Stress and Health

Stress and Health 19: 233–239 (2003)

Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/smi.979

Emotional intelligence training

and its implications for stress,
health and performance
Mark Slaski1 and Susan Cartwright*,†,2
1
Department of Psychology, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
2
Manchester School of Management, UMIST, Manchester, UK

Summary
This study builds on earlier work (Slaski & Cartwright, 2002), examining the role of Emotional
Intelligence (EI) as a moderator in the stress process. A sample of UK managers (n = 60) were
given training in emotional intelligence. Pre and post measures were taken relating to EI, stress
and health and management performance. The study also incorporated a matched control group.
It was found that training resulted in increased EI and improved health and well being. Copy-
right © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Key Words
emotional intelligence; stress and health; secondary interventions

Introduction To date, in emphasizing the subjective nature

of stress, transactional theories (Cox, 1993), have
As long ago as 1987, two of the most prominent highlighted the role of individual differences in
researchers in the field of stress, Richard Lazarus understanding why some people cope and thrive
and Susan Folkman, wrote: better than others when exposed to similar cir-
cumstances. As a result, there have been numer-
‘Although we have usually referred to ous studies which have considered a range of
stress, coping theory and research, we think personality variables and demographic factors
that we should now speak less of stress and which act to moderate the stress–strain relation-
more of emotion. Stress, which primarily ship. Traditionally, research has investigated
concerns negative person–environment dispositional variables such as Type A behaviour
relationships, cognitive appraisals and emo- (Friedman & Rosenman, 1974), positive and
tional response states such as fear, anger, negative affectivity (Parkes, 1990), hardiness
guilt and shame, fall under the larger rubric (Kobasa, 1979), optimism (Scheier & Carver,
of emotion’ (Lazarus & Folkman, 1987). 1992) and Locus of Control (Spector &
O’Connell, 1994). In addition to personality and
dispositional variables, researchers have also
considered behavioural moderators such as social
* Correspondence to: Dr Susan Cartwright. Depart- support and coping strategies.
ment of Organisational Psychology, Manchester School In response to Lazarus and Folkman’s (1987)
of Management, UMIST, PO Box 88, Manchester M60 comments, the emergent interest in the role of
1QD, UK. Tel: 0161 200 3524. Fax: 0161 200 3505. importance of emotions in affecting the way in
†
E-mail: [email protected] which individuals appraise and respond to a
Received 10 October 2002
Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Accepted 29 April 2003
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M. Slaski and S. Cartwright

potentially threatening event or situation, atten- defence and protection. This was first described
tion has been drawn to the concept of emotional by Cannon (1931) as the ‘flight or fight’ response.
intelligence as a potential moderating variable in As such, emotions are primarily drive signals
the stress process. Emotional Intelligence (EI) has (Oatley & Jenkins, 1998) and it is recognized that
been the subject of much debate (e.g. Mayer, each interaction with the environment has emo-
et al., 2000; Woodruffe, 2001), particularly as to tional content because every action has ‘survival’
whether it is a true form of intelligence, a cluster consequences on one level or another. Central to
of personality traits (Davies, Stankov, & Roberts, all behaviour is the overriding drive towards
1998) or simply little more than interpersonal reducing aversive emotional experiences and
skills repackaged (Woodruffe, 2001). In addition, stress, and the maintenance of an integrated ‘self’
claims have been made that EI is crucially impor- (Damasio, 1994).
tant to managerial and leadership success and to In summary, the link between EI and stress is
life success more generally (e.g. Bar-On, 1997; founded on the notion that negative emotions
Goleman, 1995, 1998; D. Goleman, presentation and stress are the result of some dysfunctional
at the 2nd International Competency Conference, relationship between aspects of the self and the
London, 1997). Furthermore, unlike IQ which environment, and that the ability (EI) to ‘read’
remains fairly stable throughout adult life, EI and manage emotions in the self and others is a
continues to develop with age and therefore can moderator in this process. In essence, emotional
be learnt (Bar-On, 1997). intelligence is considered to account for individ-
In an earlier recent study of over 200 UK retail ual differences in the capacity to process infor-
managers (Slaski & Cartwright, 2002), it was mation of an emotional nature and to be able to
found that individuals with high EI scores expe- relate these to wider cognitions. As such, EI is not
rienced less stress, had significantly better levels about emotions per se but more about the way in
of health and well-being and were rated by their which individuals effectively integrate emotions
line managers as higher performers than those with thoughts and behaviour (Mayer, Salovey, &
with moderate to low scores. Also, three recent Caruso, 2000) and so can act to reduce aversive
empirical studies have shown that EI is strongly emotional experiences.
linked to Transformational Leadership (Barling, Mayer et al. (2000) define emotional intelli-
Slater, & Kelloway, 2000; Gardner & Stough, gence as:
2002; Palmer, Walls, Burgess, & Stough, 2000),
a factor which is considered to impact on sub- ‘an ability to recognize the meanings of
ordinate stress and performance (Sparks, Cooker, emotions and their relationships and
Fried, & Shirom, 1997). problem solve on the basis of them.
Emotional Intelligence is involved in the
capacity to perceive emotion, assimilate
Emotions and stress emotion-related feelings, understand the
information of those emotions and manage
Contemporary theories, such as cybernetic theory them’.
(Edwards, 1998), ethological theory (Schrbracq, For Mayer et al. (2000) EI is composed of the
Winnubst, & Cooper, 1996) and equilibrium following discrete abilities (i) perception and
theory (Hart, Griffin, Wearing, & Cooper, 1996) expression of emotion; (ii) integrating emotion
place emotions and self regulation at the centre with thought; (iii) understanding and analysing
of a dynamic process of stress. Emotions serve to emotion; and (iv) reflective regulation of emotion.
draw attention resources to issues that in some This approach focuses on the fact that emotional
way threaten the individual’s integrity; whether intelligence corresponds to information process-
that be physical, social or psychological. Emo- ing capabilities of different areas of the brain
tions are also considered to be adaptive, as they (Morland, 2001).
protect the individual from physical harm, facili- Bar-On and Parker (2000) define EI as:
tate maintenance of self-identity in social settings
and guide the individual toward the achievement ‘a multifactorial array of interrelated emo-
of tasks and goals. The experience of stress is tional, personal and social abilities that
the manifestation of negative emotions triggered influence our overall ability to actively
by danger, threat or challenge and which signal and effectively cope with demands and
to the body the need to prepare for actions of pressures’.

234 Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Stress and Health 19: 233–239 (2003)
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Emotional intelligence training

These abilities include: (i) accurate self-appraisal; Measures

(ii) the ability to perceive and understand one’s
own emotions and the emotions of others; (iii) the Personal and demographic data were collected
ability to form and maintain intimate relation- relating to participants’ age, gender, health and
ships; (iv) the ability to express and manage emo- work status. In addition, participants completed
tions; (v) the ability for self control; (vi) the ability the following pre–post training measures.
to validate one’s thinking and feeling; (vii) the
ability to handle change and effectively solve Emotional intelligence (EI). EI was measured
problems. Such ‘abilities’ may be conceptualized using the Bar-On EQ-i (Bar-On, 1997).The
more as emotional competence rather than an measure consists of 133 items arranged on a 5-
innate intelligence. point response scale. Responses range from ‘not
Whilst definitional differences are reflected in true of me’ (1) to ‘true of me’ (5). The measure
disagreement as to the precise model and mea- yields an overall total EQ score which is com-
surement of emotional intelligence, there is general posed of five scale scores described as (i) intrap-
consensus that self-awareness is the cornerstone of ersonal; (ii) interpersonal; (iii) adaptability; (iv)
emotional intelligence (Bar-On, 1997; Goleman, stress management; and (v) general mood. These
1995) and that self-confidence and self-acceptance scales can be further broken down into 15 sub-
are key factors in its development. Through scales. The reliability and validity of the measure
increased self-awareness, individuals are more has been extensively examined, and is reported
able to detach themselves from events and regu- in detail in the EQ-I technical manual (Bar-On,
late their emotions in order to prevent them from 1997).
becoming ‘immersed in’ and ‘carried away’ by In addition to the Bar-On EQ-I, a further
their emotional reaction. Therefore, developmen- measure of emotional intelligence the EIQ
tal EI training may be a potentially effective tech- (Dulewicz & Higgs, 1999, 2000) was used with
nique for improving individual stress resilience. the training group only. The EIQ is a subjective
measure of emotional intelligence consisting of 69
items measuring the frequency of behaviour at
Method work. Responses are taken on a 5-point response
scale ranging from ‘never’ to ‘always’. The
The aim of this study was to investigate whether measure yields an overall EI score which is
emotional intelligence (EI) can be developed in composed of seven scale scores described as (i)
managers, and if so, whether increased EI has a self-awareness; (ii) emotional resilience; (iii)
beneficial impact on health, well-being and per- motivation; (iv) interpersonal sensitivity; (v)
formance. One hundred and twenty (n = 120) influence; (vi) decisiveness; and (vii) conscien-
managers from a large UK retail chain volun- tiousness. Again, the reliability and validity of
teered for the study. Managers were allocated to this instrument is discussed in the EIQ technical
either a training group or a control group. The manual (Dulewicz & Higgs, 2000).
training group (n = 60) attended a developmen- Whilst this measure was used only with the
tal EI training programme for 1 day per week training group the researchers felt that in using
over a 4-week period. The control group (n = 60) both the EIQ and the EQ-i it would be possible
received no training at all. A repeated measures to more accurately measure any development of
design was used and all participants completed emotional intelligence as a result of attending the
measures prior to and 6 months following the programme.
completion of the programme. All participants
were drawn from a wider population of middle General Health–GHQ 28. General health was
managers. Both training and control groups were measured using the 28-item General Health
matched for age, gender, educational and marital Questionnaire (GHQ 28; Goldberg & Hillier,
status. In both groups the mean age was 37 years 1979; Goldberg & Williams, 1998). Again, the
and males formed the majority (60 per cent). It questionnaire has established reliability and
was decided not to collect data immediately on validity and is deemed highly suitable for use in
completion of the training to give participants non-clinical settings (Bowling, 1997). Responses
time to transfer and practice their learning into are invited on a 4-point scale ranging from ‘less
the workplace and also to avoid any ‘Hawthorne’ than usual’ to ‘much more than usual’. Of the
effect. four possible ways of scoring this instrument

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M. Slaski and S. Cartwright

(Goldberg & Williams, 1998), for this study the sessions to enable participants to practice and
simple Likert method (0–1–2–3) was chosen. The embed their learning from each session. Sessions
measure yields an overall health score (range were limited to a group size of 12. Therefore, five
0–84) and is composed of four subscales separate programmes were run to accommodate
described as somatic symptoms, anxiety and the 60 volunteer managers. The design of the
insomnia, social dysfunction and depression. programme was based on the advice suggested by
Cherniss and Adler (2000) on the development of
Psychological outcomes. Other psychological EI and sought to combine experimental methods
outcomes were measured using scales taken from and the development of insight, particularly into
the Queensland Public Agency Staff Survey self constructs such as values, beliefs, expecta-
(QPASS) developed by Hart et al. (1996) to inves- tions, goals and aspects of self-image.
tigate organizational stress and the quality of For these reasons, much of the development
working life. The measure consisted of 20 items of EI focused on developing self-awareness and
arranged on three subscales—psychological dis- detachment. Also, participants were instructed in
tress, morale and quality of working life. techniques designed to (1) regulate emotions; (2)
Responses to items are made on a 7-point scale recognize emotions in others; and (3) understand
ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ (1) to ‘strongly the impact of one’s own behaviour on the
agree’ (7). emotion of others. A variety of training tech-
niques was used, including short lectures, group
discussions, role play and paired exercises involv-
Other measures. In addition to these outcome ing the relating and sharing of emotional experi-
measures, stress was examined using a subjective ences. Participants also received one-to-one
measure. Participants were asked to rate them- coaching feedback on the results of the EQ-i and
selves on a single scale ranging from 1 to 10 on were encouraged to maintain an ‘emotions diary’
how stressed their life is at this time, a score of throughout the duration of the training pro-
10 being extremely stressed. gramme. The training was designed and delivered
Whilst it is acknowledged that subjective data by one of the researchers together with two
such as this, has limited validity or reliability, it experienced external trainers.
was felt that such an item could support other
measures to build an overall image of well-being.
Finally, management performance was mea- Results
sured utilizing the 16 performance factors used by
the organization in performance appraisal. The Independent t-tests showed that prior to training
measure which was completed by the partici- there were no significant differences between the
pant’s immediate line manager consists of 64 training and the control group on any of the main
items rated on a 4-point response scale ranging research variables: emotional intelligence, general
from ‘rarely’ (1) to ‘most of the time’ (4). Thus health, morale, distress, quality of work life, sub-
each participant received a performance score jective stress and performance (Table I).
ranging from 0–192. Typical of the 16 perfor- Of the 60 participants who began training, 52
mance factors were: setting objectives, organiza- complete sets of data were submitted 6 months
tions and planning, influencing decision making after the training ended. Of the 60 participants in
etc. the control group, 49 submitted complete data 6
In addition to the management performance months after the training ended.
measure, there was the opportunity to collect The EQ-i mean score for the training group
qualitative data from both the participant and increased by 5.2 points from 95.6 to 100.8 post
their immediate line manager 6 months following training. Paired sample t-test found this increase
the training. to be significant (two-tailed p < 0.001). Scores on
all subscales increased significantly with the
exception of interpersonal factors. The EIQ mean
The EI development programme score for the training group increased by 11.4
points from 256.6 to 268.0 post training. Paired
Managers taking part in the developmental pro- sample t-test found this increase to be significant
gramme attended for 1 day per week for a total (two-tailed p < 0.000). Scores on all subscales
of 4 days. There was a 1-week interval between increased significantly with the exception of deci-

236 Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Stress and Health 19: 233–239 (2003)
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Emotional intelligence training

Table I. Comparison of training and control group prior to training

programme.
Variables Training group Control group Two-tailed
(n = 56) (n = 51) significance
mean mean
Bar-On EQ-i 95.2 98.0 n.s.
GHQ 28 20.6 17.5 n.s.
Morale 56.6 59.4 n.s.
Distress 32.9 26.8 n.s.
QOWL 47.0 50.9 n.s.
Subjective stress 5.65 5.02 n.s.
Performance 60.0 57.2 n.s.

Table II. Paired sample t-tests for training group pre and post training
(n = 52).
Variables Mean score Mean score Two-tailed
pre post significance
EQ-i 95.6 100.8 0.001
EIQ 256.6 268.0 0.000
GHQ 28 20.1 13.6 0.000
Morale 57.1 67.6 0.001
Distress 31.9 20.8 0.001
QOWL 45.9 52.5 0.020
Subjective stress 5.5 4.1 0.001
Performance 60.0 60.5 n.s.

Table III. Paired sample t-test for control group pre and post training
(n = 49).
Variables Mean score Mean score Two-tailed
Pre Post significance
EQ-i 98.4 97.0 n.s.
GHQ 28 17.2 19.1 n.s.
Morale 60.0 54.3 0.021
Distress 25.7 33.3 0.019
QOWL 50.5 44.9 0.026
Subjective stress 5.1 5.6 n.s.
Performance 57.2 56.2 n.s.

siveness and conscientiousness. These results III. The control group mean score for emotional
together with the other research variables are intelligence decreased slightly but not signifi-
presented in Table II. cantly over the 6-month period. However,
A test of correlation between the two measures morale, and quality of life scores were signifi-
of emotional intelligence, the EQ-i and the EIQ cantly poorer over time and distress had signifi-
demonstrated a moderate but significant correla- cantly increased, suggesting that this study took
tion between the two measures (r = 0.633). This place in an organizational climate of increasing
suggests that each measure has adequate con- stress and falling morale.
struct and concurrent validity. In addition, to control for any differences
The control group scores on the main research between the training group and the control group
variables pre–post training are presented in Table prior to the programme, an analysis of covariance

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M. Slaski and S. Cartwright

Table IV. Analysis of covariance comparing pre and post scores for the
training and control groups.
Variables Range Control group Training group Two-tailed
difference difference significance
in mean in mean
pre–post scores pre–post scores
EQ-i 70–130 -1.4 5.2 0.000
GHQ 28 0–84 1.9 -6.5 0.000
Morale 0–100 -5.7% 10.5% 0.000
Distress 0–100 7.6% -11.1% 0.000
QOWL 0–100 -5.6% 6.6% 0.002
Subjective Stress 1–10 0.5 -1.4 0.000
Performance 0–100 -1.0% 0.5% n.s.

was conducted. Table IV shows the results of this require individual effort and willingness to
analysis. change. Similarly, it is impossible to identify
Overall, the results show that the developmen- specifically which aspects of the training were
tal EI training programme did result in significant more effective in facilitating the developing of EI
increases in emotional intelligence. This was cap- than others.
tured by using two different measures of EI with Clearly, the potential and effectiveness of EI
the training group. Control group scores for EI training is a worthwhile area for future research
remained constant. There was also a positive with implications for selection and development
and significant effect on measures of health and as well as stress reduction.
well-being and these were substantiated by the
qualitative data collected. However, there was no
significant impact on performance. This may be References
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