid bacteria, such that the aerobic stability of
formic acid treated silages poor (Henderson et al., 1972). Formic acid is still used as a silage additive,
particularly in European countries due to the ban on antibiotics in livestock feed. However, its use is
limited in the United States because it traditionally is a higher cost acid. Approaches to produce lower-
cost formic acid are necessary to enable additional utilization of this acid in forage and bioenergy
storage systems.
Propionic acid is a low-cost additive often used in the United States, particularly in haylage (Knapp et
al., 1976). Propionic acid additives have demonstrated to reduce yeast proliferation upon removal of
ensiled biomass from storage, thus increasing the aerobic stability of the biomass (Woolford, 1975).
Similarly, numerous acid and acid salt combinations have been described for their preservation effect
on silage during storage and upon exposure to oxygen (Muck et al., 2018). Nadaeu et al. demonstrated
an improvement in aerobic stability of corn silage from 5.7 to 11.8 days for biomass that entered
storage after treatment with a combination of formic, propionic, benzoic, and sorbic acids (Nadeau
et al., 2011). Acid salt combinations including potassium sorbate, sodium benzoate, and sodium
nitrite have also shown to increase aerobic stability in corn silage (Da Silva et al., 2015). Perennial
grasses, including switchgrass, have been successfully preserved in high-moisture storage amended
with mineral acid and experienced up to 17% improvement in cellulose conversion to ethanol
(Williams and Shinners, 2012). In summary, acids have demonstrated as effectiveness as a direct
approach in improve ensiling performance and aerobic stability of biomass upon utilization. Further
knowledge on the effect of these treatments to improve performance in bioconversion to fuels and
chemicals will increase their utilization in commercial biorefineries.

Alkaline Amendments
Alkaline treatments have been used for stabilizing wet harvested biomass by creating a basic
environment which can restrict unwanted fermentation. Anhydrous ammonia has been applied to
forage for over 50 years to improve nitrogen levels and prevent proteolysis and deamination in forage,
which improves the quality of the biomass for livestock feed (Huber and Santana, 1972; Huber et al.,
1979). Anhydrous ammonia has been demonstrated to raise pH and decrease lactic acid formation
during the initial days of ensiling as well as decrease protein degradation in long-term anaerobic
storage (Johnson et al., 1982).
Calcium oxide, or lime, has been used as an additive for biomass with the dual aim of improving
storage stability as well as to impact thermochemical conversion performance (Xiong et al., 2017;
Bozaghian et al., 2018). Calcium oxide (CaO) reacts with water to produce calcium dihydroxide
[Ca(OH)2], which then reacts with CO2 to form calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Calcium carbonate is
understood to act as a sorbent and reacts with other inorganics including silica and sulfur during
thermochemical conversion (Wang et al., 2016), which increases the melting temperature of the
resulting inorganic complex and thus reduces undesirable slagging on reactor surfaces and catalysts
(Bozaghian et al., 2018). Calcium oxide treatment of reed canary grass was shown to increase pH to
greater than 9 in biomass containing 35-65%moisture, which is desirable to reduce proteolytic
organisms but not sufficiently high such that protein degradation occurred. In this study the 35%
moisture content biomass exhibited stable aerobic storage over 90 days due to the combined effect
of initial increased pH and reduction of moisture through drying (Xiong et al., 2017), however, higher
moisture contents levels resulted in storage losses up to 30% and the subsequent reduction of pH
levels to 8–9 likely as a result of liberation of acetyl side chains from the hemicellulose. Similarly, lime
has been applied to poplar over a 12 week period to enhance the solubilization of lignin though
oxidation and deacetylation of hemicellulose through hydrolysis in order to improve the digestibility
of wood in enzymatic hydrolysis (Rocio et al., 2011).
Sodium hydroxide has been assessed for use during storage to reduce biomass recalcitrance, and the
advantage of this alkali above lime is that it is readily soluble. Sodium hydroxide has been used to
improve the digestibility of wheat and barley straws for livestock feed by reducing lignin content
(Chesson, 1981; Lindberg et al., 1984). Sodium hydroxide treatment during 1–3 days of storage has
also been applied to corn stover at 80% moisture content (wet basis) in order to increase biogas yields
in anaerobic digestion, and these studies have indicated that hemicellulose is most susceptible to
short-term sodium hydroxide exposure as a result of removal of acetyl groups (Pang et al., 2008;
Zheng et al., 2009; Zhu et al., 2010). Cui et al. investigated the use of sodium hydroxide treatment
during 90 day ensiling of corn stover in plastic bags at moisture contents ranging from 45 to 75%
moisture (wet basis) (Cui et al., 2012). This study showed that lignin and cellulose degradation was
complete within 5 days of storage but that xylan degradation continued over the 90-day storage
period; however, significant dry matter loss of 13–21%occurredduringthestorage period. An increase
in acetic acid levels was observed during the first 15 days of storage, and subsequent reduction of
structural acetate after this period is consistent with the dry matter loss experienced. Similarly,
glucose and xylose yields were reduced in samples that experienced 90 days of storage compared to
5 and 12 days of storage. This study shows the importance of maintaining stable storage conditions
when combining sodium hydroxide with long term storage.
Alkali treatments have shown to reduce chemical recalcitrance of biomass to deconstruction and are
the state-of-the-technology for cost-competitive biochemical conversion of carbohydrate and lignin
monomerstobiofuels (Chenetal., 2016; Davis et al., 2018). However, these high-severity treatments
require significant alkali loading during short thermal residence times in order to be efficient at the
biorefinery scale. Anaerobic storage offers the opportunity to allow the deacetylation reactions to
occur over a longer residence time with the added benefit of protecting biomass from uncontrolled
dry matter loss. As discussed in this section, alkali treatment has demonstrated reduced recalcitrance
 in terms of improved digestibility for rumen. However, the combination of well-preserved biomass
resulting from anaerobic storage and alkali treatment have not yet been applied in relation to both
physical and chemical preprocessing to form convertible carbohydrate monomers for bioenergy
systems.

7. Differentiate between wood burning stove and pellet burning stove.

Wood Stove: Burns traditional firewood, giving a classic, rustic heat source. The process is manual,
requiring stacking, lighting, and regular tending.

Pellet Stove: Uses compressed pellets made from wood waste, operating via an automated feeder.
Pellet stoves offer more controlled heat output but rely on a continuous supply of pellets.

Wood stoves, as the name suggests, burn logs, usually hardwoods like oak or maple, which produce
steady, long-lasting heat. You’ll need to store the wood in a dry space and be prepared to restock it
as needed, especially during the winter months. Pellet stoves, however, burn pellets made from
compressed sawdust, wood chips, and other byproducts of wood processing. Pellets are available in
40-pound bags and can be stored easily, although you’ll need to ensure you have enough supply for
the season. Each option has its convenience: wood is more natural and accessible in rural areas, while
pellets offer a more consistent, clean burn with less manual labour.
When considering long-term costs, both upfront expenses and ongoing fuel costs need to be
considered. Wood stoves tend to have a lower initial cost, especially if you already have access to
seasoned firewood or can source it affordably. However, the maintenance, regular chimney cleanings,
and manual effort of chopping or purchasing wood can add up over time.

Pellet stoves are more expensive upfront, but their high-efficiency ratings often lead to lower heating
costs over time, especially when compared to the price fluctuations of firewood. Pellets are consistent
in quality and cost but are not as readily available as firewood in some areas. Also, feeders need
electricity, which is an extra cost.
It’s best to get quotes for the fireplaces and fuels available in your area to determine which is the
most affordable option for your home long-term.
Wood stoves demand more hands-on care. You’ll need to load logs regularly, keep an eye on the fire,
clean out ash, and have your chimney cleaned annually to prevent creosote buildup. If you enjoy the
ritual of tending to a fire, this might not seem like a drawback, but for some, the maintenance can
become burdensome.
Pellet stoves, on the other hand, are designed for ease of use. The automated feeder reduces the
need for constant tending, and though they still require occasional cleaning of the burn pot and
annual maintenance, they’re generally lower maintenance than wood stoves.
Wood stoves offer radiant heat, which can make a room feel instantly warmer and more comfortable,
especially if you enjoy the rustic ambiance of crackling logs. However, heat distribution can be
uneven, particularly in larger spaces or multi-room homes.
Pellet stoves typically have more bells and whistles, like built-in blowers. These provide more
controlled and consistent heat throughout the space. For those with open-plan homes or who need
steady, even heating throughout the day, pellet stoves may be the more practical choice. Both wood
and pellet stoves are considered environmentally friendly compared to fossil fuels, but pellet stoves
have a slight edge in terms of efficiency and emissions. Modern wood stoves that are EPA-certified
(US regulator) burn more cleanly than older models, but they still produce more particulates than
pellet stoves. Pellet stoves burn pellets made from wood byproducts, which means they are
repurposing waste that would otherwise be discarded. They also produce fewer emissions overall.
If sustainability is a major concern, pellet stoves offer an eco-friendlier solution.
Wood stoves are ideal for off-grid living because they don’t rely on electricity, making them a great
choice for remote cabins or homes. As long as you have access to firewood, you’ll have a reliable heat
source.
Most pellet stove designs require electricity to run the feeder, fans, and thermostat. While this allows
for easier temperature control and a steady heat supply, it means that in a power outage, your pellet
stove won’t function unless you have a backup generator.