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UNIVERSITY OF MINES AND TECHNOLOGY
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TARKWA

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FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING

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KN E
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GE , T X CE
RU TH A N D E

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LECTURE NOTES ON

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POWER SYSTEMS PROTECTION
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AND CONTROL
(EL 471)

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Course Instructor:
ASSOC PROF JOSEPH CUDJOE ATTACHIE

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Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
University of Mines and Technology
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Tarkwa

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January 2025

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JESUS IS LORD

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS PAGE

CHAPTER 1 OVERVIEW OF POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION AND 1

CONTROL

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Basics of Protection and Protective Devices 2
1.3 Features (Qualities) of Power System Protection 5
1.4 Protective Zones 6
1.5 Relaying Elements and Quantities 8
1.6 Protection Coordination 9

CHAPTER 2 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS 12

2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 Voltage Transformer 13
2.3 Current Transformer 14

CHAPTER 3 PROTECTIVE RELAYS 20

3.1 Introduction 20
3.2 Important Relay Terms 20
3.3 Functions of a Relay 20
3.4 Qualities of a Good Relay 21
3.5 Relay Systems 22
3.6 Classification of Relays 22
3.7 Differential Relays 23
3.8 Translay Relay 26

CHAPTER 4 PROTECTION OF ALTERNATORS AND TRANSFORMERS 27

4.1 Alternator Protection 27

4.2 Merz Price Protection for Alternators 29
4.3 Transformer Protection 30
4.4 Differential (Merz Price) Protection for Transformer 32
4.5 Buchholz Protection 36

CHAPTER 5 PROTECTION OF BUS BARS, FEEDERS AND TRANSMISSION 37

LINES

5.1 Introduction 37
5.2 Protection of Bus Bars 37
5.3 Protection of Feeders 38
5.4 Protection of Transmission Lines 41

REFERENCES 45

i
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 1-

CHAPTER 1

OVERVIEW OF POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION AND CONTROL

1.1 Introduction

A power system is not only capable to meet the present load but also has the flexibility to meet the
future demands. A power system is designed to generate electric power in sufficient quantity, to
meet the present and estimated future demands of the users in a particular area, to transmit it to the
areas where it will be used and then distribute it within that area, on a continuous basis. To ensure
the maximum return on the large investment in the equipment, which goes to make up the power
system and to keep the users satisfied with reliable service, the whole system must be kept in
operation continuously without major breakdowns.

However, it is not economically and technically feasible to design and manufacture electrical
equipment that will never fail in service. Equipment will and does fail, and the only way to limit
further damage to equipment, and to restrict danger to human life, is to provide fast, reliable
electrical protection. The protection of a power system detects abnormal conditions, localize faults
and promptly removes the faulty equipment from service.

Faults can occur in any power system component-generators, transformers, buses, lines-though
transmission lines being exposed to the environment are the most vulnerable. Faults fall into two
general categories-short-circuit faults and open-circuit faults. Short-circuits faults are the most
severe kind, resulting in flow of abnormally high currents. If allowed to persist even for a short
period of time, short-circuits can lead to extensive damage to equipment. Some of the undesirable
effects of short-circuit faults are listed as follows:

➢ Arcing faults (most common) can vaporize equipment in the vicinity leading to possibly,
fire and explosion, e.g. in transmission and circuit breakers.
➢ Power system components carrying abnormal currents get overheated, with subsequent
reduction in the life span of their insulation.
➢ Operating voltages can go above or below their acceptable values, leading to development
of another fault or damage to equipment.
➢ Consequent unbalanced system operation causes overheating of generator rotors.
➢ Power flow is severely restricted, or even completely blocked, while the short circuit lasts.
➢ As a consequence of blockage of power flow, power system areas can lose synchronism.
The longer a fault lasts the more is the possibility of loss of synchronism.

Open-circuit faults cause abnormal system operation and danger to personnel. Voltages tend to
rise well beyond acceptable values in certain parts pf the system with possibility of insulation
failure and development of a short-circuit fault. While open-circuit faults can be tolerated for
longer periods of time than short-circuit faults, these cannot be allowed to persist, and must be
removed. Other abnormal operating conditions which require remedying, but do fall into two
categories of faults include, heavily unbalanced generator operation and loss of generator
excitation.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 1 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 1-

Faults should be instantly detected, and the faulty section isolated from the rest of the system in
the shortest possible time. It is obviously not possible to do this manually, and it must, therefore,
be accomplished automatically. Faults are detected automatically by means of relays, and the
faulty section isolated by circuit breakers connected at the boundaries of the section (say, a line,
transformer or generator). The combination of relays and circuit breakers is known as the
protective system.

Protection systems play a fundamental role in guaranteeing the integrity and safe operation of any
electrical energy system. The first protection systems were developed based on electromechanical
devices employing movable parts. In a later period of development, solid-state based devices with
discrete electronic components were also introduced. Although both types of devices are still
widely utilised in on-operation protection systems, they are currently being replaced by
microprocessor-based relays, known generically as digital or numerical relays.

The usage of digital relays has permitted that many new techniques be developed and
implemented. As a consequence, protection systems are facing a very dynamic period. Modern
protection systems, indeed, are truely integrated systems, consisting of communication, numerical
processing, measurement and logical systems. Moreover, intelligent techniques such as
evolutionary algorithms, fuzzy systems and neural networks have been widely employed for
protection schemes in single equipment and power system areas. Such a scenario, which joins
digital hardware with communication technologies and intelligent techniques, creates a
challenging environment where protection specialists can use these elements to develop novel
protection philosophies and techniques, aiming at a fast, reliable and economic protection system.

Power systems and circuits are controlled by switchgears which may or may not in corporate some
form of protection against over loads, faults and earth-leakage. The protection used in a network
can be looked upon as a form of insurance in which a percentage of the total capital cost (about 5
percent) is used to safeguard apparatus and ensure continued operation when faults occur. In a
highly industrialized community, the maintenance of an uninterrupted supply to consumers is of
paramount importance and the adequate provision of protection is essential.

For maintenance to be carried out on a plant, it must be isolated from the rest of the network and
hence switches must be provided on each side. If these switches are not required to open under
working conditions, i.e. with fault or load current and normal voltage, a cheaper form of switch
known as an isolator can be used; this can close a live circuit but not open one.

Generally, switchgears provide the means of opening and closing a circuit and can be divided into
four general groups such as switches, isolators, contactors and circuit-breakers

1.2 Basics of Protection and Protective Devices

Circuit protection refers to a scheme for disconnecting sections or components of an electric circuit
in the event of a fault. A fault means that an inadvertent electrical connection is made between an
energized component and something at a different potential. If two conductors are touching
directly, this makes a short circuit, or connection between two points that were initially at different
potentials with essentially zero resistance in between.

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Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 1-

The basic types of faults in power systems are phase-to-ground and phase-to phase faults. A phase-
to-ground fault means that one or more conductors make electrical contact with the ground, or
point of zero-volt potential, such as a line coming in contact with a tree (which, owing to its
moisture, will conduct a current to ground). A phase-to-phase fault means that two different phases
(or, rarely, all three) come into direct or indirect contact with each other, for example, if a bird
with a large wingspan touches two conductors simultaneously. When analyzing what would
happen during any conceivable fault, the main quantity of interest is the fault current. The fault
current is determined by the fault impedance. That is, the impedance of whatever it is between the
two points that are inadvertently connected, and by the ability of the power source to sustain the
voltage while an abnormally high current is flowing.

A fault is always something to be avoided, not only because it implies a wasteful flow of electric
current, but because there is a risk of fire or electrocution when current flows where it was not
intended to go. The object of circuit protection is to reliably detect a fault when it happens and
interrupt the power flow to it, clearing the fault. A fault is generally detected by the magnitude of
its associated current, though it may also be sensed by way of a phase imbalance or other unusual
voltage differences between circuit components.

The simplest protective device that can detect an overcurrent and interrupt a circuit is the fuse. It
consists of a thin wire that simply melts when the current is too high. While fuses are very reliable,
they have practical drawbacks. First, it takes a certain minimum amount of time before the wire
heats up enough to melt. Once installed, it is not possible to change the sensitivity of a fuse, or
how much current it will take to melt it. Then, once the wire has melted, it has to be physically
replaced before the connection can be reestablished; it cannot be reset. This usually means a time
delay for restoring the connection. Fuses are used for radial feeders in distribution systems,
generally for a lateral feeder where it connects to the main. In these situations, the desired
sensitivity of the fuse is fixed, and the time delay for restoring service is considered acceptable
because only a small number of customers are affected. Fuses were installed in homes earlier in
the 20th century (and are often still in use) before circuit breakers became standard.

Circuit breakers differ from fuses in that they have movable contacts that can open or close the
circuit. This means that a circuit breaker can be reset and reused after it opens. The mechanical
opening or tripping of the breaker is actuated by a relay that measures the current and, if the
measurement is above a determined value, sends the signal that opens the breaker. Such a relay
can have multiple settings, depending on the desired sensitivity. While a circuit breaker can move
more quickly than a melting fuse, it does take a certain amount of time for a current to persist
before the relay will actuate. This time is inversely related to the magnitude of the current. At the
same setting, the relay could be tripped either by a very large current for a very short amount of
time or by a smaller current for a longer duration. The sensitivity of relays and fuses is thus
characterized by a time–current curve that indicates the combination of current and duration that
will cause a trip. A sample curve for a certain relay is shown in Fig. 1.1. Note that both current
and time are plotted on a logarithmic scale.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 3 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 1-

Fig. 1.1 Time-current Characteristic of a Relay

Switches and circuit breakers in power transmission and distribution systems are collectively
referred to as switchgear; they serve the purposes of deliberately isolating individual pieces of
equipment (say, for maintenance) and to automatically isolate portions of the system (in case of a
fault). An important distinction between a circuit breaker and a regular switch is that the breaker
can safely interrupt a fault current, which may be much larger than a normal load current. In order
to do so, circuit breakers must be specifically designed to control and extinguish the arc of plasma
drawn as the contacts separate. For simple air switches, the design crux is in the shape of the
contacts. To be able to operate at higher voltages and currents, the contacts can be immersed in a
tank of nonconducting fluid such as transformer oil or sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) that is also difficult
to ionize and rapidly quenches the arc. (The key is to have a symmetric molecule without free
electrons that does not readily break apart under the influence of an electric field.) More effective
yet, the contacts can be placed in a vacuum. Finally, there are air-blast circuit breakers and puffer-
type arc interrupters in which a burst of compressed gas such as SF6 or cleaned air is precisely
directed at the arc to quench it.

In the operation of a circuit breaker, time is of the essence, both in terms of when the breaker first
actuates and in terms of the physical movement of the contacts. The key problem is that the
ionization of the medium (air or otherwise) between the contacts, which forms and sustains the
arc, depends on both the voltage across the gap and its width (for example, the ionization potential
of air is on the order of a million volts per meter). When the metallic contacts initially move apart,
they will necessarily draw an arc between them, just like the arc that can be seen when an operating
appliance is unplugged from its outlet, only bigger. But within half a cycle, the alternating voltage
and current become zero, and the arc will naturally extinguish. (This, of course, is peculiar to a.c.
and helps explain why high-voltage d.c. circuit breakers present an even greater engineering
challenge.) By the time the voltage rises again in the opposite direction—and we are talking about
mere milliseconds—the breaker contacts may or may not have already moved far enough apart to
prevent the formation of a new arc, or restrike.

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Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 1-

Restriking is undesirable because it wears out the breaker contacts, in addition to prolonging the
time before the fault is cleared. Ideally, the contacts can be physically moved fast enough so that
the growing distance between them outpaces the sinusoidally increasing voltage. The properties
of the circuit are relevant here, too, because any reactance will affect the relative timing between
current and voltage. Considering these complexities along with the fact that arc plasma
temperatures are on the order of tens of thousands of degrees Celsius, that large mechanical
components are accelerated to high speeds within thousandths of a second, and that pressurized
quenching gas flows at supersonic speeds, we can appreciate that the design of power switchgear
is a serious business indeed.

Many times faults are transient, meaning that their cause disappears. For example, lightning strike
may cause a fault current that will cease once the lightning is over; power lines may make contact
momentarily in the wind; or a large bird may electrocute itself across two phases and drop to the
ground, removing the connection. In these situations, it is desirable for the circuit to be restored to
normal operation immediately after the fault disappears. For this purpose, reclosing breakers (or
reclosers for short) are used. The idea is that the breaker opens when the fault is detected, but then,
after some time has passed, the recloser closes again to see if the fault is still there. If the current
is back to normal, the breaker stays closed, and everything is fine; customers have only suffered a
very brief interruption. If the fault current is still there, the recloser opens again. This cycle may
repeat another time or two, and if the fault persists on the last reclosing attempt, the breaker stays
in the open or lockout position until it is reset.

The reclosing time and number of attempts can be adjusted as appropriate. In distribution systems,
reclosing times tend to be much longer than in transmission systems—five seconds, perhaps, as
compared to half a second. Primarily, this is because distribution equipment tends to be closer to
the ground and more exposed to environmental factors that take a little longer to go away,
including unfortunate incidents with animals. Another consideration is the number of customers
exposed to the interruption, which is of course much greater for a transmission fault. This shifts
the desired reclosing time in transmission systems toward the short side, especially if it can be
made brief enough to escape customers’ notice completely. Like time–current settings on a
breaker, the choice of recloser settings illustrates the fact that any circuit protection inherently
involves some trade-off between safety and convenience.

1.3 Features (Qualities) of Power System Protection

The salient features of power system protection are:

• Speed: Faults at any point in the system must be detected and isolated in the shortest
possible time. This time is of the order of 30-100 ms, depending upon the fault level of
the section involved. The longer the fault current continues to flow, the greater the damage
to equipment.
• Sensitivity: Relaying equipment must be sufficiently sensitive to operate reliably, when
required, under conditions that produce the least operating tendency. Sensitivity is the level
of magnitude of fault current at which operation occurs.

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Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 1-

• Selectivity or Discrimination: Relaying equipment must clearly discriminate between

normal and abnormal system conditions, so that, it never operates unnecessarily. The ability
of isolating only the faulty part of the system determines its effectiveness in discrimination.

• Reliability: Relaying equipment must be found in healthy operating condition when called
upon to act. This property is self-evident. A major cause of circuit “outages” is mal-
operation of the protection itself. The concept of reliability tends to limit or minimize the
number of power outages in systems. It is the ability to operate under fault conditions
without a hitch i.e. without any difficulty.

• Economic Consideration: In distribution systems, the economic aspect almost over rides
the technical one owing to the large number of feeders, transformers, etc. provided that,
basic safety requirements are met. In transmission systems, the technical aspects are more
important. Though the protection is relatively expensive, yet, the system or equipment
protected and the security of supply are quite vital. Two separate protective systems are
used, one main (or primary) and the other one, a back-up.

• Stability: The property of remaining inoperative with faults occurring outside the protected
zone (called external faults).

• Back-up Protection: Back-up protection as the name implies is a completely separate

arrangement which operates to remove the faulty part should the main protection fail to
operate. The back-up system should be as independent of the main protection as possible,
possessing its own current transformers and relays.

1.4 Protective Zones

In order to delimit the number of elements disconnected by the protective system during a fault,
the protective system is divided into a number of zones. Each protective zone has the primary
responsibility to disconnect the element or elements in the zone in the event of a fault. For this
purpose, circuit breakers and relays are located at the zone boundaries. The protective zone concept
is illustrated by means of Fig. 1.2.

Fig. 1.2 Protective Zones of a Power System

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 6 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 1-

The features observed in this figure are as follows:

• A separate zone of protection is established around each system element. Any failure
within a zone will cause “tripping” (i.e. opening) of all circuit breakers of that zone and
only those breakers.
• The generator and transformer are lumped together in modern unit generation system (210
MW and above) and are protected by a single zone. However, separate protective schemes
must be provided for the generator and transformer and both of these schemes control the
zone breaker. In older schemes, separate protective zones are employed for generator and
transformer, necessitating two more circuit breakers and a low voltage bus.
• Adjoining protective zones are made to overlap. For a fault in the overlapping area of two
zones, more circuit breakers will open than the minimum necessary to disconnect the faulty
elements. Instead if there is no overlap, a small region between adjoining zones will remain
unprotected. This is not acceptable.

The protection provided by each zone to its element(s) is known as primary protection. There may
arise situations, however rare, that some components of a zone protection scheme fail to operate
when called upon to do so. In order to almost 100% protect the power system elements and to
prevent extensive damage, backup protection is provided which takes over only in the event of
primary protection failure. Backup relays should not employ or control anything that is in common
with primary relays that are to be backed up. This requires that, the backup relays should be located
at a different physical location (relaying station). Because of this requirement, a larger chunk of
power system will get disconnected when backup relays operate. The principle of backup
protection is illustrated by means of Fig. 1.3. Certain observations can immediately be made from
this figure.

1 2
A C G I

E F

B D H J

Fig. 1.3 Backup Protection

➢ For a fault on line 1-2, if the primary protection fails to operate, backup relays will trip
circuit breakers ABIJ opening 5 lines in instead of one.
➢ For a fault on bus 1, backup protection is provided by relays located at ABF.

In local backup concept, relay trips all the breakers connected to the bus if a family line connected
to the bus is not isolated by its breaker beyond a certain time. With reference to Fig. 1.3, a fault in
the line 1-2 will be mainly isolated by E and F. If any of them fails e.g. E, a local backup relay,
will isolate C and D after some time (obviously before the opening of A and B).

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 7 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 1-

In general:
• Backup relaying should function with sufficient time delay so that first opportunity is
given to the primary relays to function in the event of a fault.
• When backup relaying functions, a larger part of the system is disconnected than when
primary relaying operates correctly.
• Backup relaying is a must but is not a substitute for good maintenance.
• Backup relaying need to be provided for only the most severe kind of faults, i.e. short
circuits. No backup relaying is employed for other abnormal conditions.

1.5 Relaying Elements and Quantities

Currents and voltages at the two ends of a protected element are the basic quantities which are
employed to recognise if the fault is in the protected zone. These quantities are fed to the relay
which suitably processes these to produce a binary output: “trip” or “not trip (block)” in the circuit
breaker under its control. In order that the relay (which indeed is a signal processor) be of small
size and low-expense element, it must not be fed directly by the system currents and voltages
whose level is tremendously high. This is further necessitated by the fact that the personnel
working with the relay must be provided with a safe environment. Low-level samples of power
system currents and voltages must, therefore, be extracted by means of transducers which are
current and voltage transformers. With reference to Fig. 1.4, it can be seen that at each relaying
station, the protection system comprises three elements, namely;

• Circuit breaker (CB) - To open the line

• Transducers (T) – To provide low-level current and voltage samples to the relay. The
transducers are also referred to as instrument transformers.
• Relay (R) – To process the current and voltage signals to produce binary logic signal-“trip”
or “not trip”.

The power supply needed to trip the circuit breaker, or to provide the biasing signal in case of
electronic relays, must be provided by an independent battery source, which must be regularly and
thoroughly maintained. This is highly required since during a fault, power system voltage would
dip to very low levels.

1 B12 B21 2

CB CB P CB CB

R12 R21
T T
R R

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 8 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 1-

Fig. 1.4 Elements of Protection System

In case of a fault at the point P of line 1-2 in Fig. 1.4, both relays R12 and R21 must recognise or
see this fault and proceed to trip the respective breakers under their control. The area of
responsibility of a relay is known as the reach of the relay.

The signal processing time to arrive at the logical decision is typically 8-40 ms, depending upon
the type of relay employed. The total time that may elapse from the initiation of a fault to opening
of the circuit breaker is between 30-100 ms depending upon the type of relay and circuit breaker
employed.

For every type and location of a fault, there is some distinctive difference in the attributes of power
system currents and voltages. Each relay is designed to recognise a particular difference and to
operate in response to it. The differences are possible in one or more of the following attributes
leading to various kinds of relays:

• Magnitude (of current and voltage).

• Direction (large change in phase angle).
• Ratio (impedance).
• Duration.
• Rate of change.
• Order of change.
• Frequency.
• Harmonics in wave shape.

1.6 Protection Coordination

In order to cause the minimum interruption of service, power system protection is carefully
designed to interrupt the circuit as close as possible to the fault location. There is also redundancy
in protection, meaning that in the event one breaker fails to actuate, another one will. With both of
these considerations in mind, protection throughout the system is coordinated so that for any given
fault, the nearest breaker will trip first. Such a scheme is analyzed in terms of protection zones, or
sections of the system that a given device is “responsible” for isolating. These zones are nested
inside each other, as illustrated in Fig. 1.5 to Fig. 1.8. In such a scheme, any one protective device
may simultaneously serve as the primary protection for its own zone and as backup for another.
For example, Fuse 1 is the primary protection for the section of line between it and Fuse 2, while
also serving as a backup in case Fuse 2 should fail to clear a fault in its own protection zone.

Of course, we do not wish for Fuse 1 to melt and unnecessarily inconvenience customers in its
own protection zone as the result of a problem beyond Fuse 2 on the circuit. For this reason, Fuse
1 ought to be less sensitive, that is, tolerate a greater current than Fuse 2. The illustrations show
that the maximum current is greater for devices upstream in the circuit, which is also necessary
simply because there is more load connected whose normal current must flow through them. The
terms symmetrical and asymmetrical refer to fault currents that are symmetrical about the
horizontal axis (i.e., the regular a.c.) versus those with a d.c. component. The sample specifications

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 9 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 1-

on the recloser and circuit breaker relay illustrate the crucial time dimension of the protection
problem: it is important not only whether a device operates, but precisely when.

Fig. 1.5 Example of Protection Zones

Fig. 1.6 Protection Zones—fuses

With this we can begin to appreciate the multivariable character of protection coordination as
involving location, current magnitude, individual phases, and time, all of which must be combined
into a scheme that can be expected to perform safely and reliably yet without causing nuisance
interruptions under any foreseeable circumstance.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 10 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 1-

Fig. 1.7 Protection Zones—recloser

Fig. 1.8 Protection Zones—relay

Still, the example in the figure has a key simplicity: namely, that the distribution system layout
here is radial and power flow unidirectional. In a network, protection coordination becomes even
more challenging, because here the roles of primary and backup protection (i.e., which one trips
first) must be reversed depending on what side the fault is on. Yet the only means of discriminating
the distance to a fault is by the impedance of the line in between. This complexity alone is sufficient
reason for the majority of power distribution systems to be laid out radially. It also explains why
protection engineering is a subtle business usually carried out by highly specialized experts who
draw not only upon mathematical analysis but also on experience and intuition to make it work in
practice.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 11 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 2-

CHAPTER 2

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

2.1 Introduction

There are two basic types of instrument transformers: voltage transformers (VTs), formerly called
potential transformers (PTs), and current transformers (CTs).

The voltage transformers and current transformers continuously measure the voltage and current
of an electrical system and are responsible to give feedback signals to the relays to enable them to
detect abnormal conditions. The values of actual currents in modern distribution systems varies
from a few amperes in households, small industrial/commercial houses, etc. to thousands of
amperes in power-intensive plants, national grids, etc., which also depend on the operating
voltages. Similarly, the voltages in electrical systems vary from few hundreds of volts to many
kilo volts. However, it is impossible to have monitoring relays designed and manufactured for each
and every distribution system and to match the innumerable voltages and currents being present.
Hence the voltage transformers and current transformers are used which enable same types of
relays to be used in all types of distribution systems ensuring the selection and cost of relays to be
within manageable ranges.

The main tasks of instrument transformers are:

• To transform currents or voltages from usually a high value to a value easy to handle for
relays and instruments.
• To insulate the relays, metering and instruments from the primary high-voltage system.
• To provide possibilities of standardizing the relays and instruments, etc. to a few rated
currents and voltages.

Instrument transformers are special versions of transformers in respect of measurement of current

and voltages. The theories for instrument transformers are the same as those for transformers in
general. They offer the following distinct advantages:

• simple, economical and reliable.

• provide electrical insulation from power system voltages.
• accurate and would tolerate overloading to some extent.

Fig. 2.1 shows a schematic representation for the VT and CT. The voltage transformer is open-
circuited (infinite impedance) and current transformer is short-circuited (zero impedance). In a
practical situation, the relay’s current element presents a small (but not zero) impedance to the
secondary of a CT, and the relay’s voltage element presents a high (but not infinite) impedance to
the secondary of a VT. The loading of an instrument transformer is commonly known as “burden”
and is expressed in terms of VA rather than impedance. VA for a VT expresses current at rated
voltage and for a CT expresses voltage at rated current. For such instruments, their secondaries are
generally rated in the vicinity of 50 VA; this could be lower for transformers feeding electronic
relays.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 12 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 2-

Fig. 2.1 Schematic Representation of Instrument Transformers

2.2 Voltage Transformer

Loading introduces error in voltage transformer because of voltage drops in leakage reactance of
the windings. For system protection, extremely high accuracy in VTs is usually not required. It is
therefore reasonable to model the VT as an ideal transformer, i.e.

N 
V2 =  2  V1 (2.1)
 N1 

A standard secondary voltage is 67 V (line-to-neutral) and 67  3 = 116 V (line-to-line).

Commonly available voltage ratios are shown in Table 2.1. Fig. 2.2 shows a 34.5 kV voltage
transformers with 34.5 kV: 115/67 volt VT ratios.

Fig. 2.2 Three 34.5-kV Voltage Transformers with 34.5 kV: 115/67 volt VT Ratios

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 13 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 2-

Table 2.1 Standard VT Ratios

1:1 20:1 300:1 2000:1
2:1 40:1 400:1 3000:1
2.5:1 60:1 600:1 4500:1
4:1 100:1 800:1
5:1 200:1 1000:1

2.3 Current Transformer

In CTs, the primary winding usually consists of a single turn which is the power conductor itself
(along with its return circuit, it forms a single turn). The core is toroidal in shape through which is
threaded the power conductor (primary), and on which are wound a few turns of the secondary.
CTs are available in standard ratios given in Table 2.2, wherein the secondary current rating is 5
A. CTs are also available with the secondary current rating of 1 A.

Table 2.2 Standard CT Ratios

Current Ratios
50:5 300:5 800:5 1600:5 3200:5
100:5 400:5 900:5 2000:5 4000:5
150:5 450:5 1000:5 2400:5 5000:5
200:5 500:5 1200:5 2500:5 6000:5
250:5 600:5 1500:5 3000:5

Fig. 2.3 shows a simple overcurrent protection schematic with: (1) one type of instrument
transformer—the current transformer (CT), (2) an overcurrent relay (OC), and (3) a circuit breaker
(CB) for a single-phase line. The function of the CT is to reproduce in its secondary winding a
current I/ that is proportional to the primary current I. The CT converts primary currents in the
kiloamp range to secondary currents in the 0–5 ampere range for convenience of measurement,
with the following advantages:

• Safety: Instrument transformers provide electrical isolation from the power system so that
personnel working with relays will work in a safer environment.
• Economy: Lower-level relay inputs enable relays to be smaller, simpler, and less expensive.
• Accuracy: Instrument transformers accurately reproduce power system currents and
voltages over wide operating ranges.

The function of the relay is to discriminate between normal operation and fault conditions. The
OC relay in Fig. 2.3 has an operating coil, which is connected to the CT secondary winding, and a
set of contacts.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 14 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 2-

Fig. 2.3 Overcurrent Protection Schematic

When I / exceeds a specified ‘‘pickup’’ value, the operating coil causes the normally open
contacts to close. When the relay contacts close, the trip coil of the circuit breaker is energized,
which then causes the circuit breaker to open.

Note that the circuit breaker does not open until its operating coil is energized, either manually or
by relay operation. Based on information from instrument transformers, a decision is made and
‘‘relayed’’ to the trip coil of the breaker, which actually opens the power circuit, hence the name
relay. Fig. 2.4 shows a typical three 25 kV Class Current Transformers.

Fig. 2.4 Three 25 kV Class Current Transformers

The transformer primary is connected to or into the power system and is insulated for the power
system voltage. The VT reduces the primary voltage and the CT reduces the primary current to
much lower, standardized levels suitable for operation of relays.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 15 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 2-

For system-protection purposes, VTs are generally considered to be sufficiently accurate.

Therefore, the VT is usually modeled as an ideal transformer, where

V/ = 1 ( n )V (2.2)

Where, V/ is a scaled-down representation of V and is in phase with V. n is the transformation

ratio. A standard VT secondary voltage rating is 115 V (line-to-line).

Ideally, the VT secondary is connected to a voltage-sensing-device with infinite impedance, such

that the entire VT secondary voltage is across the sensing device. In practice, the secondary voltage
divides across the high impedance sensing device and the VT series leakage impedances. VT
leakage impedances are kept low in order to minimize voltage drops and phase-angle differences
from primary to secondary.

The primary winding of a current transformer usually consists of a single turn, obtained by running
the power system’s primary conductor through the CT core. The normal current rating of CT
secondaries is standardized at 5 A in the United States, whereas 1 A is standard in Europe and
some other regions. Currents of 10 to 20 times (or greater) normal rating often occur in CT
windings for a few cycles during short circuits.

Ideally, the CT secondary is connected to a current-sensing device with zero impedance, such that
the entire CT secondary current flows through the sensing device. In practice, the secondary
current divides, with most flowing through the low-impedance sensing device and some flowing
through the CT shunt excitation impedance. CT excitation impedance is kept high in order to
minimize excitation current. An approximate equivalent circuit of a CT is shown in Fig. 2.5,
where,
Z/ = CT secondary leakage impedance
Xe = (Saturable) CT excitation reactance
ZB = Impedance of terminating device (relay, including leads).

Fig. 2.5 CT Equivalent Circuit

The total impedance ZB of the terminating device is called the burden and is typically expressed
in values of less than an ohm. The burden on a CT may also be expressed as volt-amperes at a
specified current.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 16 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 2-

Associated with the CT equivalent circuit is an excitation curve that determines the relationship
between the CT secondary voltage E/and excitation current Ie. Excitation curves for a multiratio
bushing CT with ANSI classification C100 are shown in Fig. 2.6.

Current transformer performance is based on the ability to deliver a secondary output current I/
that accurately reproduces the primary current I. Performance is determined by the highest current
that can be reproduced without saturation to cause large errors. Using the CT equivalent circuit
and excitation curves, the following procedure can be used to determine CT performance.

STEP 1 Assume a CT secondary output current I/.

STEP 2 Compute E/ = (Z/+ZB)I/.
STEP 3 Using E/, find Ie from the excitation curve.
STEP 4 Compute I = n(I/+Ie).
STEP 5 Repeat Steps 1–4 for different values of I/, then plot I/ versus I.

For simplicity, approximate computations are made with magnitudes rather than with phasors.
Also, the CT error is the percentage difference between (I/+Ie) and I/, given by:

Ie
CT error =  100% (2.3)
I + Ie
/

Fig. 2.6 Excitation Curves for a Multiratio Bushing CT with A C100 ANSI
Accuracy Classification

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 17 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 2-

The following examples illustrate the procedure:

EXAMPLE 1: Current transformer (CT) performance.

Evaluate the performance of the multiratio CT in Fig. 2.6 with a 100:5 CT ratio, for the following
secondary output currents and burdens:
(a) I/ = 5 A and ZB = 0.5 Ω;
(b) I/ = 8 A and ZB = 0.8 Ω; and
(c) I/ = 15 A and ZB = 1.5 Ω.
Also, compute the CT error for each output current.

SOLUTION

From Fig. 2.6, the CT with a 100:5 CT ratio has a secondary resistance Z/ = 0.082 Ω. Completing
the above steps:

a) STEP 1 I/ = 5 A
STEP 2 From Fig. 2.5,
E/ = (Z/ + ZB)I/ = (0.082 + 0.5) (5) = 2.91 V
STEP 3 From Fig. 2.6, Ie = 0.25 A
STEP 4 From Fig. 2.5, I = (100/5) (5 + 0.25) = 105 A

0.25
CT error = 100% = 4.8%
5.25

b) STEP 1 I/=8 A
STEP 2 From Fig. 2.5,

E/ = (Z/ + ZB)I/ = (0.082 + 0.8) (8) = 7.06 V

STEP 3 From Fig. 2.6, Ie = 0.4 A
STEP 4 From Fig. 2.5, I = (100/5) (8 + 0.4) = 168 A

0.4
CT error =  100% = 4.8%
8.4

c) STEP 1 I/=15 A
STEP 2 From Fig. 2.5,

E/ = (Z/ + ZB)I/ = (0.082 + 1.5) (15) = 23.73 V

STEP 3 From Fig. 2.6, Ie = 20 A

STEP 4 From Fig. 2.5, I = (100/5) (15 + 20) = 700 A

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 18 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 2-

20
CT error = 100% = 57.1%
35

Note that for the 15 A secondary current in (c), high CT saturation causes a large CT error of
57.1%. Standard practice is to select a CT ratio to give a little less than 5 A secondary output
current at maximum normal load.

From (a), the 100:5 CT ratio and 0.5 Ω burden are suitable for a maximum primary load current
of about 100 A. This example is extended in Problem 2. to obtain a plot of I/ versus I.

EXAMPLE 2: Relay operation versus fault current and CT burden.

An overcurrent relay set to operate at 8 A is connected to the multiratio CT in Fig. 2.6 with a 100:5
CT ratio. Will the relay detect a 200 A primary fault current if the burden ZB is (a) 0.8 Ω, (b) 3.0
Ω?

SOLUTION

Note that if an ideal CT is assumed, (100/5) × 8 = 160 A primary current would cause the relay to
operate.

a. From Example 1(b), a 168 A primary current with ZB = 0.8 Ω produces a secondary output
current of 8 A, which would cause the relay to operate. Therefore, the higher 200 A fault
current will also cause the relay to operate.

b. STEP 1 I/= 8 A
STEP 2 From Fig. 2.5,

E/ = (Z/ + ZB)I/ = (0.05 + 3.0) (8) = 24.4 V

STEP 3 From Fig. 2.6, Ie = 30 A

STEP 4 From Fig. 2.5, I = (100/5) (8 + 30) = 760 A

With a 3.0 Ω burden, 760 A is the lowest primary current that causes the relay to operate.
Therefore, the relay will not operate for the 200 A fault current.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 19 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
 Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 3-

CHAPTER 3

PROTECTIVE RELAYS

3.1 Introduction

A relay is a device that opens and closes electrical contacts to cause the operation of other devices
under electric control. Relays are protective devices for electrical equipment against damage.
Though fuses do the same job, they can be used only up to 3.3 kV safely. Above this voltage, the
use of relays becomes essential. Actually, relays are used in conjunction with circuit breakers.
Relays ‘detect’ the fault (i.e. detects intolerable or undesirable conditions within an assigned area)
and ‘direct’ the circuit breaker, to isolate the faulty part/equipment from the system to prevent
damage to personnel and property.

3.2 Important Relay Terms

1. Operating torque - The torque which tends to close the relay contacts.
2. Restraining torque - The torque which opposes the operating torque and tends to prevent
the closure of the relay contacts.
3. Flag - A device which indicates the operation of the-relay.
4. Power-The power consumption of relay which is expressed in kVA or VA
(AC relay) or watt (DC relay).
5. Operating time - The time of the operation of the relay.
6. Seal-in coil - This coil does not allow the relay contacts to open, when they are
carrying current.
7. Overreach - When a relay operates at a current lesser than its setting.
8. Underreach - When a relay operates at a current more than its setting.
9. Stability - The maximum fault current which can flow through the relay, without its
operation.
10. Sensitivity-The minimum fault current at which a relay can operate.
11. Stability rate-The ratio of stability and sensitivity is called stability rate.

3.3 Functions of a Relay

A relay performs basically 3 functions (Fig. 3.1):

(a) Sensing - It senses the ‘fault’. This is done by the relay to 'respond' to the change if any, in
the currents passing through it.
(b) Comparing - It compares the current through it with the designed value of the current. It
responds only if the current through it is more than its current rating.
(c) Controlling/tripping - If the current is more, it trips/sends information to the circuit breaker
for tripping.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 20 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 3-

sensing comparing controlling

Fig. 3.1 Block Diagram of a Relay

3.4 Qualities of a Good Relay

In order to perform its functions successfully, a relay should have the following qualities:
a. Selectivity b. Speed
c. Sensitivity d. Reliability
e. Simplicity f. Economy.

(a) Selectivity
This is the ability of a relay to select the faulty part/portion/section of the system to isolate, without
disturbing, the rest of the system. Naturally, a relay should have high-grade sensitivity.

In order to provide selectivity, the whole system is divided into different zones, and each zone is
provided with a relay with particular rating (time setting). The relay of the faulty part comes into
action and isolates the part from the rest of the system. Thus, it stops spreading of the fault in the
whole system.

(a) Speed
The relay should act with a very high speed so that no damage is done to the apparatus, the fault
does not spread to other parts of the system, and the fault, which is minor in the beginning, does
not become serious/severe with the lapse of time.

(c) Sensitivity
The relay should be very sensitive so that it can detect even a minor fault in the system, e.g., 1 VA
relay is more sensitive than a 2 VA relay. In other words, a relay is more sensitive if it operates at
lower value of the volt-amperes (VA) input.

(d) Reliability
The relay system should be reliable so that we can ‘rely upon’ it, i.e., it should come into action at
its desired/determined nature.

(e) Simplicity
The relay system should be simple; in other words, it should need little maintenance.

(f) Economy
The relay system should be economical. Its cost should not be more than 40% of the cost of the
equipment under protection.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 21 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 3-

3.5 Relay Systems

The relay systems (Fig. 3.2) may be:

(a) Main/Primary relay system.

(b) Secondary/Back up relay system.

The Main/primary relaying is the “first line of defense” which acts in the case of major faults like
short circuits/ insulation failure. Back up/secondary relaying may be taken as the “second line of
defense” which acts when the first relay system fails to operate.

The primary relay system may fail to operate due to:

(i) the failure of DC supply to the tripping circuit

(ii) the failure of tripping mechanism of the circuit breaker.

SS SS SS

CB CB CB

Secondary Primary
relay relay

Fig. 3.2 Relay System

3.6 Classification of Relays

(a) According to construction or working principle

(i) Attracted armature relay: The relay operates through attraction of an armature due to the
magnetic field set up by the current, flowing through the relay coil.
(ii) Solenoid type: The relay operates through the movement of a plunger, along the axis of a
solenoid coil.
(iii) Induction type: The relay operates under the action a force, produced by the induction
effect.
(iv) Electrodynamic type: The relay coil moves in an electromagnetic field.
(v) Moving coil type: The moving relay coil moves in air between the poles of a magnet
(vi) Thermal relay: The relay operates due to the heating effect produced by the relay current

(b) According to application

(i) Overvoltage/overcurrent relay: The relay operates when the voltage or current rises above
its designed value.
(ii) Undervoltage/undercurrent relay: The relay operates when the voltage or current falls
below a designed value.
(iii)Directional relay: The relay operates when the current through it has a specified phase
difference with applied voltage. Alternating current operates according to the phase

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 22 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
 Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 3-

relationship between alternating quantities while direct current operates according to the
direction of the current and are usually of the permanent-magnetic, moving coil pattern.
(iv) Differential relay: The relay operates when a difference of two currents flows through it
or there is a difference of two voltages applied to it.
(v) Distance or impedance relay: The relay operates according to the distance (impedance) of
a part of the circuit. The impedance increases with the increase of length or distance of the
circuit. The “distance” is measured in terms of resistance, reactance, or impedance.
(vi) Power relays: Operate at a predetermined value of power. These include overpower and
underpower relays.

(b) According to characteristics

(i) Instantaneous relay: The relay operates instantaneously, i.e., as soon as a fault occurs.
(ii) Definite time-lag relay: The relay operates after a definite “time delay” after the
occurrence of the fault.
(iii) Inverse time-lag relay: The time of operation of this relay is inversely proportional to the
current flowing through it.

ASSIGNMENT-Group discussions on description of the following important relays such as:

(a) Attracted armature relay

(b) Solenoid type relay
(c) Thermal relay
(d) Induction relay
(e) Translay Relay

3.7 Differential Relays

Differential relays are very sensitive in function hence making its use versatile. “A differential
relay may be defined as the relay which operates when algebraic difference of two or more
electrical quantities (current or voltage) exceeds a predetermined value”.

The basic principle of differential relays is that under normal conditions, the incoming and the
outgoing currents of a system are equal but, in case a fault is developed, they don't remain equal
and the vector difference of the two is made to flow through a differential coil, which trips and
isolates the faulty section of the system.

Note: Any relay can be used as a differential relay.

3.7.1 Types of Differential Relays

The types of differential relays are:

a) Current balance differential relay
b) Voltage balance differential relay.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 23 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 3-

(a) Current balance differential relay

The current balance differential relay shown in Fig. 3.3 is a simple over current (oc) relay,
operating as a differential relay. A current transformer is connected on both sides of the section to
be protected.

Fig. 3.3 Current Balance Differential Relay

Under normal conditions, the current in the secondaries of the current transformers are equal, and
therefore, no current flows through the relay. When a fault occurs, the currents become different
and the vector sum of the two currents flows through the relay, which will trip a circuit breaker.
This system is suitable for feeders, lines, alternators and transformers. The current transformers
should be identical.

Advantage: It is a simple relay.

Disadvantages:

(i) It is difficult to obtain entirely identical current transformers.

(ii) Sometimes, the capacitance of pilot wires causes difference in the two currents: in this
case also, the relay may operate, even when there is no external fault.

This disadvantage has been overcome in the biased beam relay.

Biased Beam Relay (or Percentage Relay)

In this relay, in addition to the circuit given above, a coil called restraining coil is provided. The
additional coil produces a bias force in the opposite direction to the operating force (Fig. 3.4).

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 24 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 3-

Fig. 3.4 Biased Beam Relay

Under normal conditions, the bias force, due to the restraining coil, is greater than the operating
force, produced by the relay. As a result, the relay does not operate. But in the case of a fault, the
operating force exceeds the bias force. The relay becomes operative and closes the trip circuit to
actuate the circuit breaker. The bias force can be adjusted by the number of turns on the restraining
coil. Further, the operating current required to trip can be expressed as the percentage of the load.
The relay is, therefore also called as percentage relay.

(b) Voltage balance differential relay

In this circuit, the current transformers are connected on either side and are connected in such a
way that, under normal conditions, their induced emfs are in opposition.

Under normal conditions, the secondary voltages of the current transformers are balanced against
each other, and no current flows through the relay. But in the case of a fault, the induced emfs in
the secondaries no longer balance each other. The difference in the voltages causes a current to
flow through the relay, which actuates the trip circuit (Fig. 3.5).

CT Line CT

Relay

Pilot
wires

Fig. 3.5 Voltage Balance Differential Relay

Disadvantages
(i) The system can be used on only short lengths of feeders/lines.

(ii) The current transformers do not carry currents and, therefore, insert a high
impedance in the circuit.
These disadvantages have been removed in the translay relay.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 25 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 3-

3.8 Translay Relay

A translay relay (Fig. 3.6) is similar to the oc relay with the following differences:
(a) The secondary winding distributed over the upper and the lower magnets does not close upon
itself but is open to be connected to the pilot wires.

Fig. 3.6 Translay Relay

(b) The central limb and the left-hand side limb of the upper magnet are shaded with short circuited
thick copper wires or rings. These rings serve as a compensating device and neutralise the effect
of the capacitance of pilot wires, and the unbalance between the current transformers need not to
be cared for.

The translay relays work on the voltage balance system. Moreover, the Translay scheme works as
a “transformer” as well as a “relay”, hence, the name. Translay relays are best suited for the
protection of lines/feeders.

In the case of a fault, the line current of the sending end becomes greater than that of the receiving
end. This results in an unequal emf induced in the secondary and the unbalanced current passes
through the operating winding. This exerts a torque on the disc which moves and closes the trip
circuit.

Read on the following: (a) Electromechanical Relays, (b) Microprocessor-based Relays

(c) Numerical (Digital) Relays

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 26 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 4-

CHAPTER 4

PROTECTION OF ALTERNATORS AND TRANSFORMERS

4.1 Alternator Protection

An alternator is a very costly electrical machine used in a power system. Some of the common faults
which may occur in an alternator are:
a) Failure of prime mover
b) Failure of alternator field
c) Overcurrent
d) Unbalanced loading
e) Failure of insulation.

(a) Failure of prime move: The prime mover is a machine which rotates the rotor of the
alternator. The prime mover may be:
(i) A steam engine, e.g., in the case of a steam power plant.
(ii) Water turbine/wheel, e.g., in the case of a hydroelectric power station.
(iii) Diesel engine in the case of a diesel engine station.

When input to the prime mover fails, the alternator runs as a synchronous motor and starts to draw
current from the supply system. This is known as inverted running.

(i) In the case of steam engine, if the condition of inverted running occurs, the alternator can
be disconnected from the engine, without any harm. So, protection is not required.
(ii) In the case of water wheel, if the condition of inverted naming occurs, the alternator can be
disconnected from the wheel safety, and no protection is needed.
(iii) In the case of diesel engine, the inverted running may damage the engine, due to possible
mechanical seizure. For this, a reverse power relay is connected in the alternator's circuit. The
relay should have `time delay' to avoid repeated tripping of the circuit.

(b) Failure of alternator field: The alternator has a rotating ‘field’ and a stationary armature'. In
alternators, the failure of field is very rare, and if it occurs, the alternator can be isolated from
the system immediately, and no automatic protection is required.

(c) Overcurrents: Overcurrents can occur due to overloads. Overload protection is not provided
in alternators, as it will disconnect the alternator from the system. Even one momentary
overload will create repeated interruption of supply.

(d) Unbalanced loading: Unbalanced loading means different phase currents in the alternator. This
may arise due to earth leakage (due to earth fault or a ‘fault between phases’). If unbalanced current
is allowed to flow for a longer time, it may burn the alternator windings. It should, therefore, be
protected. This protection may be provided in two ways:

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 27 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 4-

(i) Earth leakage protection: For this protection, a relay is connected in the neutral through
a current transformer (CT.) (Fig. 4.1). In the case of a balanced load, the neutral will carry
no current. But when a fault occurs, the unbalanced current will flow in the neutral. This
will energise the relay which will operate the tripping circuit.

Alternator

Neutral

CT Relay

To tripping circuit

Fig. 4.1 Earth Leakage Protection

(ii) Unbalanced protection: In this, each phase carries a current transformer and their
secondaries are connected in parallel to the supply. A relay coil is also connected (Fig.
4.2). Under normal conditions, there is no current through the relay. But in the case
of a fault, unbalanced current flows through the secondary of current transformers, and
the relay will be energised. This, in turn, operates the tripping circuit.

Alternator
CTs
R

Y
B

Relay

To tripping circuit

Fig. 4.2 Unbalanced Protection

(e) Failure of insulation: This is the most serious fault. It should be removed as early as possible.
Automatic protection from this fault is essential. The fault may be:
(i) Phase to phase
(ii) Phase to ground or
(iii) Turn to turn on the same phase.

Generally, Merz price protection is provided for this fault.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 28 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 4-

4.2 Merz Price Protection for Alternators

This is the most common scheme of protection for alternators in the case of insulation failure in
stator windings. Identical current transformers (C.T.s) are placed on both sides of the 3 phase
alternator and their secondaries are connected in star formation. Protective relays are also
connected (Fig. 4.3).

CTs Alternator CTs CB

R

Neutral
grounding
impedance

Relays

To tripping circuit

Fig. 4.3 Merz Price Protection for Alternators

Under normal conditions, no current flows through the protective relays. When a fault occurs in
the winding due to insulation failure, the difference of currents flows through the relays, which
closes the tripping circuit.

This is also known as differential protection of alternators and employs the 'principle of circulating
currents'. In this system, currents, at the two ends of the protected sections, are compared. Under
normal conditions, as stated above, these currents are equal but in the case of a fault, they become
unequal. The difference of currents is made to pass through the protective relays (that is the reason
why it is known as differential protection), which, in turn, energizes the tripping circuit to isolate the
faulty section from the system. The system is, sometimes, known also as Merz price circulating
currents system, after the name of its inventor.

The circuit has limitations. It is a general practice to use neutral earthing. In such situations, it is
impossible to protect the whole of the stator windings, during earth faults. When an earth fault
occurs, near the neutral point, the fault current may not be sufficient to energise the relay. But the
chance of the occurring of an earth fault near the neutral point is very rare due to uniform insulation
of the stator winding throughout.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 29 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 4-

Turn to Turn (or Inter turn) Protection

The Merz price circuit, described above, provides protection against ‘phase to phase’ and ‘phase to
ground’ faults. It does not provide any protection against ‘turn to turn’ faults in the same winding.
This protection is provided by another circuit (Fig. 4.4).

Fig. 4.4 Turn to Turn (or Inter turn) Protection

Fig. 4.4 shows duplicate stator windings, W1, and W2, (of one phase only) of a large generator,
current transformers along with inter-turn fault protection. Two current transformers are connected
as shown.

It is based on the `principle of circulating currents'. Under normal conditions, no current flows
through the relay. But when a fault occurs between turns, unequal currents are induced in the
secondaries of the current transformers and a difference of currents flows through the relays which
arc energised. The recommended types of protection for alternators is shown in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Recommended types of Protection for Alternators

4.3 Transformer Protection

The transformer, being a static (no moving part) and totally sealed device also suffers from faults. A
number of fault conditions can arise within a power transformer. These include:

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 30 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 4-

i. Earth faults: A fault on a transformer winding will result in currents that depend on the source,
neutral grounding impedance, leakage reactance of the transformer, and the position of the
fault in the windings. The winding connections also influence the magnitude of fault current.
In the case of a Y-connected winding with neutral point connected to ground through an
impedance Zg, the fault current depends on Zg and is proportional to the distance of the fault
from the neutral point. If the neutral is solidly grounded, the fault current is controlled by the
leakage reactance, which depends on fault location. The reactance decreases as the fault
becomes closer to the neutral point. As a result, the fault current is highest for a fault close to
the neutral point. In the case of a fault in a Δ-connected winding, the range of fault current is
less than that for a Y-connected winding, with the actual value being controlled by the method
of grounding used in the system. Phase fault currents may be low for a Δ-connected winding
due to the high impedance to fault of the Δ winding. This factor should be considered in
designing the protection scheme for such a winding.

ii. Core faults- due to insulation breakdown can permit sufficient eddy-current to flow to cause
overheating, which may reach a magnitude sufficient to damage the winding.

iii. Interturn faults- occur due to winding flashovers caused by line surges. A short circuit of a
few turns of the winding will give rise to high currents in the short-circuited loops, but the
terminal currents will be low.

iv. Phase-to-phase faults -are rare in occurrence but will result in substantial currents of
magnitudes similar to earth faults’.

v. Tank faults -resulting in loss of oil, reduce winding insulation as well as producing abnormal
temperature rises.

vi. Open-circuit faults-

In addition to fault conditions within the transformer, abnormal conditions due to external factors
result in stresses on the transformer. These conditions include: open-circuit, overloading
(overheating), system faults, overvoltages, and underfrequency operation.

When a transformer is switched in at any point of the supply voltage wave, the peak values of the
core flux wave will depend on the residual flux as well as on the time of switching. The peak value
of the flux will be higher than the corresponding steady-state value and will be limited by core
saturation. The magnetizing current necessary to produce the core flux can have a peak of eight to
ten times the normal full-load peak and has no equivalent on the secondary side. This phenomenon
is called magnetizing inrush current and appears as an internal fault. Maximum inrush occurs if
the transformer is switched in when the supply voltage is zero. Realizing this, is important for the
design of differential relays for transformer protection so that no tripping takes place due to the
magnetizing inrush current. A number of schemes based on the harmonic properties of the inrush
current are used to prevent tripping due to large inrush currents.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 31 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 4-

Overheating protection is provided for transformers by placing a thermal-sensing element in the

transformer tank. Overcurrent relays are used as a backup protection with time delay higher than
that for the main protection. Restricted earth fault protection is utilized for Y-connected windings.
This scheme is shown in Fig. 4.5. The sum of the phase currents is balanced against the neutral
current, and hence the relay will not respond to faults outside the winding.

Fig. 4.5 Restricted Ground Fault Protection for a Y Winding

The following protections are provided mainly in power transformers:

i) Buchholz protection
ii) Earth fault protection
iii) Combined leakage and overload protection
iv) Differential or Merz price protection.

4.4 Differential (Merz Price) Protection for Transformer

Differential protection is the main scheme used for transformers. The principle of a differential
protection system is simple. Here the currents on each side of the protected apparatus for each
phase are compared in a differential circuit. Any difference current will operate a relay. Fig. 4.6
shows the relay circuit for one phase only. On normal operation, only the difference between the
current transformer magnetizing currents im1 and im2 passes through the relay. This is due to the
fact that with no faults within the protected apparatus, the currents entering and leaving are equal

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 32 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 4-

to i. If a fault occurs between the two sets of current transformers, one or more of the currents (in
a three-phase system) on the left-hand side will suddenly increase, while that on the right-hand
side may decrease or increase with a direction reversal. In both instances, the total fault current
will flow through the relay, causing it to operate. In units where the neutral ends are inaccessible,
differential relays are not used, but reverse power relays are employed instead.

Fig. 4.6 Basic Differential Connection

A number of considerations should be dealt with in applying differential protection, including:

1. Transformer ratio: The current transformers should have ratings to match the rated currents
of the transformer winding to which they are applied.

2. Due to the 30°-phase change between Y- and Δ-connected windings and the fact that zero
sequence quantities on the Y side do not appear on the terminals of the Δ side, the current
transformers should be connected in Y for a Δ winding and in Δ for a Y winding. Fig. 4.7
shows the differential protection scheme applied to a Δ/Y transformer. When current
(
transformers are connected in Δ, their secondary ratings must be reduced to 1 / 3 times )
the secondary rating of Y-connected transformers.

3. Allowance should be made for tap changing by providing restraining coils (bias). The bias
should exceed the effect of the maximum ratio deviation.

The following problems arise in using differential protection system for transformers:

(1) In transformers, currents in the primary and the secondary are different, and, therefore, the relay
will operate due to the flow of differential currents in no load condition also.

(2) There is always a phase difference in the primary and secondary currents, i.e., differential
current may flow through the relay which can operate it under normal conditions also.

To overcome the first problem, current transformers of different turns are used to compensate the
effect and, to overcome the second problem, the connections are arranged as shown in the Table 4.2.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 33 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 4-

(3) In the case of tap changing transformers, the problem is more serious. Tap changing will cause a
differential current to flow through the relay, which will trip the circuit even under normal
conditions. To overcome this problem, the turn ratio of current transformers is to be adjusted
accordingly.
Table 4.2 Connections of Transformers and CTs
S/N Power Transformer Connections Current Transformer Connections

Primary Secondary Primary Secondary

Connections Connections Connections Connections

1 Star Star Delta Delta

2 Star Delta Delta Star

3 Delta Delta Star Star

4 Delta Star Star Delta

Table 4.3 Types of Protection for Transformers

S/N Transformer Rating in Type of Recommended Protection
kVA
1 Upto 1000 1) Power source winding: Time graded overcurrent
relay
2) Winding with neutral earth: Earth fault relay
3) Star/Delta winding: Earth fault relay
2 Between 1000 and 2000 1) Power source winding: Overcurrent relay
2) Winding with neutral earth: Earth fault relay
3) Star/Delta winding: Earth fault relay
4) Overall protection: Buchholz relay
3 Above 2000 The same as given for S/N 2
(Below 1000 kVA, the use of Buchholz relay is not economical)

Assignment:
Read on Reactors used in power systems. Consider their functions, types,
constructions, point of applications, merits and demerits.
Example 1

Consider a Δ/Y-connected, 20 MVA, 33/11 kV transformer with differential protection applied,

for the current transformer ratios shown in Fig. 4.8. Calculate the relay currents on full load. Find
the minimum relay current setting to allow 125 percent overload.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 34 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 4-

Fig. 4.7 Differential Protection of a Δ/Y Transformer

Fig. 4.8 Transformer for Example 1

Solution

The primary line current is given by;

S 20 106
Ip = = = 349.91 A
3 VL ( )(
3 33 103 )

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 35 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 4-

The secondary line current is

S 20 106
IS = = = 1049.73 A
3 VL ( 3 ) (1110 ) 3

The C.T. current on the primary side is thus,

 5 
i p = 349.91  = 5.832 A
 300 

The C.T. current in the secondary side is,

 5 
iS = 1049.73   3 = 4.545 A
 2000 

Note that we multiply by 3 to obtain the values on the line side of the Δ- connected C.T.’s. The
relay current on normal load is therefore

ir = i p − is = 5.832 − 4.545 = 1.287 A

With 1.25 overload ratio, the relay setting should be,

ir = (1.25)(1.287) = 1.61 A

4.5 Buchholz Protection

In addition to the above-mentioned protection schemes, it is common practice in transformer

protection to employ gas-actuated relays for alarm and tripping. One such a relay is the Buchholz
relay.

Faults within a transformer will result in heating and decomposing of the oil in the transformer
tank. The decomposition produces gases such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and light
hydrocarbons, which are released slowly for minor faults and rapidly for severe arcing faults. The
relay is connected into the pipe leading to the conservator tank. As the gas accumulates, the oil
level falls and a float F is lowered and operates a mercury switch to sound an alarm. Sampling the
gas and performing a chemical analysis provide a means for classifying the type of fault. In the
case of a winding fault, the arc generates gas at a high release rate that moves the vane V to cause
tripping through contacts attached to the vane.

Buchholz protection provides an alarm for a number of fault conditions including:

1. Interturn faults or winding faults involving only lower power levels.
2. Core hot spots due to short circuits on the lamination insulation.
3. Faulty joints.
4. Core bolt insulation failure.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 36 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 5-

CHAPTER 5

PROTECTION OF BUS BARS, FEEDERS AND TRANSMISSION LINES

5.1 Introduction

The methods of protection used for transformers and alternators cannot be useful for bus bars,
feeders or transmission lines as a large number of circuits are connected to bus bars, and the length
of feeder lines is large. Moreover, that kind of protection will be very expensive as very great
lengths of pilots will be needed.

5.2 Protection of Bus Bars

A fault rarely occurs with bus bars as they are made with modern standard designs. But if a fault
is developed, considerable damage may result. Proper arrangement for their protection should,
therefore, be made. Generally, the following methods are employed for this purpose:

1) Differential protection.
2) Fault bus protection.

(1) Differential protection

The basic principle of this method is that, the sum of the currents entering and leaving a bus bar
should be zero. If this is not zero, fault conditions are developed. The differential current, so
produced, flows through the relay, which isolates the bus bar from the supply. Differential
protection for bus bars is shown in Fig. 5.1.

As shown in Fig. 5.1, two circuits have been taken from the bus bar to be protected. Under normal
conditions, the sum of the incoming and outgoing currents from the bus-bar should be zero.
However, when a fault occurs in the bus bar, the sum of the currents no longer remains zero and
the difference of currents flows through the relay, which trips the circuit breakers to isolate the bus
bar from the system.
CT
CB 1
CT
CB
CT
CB 2

Relay

To trip circuit

Fig. 5.1 Differential Protection Scheme

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 37 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 5-

(2) Fault bus protection

In this method, all the faults, occurring in a bus bar, are converted into an earth fault, which may
be easily detected and rectified. For this purpose, an earthed metal structure, called Fault bus, is
provided throughout the length of the bus bar.

A properly insulated metal structure (Fig. 5.2) is ran through the entire length of the bus bar and
the line to be protected. This is a current transformer. A relay is provided in the secondary of this
transformer. Under normal conditions, there is no current through the fault bus. But when a fault
occurs, current flows through the fault bus. This actuates the relay which, in turn, trips a circuit
breaker, isolating the faulty bus bar from the system.

Fig. 5.2 Fault Bus Protection Scheme

5.3 Protection of Feeders

The feeders may be of three types:

1) Radial feeders.
2) Parallel feeders.
3) Ring main feeders.

Different protection schemes have been devised for these three types of feeders. It may be pointed
out that the probability of faults occurring on feeders and lines is more due to their greater length.

The protection scheme should have the following requirements:

1) In the event of a short circuit, the circuit breaker, closest to the fault, should be opened
while other circuit breakers in the line should not be disturbed.
2) The relay should not trip the circuit unnecessarily.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 38 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 5-

The following methods are used for the protection of feeders:

a) Time graded overcurrents protection.

b) Differential protection.
c) Distance protection.

(a) Time graded overcurrents protections

This system uses relays with a definite ‘time delay’ so that, in the case of a fault, the smallest
possible section of the feeder is isolated. This system can be classified in three parts:

(i) Time graded protection for radial feeders

The scheme for protection of radial feeders against overcurrents is shown in Fig. 5.3. Relays
(circuit breakers) are provided at regular interval on the line. The operating time of each relay is
fixed and is independent of the current.

Generator Transformer
CB CB CB CB
A B C D
2.5 sec 2.0 sec 1.5 sec 1.0 sec

Fig. 5.3 Time Graded Protection for Radial Feeders

As shown in Fig. 5.3, the operating time of circuit breaker D is 1.0 second, that of C is 1.5 see,
that of B is 2.0 second and that of A is 2.5 second.

If a-fault occurs in the part CD of the line, the circuit breaker D will operate after 1.0 second, after
the occurrence of the fault, while the rest of the line will not be disturbed. However, if D fails to
trip due to one or two reasons, circuit breaker C will operate 1.5 seconds after the occurrence of
the fault, and so on.

(ii) Time graded protection for parallel (duplicate) feeders

In order to maintain reliability of supply, two feeders are run in parallel between the generating
station and the substation. If a fault is developed on either feeder, continuity is maintained through
the other feeder, isolating the faulty feeder.

For the protection of such a system of feeders, directional as well as non-directional relays are
used (Fig. 5.4(a)).

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 39 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 5-

N.D. Relay D Relay

1
A CB CB B

C CB CB D
2
N.D. Relay D Relay
Generating P Receiving
end end
Fig. 5.4a Time Graded Protection for Parallel (Duplicate) Feeders

As shown in the figure, each feeder has a non-directional overcurrent relay at the generator end
(these relays have inverse time characteristic) as well as a directional relay on the receiving end
(these relays have instantaneous type characteristic). Moreover, directional relays will work only
when a fault occurs and power flows in the reverse direction, i.e., from B to A or D to C:

N.D. Relay D Relay

1
A CB CB B

C CB CB D
2
N.D. Relay D Relay
Generating P Receiving
end or side or S/S end

Fig. 5. 4b

Operation:
Let an earth fault occur at point P [Fig. 5.4 (b)]. The fault will be fed:
1) directly from feeder (2), as shown by arrow.
2) from feeder (1), as shown by another arrow.

It can be seen that the directional relay (D.R) in feeder (1) carries power in its normal direction but
the D.R of feeder (2) carries power momentarily in the reverse direction and shall work
instantaneously. Thus, faulty feeder (2) is isolated from the system, and the-supply is maintained
through feeder(l).

(iii) Time graded protection of ring main feeder

In a ring system, the generating stations and sub-stations are interconnected by alternate routes.
Thus, they form a “ring” type close circuit. In case a fault is developed at any part of the system,

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 40 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 5-

the same may be isolated and power will be supplied from both ends of the ring, maintaining
continuity of the supply.

2.5 sec 0.5 sec 2.0 sec 1.0 sec

S/S-1 S /S
CB CB CB CB -2

1.
5
se
4

CB
1 2 3

c
5

10 9 8 7 6
G P

CB
S/S-4

c
se
CB CB CB CB

5
S/S

1.
2.5 sec 0.5 sec 2.0 sec 1.0 sec -3

Fig. 5.5 Time Graded Protection of Ring Main Feeder

A ring main system is shown in Fig. 5.5. A generating station is supplying power to four
substations (S/S). As can be seen, in the case of a fault, power can flow in both directions.
Therefore, it is necessary to provide time grading in both directions as well as for using directional
relays.

Two lines, leaving the generator G, are equipped with non-directional overcurrent relays 1 and 10
as shown. At each sub-station, directional relays are connected in both the incoming and the
outgoing lines. It is also important that proper time grading is done. Note that relays 1, 3, 5, 7 and
9 are set with decreasing time, whereas the relays in the opposite directions, i.e., relays 10, 8, 6, 4
and 2 are set with decreasing time.

Operation:
If a fault occurs at point P, as shown, power to this point will be fed from G via SS-1 and SS-2,
and also via SS-4 and SS-3. It can be seen that relays 5 and 6 will operate before any other relay
because of their lower time setting, and other parts of the ring system will not be disturbed. Thus,
continuity of supply will be maintained.

5.4 Protection of Transmission Lines

The excessive currents accompanying a fault, are the basis of overcurrent protection schemes. For
transmission line protection in interconnected systems, it is necessary to provide the desired
selectivity such that relay operation results in the least service interruption while isolating the fault.
This is referred to as relay coordination.

The protection of transmission line is provided by the differential principle. The principle is the
same as in the case of a feeder. The current entering one end of the line should be equal to the
current leaving the line. But in the case of a fault, there is some difference between the incoming
and outgoing currents. The difference of the currents is made to flow through a relay which
operates a circuit breaker to isolate the faulty line.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 41 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 5-

The two methods for differential protection of transmission lines used are:
a) Merz price system.
b) Translay system.

(a) Merz price system for transmission lines

The Merz price protection scheme for a 3-phase line is shown in Fig. 5.6. At both ends, identical
current transformers are placed at each phase, in such a way that, under normal conditions, their
secondary voltages are equal and opposite. As a result, no current flows through the relays. But
when a fault is developed in any phase, the secondary voltages induced are no longer equal and a
difference of currents flows through the relays, which trips the circuit breakers, on both ends and
the faulty line is isolated.

Advantages:
1) The system can be used for ring mains as well as parallel feeders.
2) The system provides instantaneous protection against earth faults.
3) The scheme is independent of system voltage and the P.F.

Fig. 5.6 Merz Price System for Transmission Lines

Disadvantages:

1. Identical current transformers cannot be obtained.

2. The system is very expensive as very long pilot wires are required to be connected.
3. The scheme is not suitable for voltages above 33 kV. This poses difficulty in the matching
of current transformers.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 42 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 5-

4. In the case of a break in pilot wires, the system will not operate.
5. There is no time delay.
6. The heavy fault currents may cause loss of equality in the secondary voltages.

(b) Translay System

This system is more or less the same as the Merz price system. The only difference is that, in the
Merz price system, voltages induced in the secondaries of the current transformers are compared,
whereas in the Translay system, voltages induced in the secondaries, wound on the relays, are
compared.

Because of this, this system can be used on voltages above 33 kV which was the main limitation
in the Merz price scheme. It is called the “Translay” system because a “relay behaves as
transformer” (Translay = Transformer + Relay). It is important to note that this scheme is equally
beneficial for single three phase feeders and also against both earth as well as phase faults.

Fig. 5.7 Translay System

Translay scheme of protection for 3 phase lines is shown in Fig. 5.7. As can be seen, the relays
used are overcurrent induction type relays. The central limb of magnet 1, carries a winding which
is energised by the sum of secondary currents of current transformers placed on the line. There is
another winding, placed on this line, which is connected in series with the winding, placed on
magnet 2. The aluminium disc between the two magnets is free to rotate and can actuate the trip
circuit in the case of a fault.

Under normal conditions, currents at the two ends of the lines are equal. As a result, the emfs

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 43 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 5-

induced in the windings on magnet 2 are also equal. In the case of a fault, developed in the line,
say at point P, the emfs induced in the windings (on magnet 2) are unequal, the differential current
flows through it, which develops a torque in the discs, and, by the rotation of both the discs, the
trip circuit is actuated, which isolates the faulty line.

Translay protection has the following advantages:

1. As can be seen, only 2 pilot wires are required. It is, therefore, an economical system.
2. The current transformers do not need any special specifications.
3. The capacitance or resistance of the pilot wires does not affect the operation of the relays.

Assignment:
1. Distance Protection- Read and make notes
2. Overload Protection of 3-Phase Line

SELF TEST
1. Why can methods of protection of transformers and generators (alternators) not be used for
protection of bus bars and lines?
2. Describe any one method for the protection of bus bars.
3. Discuss how time graded protection is provided in radial, parallel and ring main feeder Systems
4. Describe the Merz price system for transmission lines.
5. Describe the Translay system of protection of transmission lines.
6. Describe the basic principle of distance protection of lines. Why is it also called “Impedance
protection”?

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 44 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG
Power Systems Protection and Control Chapter 5-

REFERENCES

Domin, J. J. and Blackburn, J. L. (2014), Protective Relaying: Principles and Applications, CRC
Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA, 4th Edition, 695 pp. ISBN-13: 978-1439888117.

Hager, U., Rehtanz, C. and Voropai, N. (2014), Monitoring, Control and Protection of
Interconnected Power System, Springer, 391 pp. ISBN-13: 978-3642538476.

Hector, J. A. F. and Schweitzer, E. O. (2010), Modern Solutions for Protection, Control and
Monitoring of Electric Power Systems, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories Inc., 361 pp.
ISBN-13: 0972502637.

Paithankar, Y. G. and Bhide, S. R. (2010), Fundamentals of Power System Protection, PHI

Learning Pvt Ltd., India, 366 pp. ISBN-13: 978-3642538478.

University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa 45 Joseph Cudjoe. Attachie PhD, MSc, GhIE, MIAENG