1

MOBILE NETWORKS
213INT3311

UNIT 4
SENSOR NETWORKS
Dr. S.P. BALAKANNAN,
IT, KALASALINGAM UNIVERSITY
 4.1 Wireless Sensor Networks- Introduction
2

 A wireless sensor network (WSN) is a wireless

network consisting of spatially distributed autonomous
devices using sensors to cooperatively monitor
physical or environmental conditions, such as
temperature, sound, vibration, pressure, motion or
pollutants, at different locations.

 A collection of sensing devices that can communicate

wirelessly.
 4.1 Wireless Sensor Networks- Introduction
3

 Even though wireless sensors has limited resources in

memory, computation power, bandwidth, and energy
with small physical size, It Can be embedded in the
physical environment.

 Self-organizing multi-hop ad-doc networks

 4.1 Wireless Sensor Networks- Introduction
4

 Architecture
 4.1 Wireless Sensor Networks- Introduction
5

• Sensor
 A transducer
 converts physical phenomenon e.g. heat, light, motion, vibration,
and sound into electrical signals
• Sensor node
 basic unit in sensor network
 contains on-board sensors, processor, memory, transceiver, and
power supply
• Sensor network
 consists of a large number of sensor nodes
 nodes deployed either inside or very close to the sensed
phenomenon
 4.1 Wireless Sensor Networks- Introduction
6

Architecture of Sensor Node

Transceiver

Sensor 1
Power Source

Micro-Controller ADC

Sensor 2

External Memory
 4.1 Wireless Sensor Networks- Introduction
7

Wireless Sensor Network(WSN) vs.

Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET)

WSN MANET
Similarity Wireless Multi-hop networking

Security Symmetric Key Cryptography Public Key Cryptography

Routing Support specialized traffic Support any node pairs
pattern. Cannot afford to have Some source routing and
too many node states and distance vector protocol incur
packet overhead heavy control traffic
Resource Tighter resources (power, Not as tight.
processor speed, bandwidth)
 4.1 Wireless Sensor Networks- Introduction
8

Characteristics
 Power consumption constraints for nodes using batteries or
energy harvesting
 Ability to cope with node failures (resilience)
 Mobility of nodes
 Heterogeneity of nodes
 Scalability to large scale of deployment
 Ability to withstand harsh environmental conditions
 Ease of use
 Cross-layer design
 4.2 DARPA Efforts
9

 Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)

 DARPA's efforts in wireless sensor networks include programs to
improve the robustness of wireless networks and develop new
radio technologies:
 Wireless Network Defense (WND)
 This program aims to develop protocols that make military wireless
networks more resilient to malicious compromise and
misconfigurations.

 The program's objectives include identifying unusual activity,

determining the trustworthiness of neighboring nodes, and
automatically adapting the network to operate through problems.
 4.2 DARPA Efforts
10

 Network Universal Persistence (Network UP)

 This program aims to develop radio technology that maintains
network reliability during periods of frequent signal degradation.

 The program uses a new approach and architecture to improve

performance.

 Developing Agile, Reliable Sensing Systems with Microbes

 This program tests how quickly new, functional devices can be
designed, built, and tested.

 The program envisions a dashboard or interface where a user can

dial in features of their environment and the system will design a
microbial device to meet those needs.
 4.3 Fundamentals of MAC
11

 In Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), the Medium Access

Control (MAC) protocol is a set of guidelines that dictate how
each node should transmit data over the shared wireless
medium.

 The primary objective of the MAC protocol is to minimize the

occurrence of idle listening, over-hearing, and collisions of data
packets.

 By efficiently managing access to the wireless medium, the

MAC protocol helps to reduce energy consumption and
optimize the use of network resources.
 4.3 Fundamentals of MAC
12

 MAC Protocol Categories

 Contention based MAC
 Scheduled based MAC
 Hybrid MAC
 Cross-Layer MAC
 4.3 Fundamentals of MAC
13

Contention-based MAC
 Contention-based MAC protocol is also known as a random access
MAC protocol.
 It allows all nodes to transmit data on the shared medium, but they
have to compete with each other to access the medium.
 One example of contention-based MAC is CSMA/CA.
 In CSMA/CA, each node senses the medium before transmitting the
data.
 If the medium is idle, the node can transmit data immediately.
 However, if the channel is busy the node has to wait for a random
time also known as back-off time.
 This back-off time reduces the chances of collisions.
 4.3 Fundamentals of MAC
14

Contention-based MAC Used in Wireless Sensor Networks

 Sensor MAC (SMAC) is a contention-based MAC protocol that is specifically
designed for wireless sensor networks.
 The primary objective of SMAC is to minimize idle listening, over-hearing,
and collisions of data packets.
 To achieve this goal, SMAC adopts a duty-cycle approach, also known as a
sleep-wakeup cycle.
 In this approach, each node alternates between a fixed length of active and
sleeping periods based on its schedule.
 To prevent collisions among packets, SMAC utilizes the Request to Send (RTS)
and Clear to Send (CTS) packets before transmitting data packets.
 This helps to ensure that only one node is transmitting data at a time,
reducing the likelihood of collisions and improving overall network efficiency.
 4.3 Fundamentals of MAC
15

Scheduled-based MAC
 Scheduled-based MAC is also known as a deterministic MAC
protocol.
 Where each node follows a predetermined schedule and transmits
the data according to its given time slot.
 The data collision is completely nullified in scheduled-based MAC.
 An example of Scheduled based MAC is TDMA (Time Division
Multiple Access).
 In TDMA the time is divided into fixed slots and each node is
allocated a specific time frame in which they can transmit the data.
 During this time slot, other nodes remain silent..
 4.3 Fundamentals of MAC
16

Scheduled-based MAC Used in Wireless Sensor Networks

 LEACH (Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy) is a TDMA-based
protocol that utilizes a clustering mechanism in wireless sensor
networks.
 A cluster comprises sensor nodes grouped together, with one node
designated as the cluster head and the others serving as members.
 The cluster head is selected based on a probabilistic algorithm, which
ensures that power consumption is evenly distributed among the
nodes.
 Once the cluster is formed, a schedule is created for nodes to
transmit data within the cluster.
 Additionally, to mitigate inter-cluster interference, each cluster head
assigns a unique CDMA code to its cluster.
 4.3 Fundamentals of MAC
17

Hybrid MAC
 Hybrid MAC is a combination of different protocols such as contention-based MAC and
scheduled-based MAC to optimize the performance of wireless sensor networks.
 For example, contention-based MAC protocols, such as CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Avoidance), allow nodes to access the medium based on a random
backoff interval, which reduces collisions but may result in inefficient utilization of the
medium.
 On the other hand, scheduled-based MAC protocols, such as TDMA (Time Division Multiple
Access), divide the medium into time slots and assign them to different nodes, which can
achieve high utilization but may not be flexible enough to adapt to changing network
conditions.
 Hybrid MAC solved the issue by using other MAC protocols, During transmission of data if
the channel is idle or the channel has low traffic then Hybrid MAC switches to contention-
based MAC.
 If the traffic in the channel increases then it is switched to scheduled-based MAC such as
TDMA.
 4.3 Fundamentals of MAC
18

Hybrid MAC Used in Wireless Sensor Networks

 The IEEE developed 802.15.4 as a standard for low-rate WPANs, which outlines
the PHY and MAC layers for low-power wireless communication in the 2.4 GHz
ISM band.
 It was specifically created for applications that require low data rates, low
power consumption, and cost-effectivenesses, such as sensor networks, home
automation, and industrial automation.
 The physical layer employs DSSS modulation with a data rate of 250 kbps and
works in the 2.4 GHz ISM band that has 16 channels with 5 MHz bandwidth.
 Additionally, it uses FHSS to prevent interference from other wireless devices.
 On the other hand, the media access control layer implements a CSMA-CA
protocol to avoid device collisions.
 It supports different data packet sizes, ranging from 9 to 127 bytes, and also
offers error detection and correction mechanisms.
 4.3 Fundamentals of MAC
19

Cross-Layer MAC
 Cross-layer MAC allows the different layers in the protocol stack, typically including physical,
MAC, and network layers, to interact and share information with one another.
 Firstly MAC layers gather information about the state of the channel whether the channel is busy
or not.
 This information will be further used to control the other parameters such as data transmission
rate, packet loss rate, and delay.
 Once the parameters have been determined, the MAC layer sends the data packets to the PHY
layer for transmission over the wireless channel.
 After the data transmission, the PHY layer sends feedback to the MAC layer about the success or
failure of the transmission.
 If the transmission was unsuccessful. Based on the feedback MAC layer repeats the transmission
 Overall, the working of Cross-Layer MAC involves the interaction between the MAC and PHY
layers to improve the efficiency of data transmission and energy consumption in WSNs.
 By optimizing the transmission parameters
 4.3 Fundamentals of MAC
20

Cross-Layer MAC Used in Wireless Sensor Networks

 The IEEE 802.11e standard expands on the existing IEEE 802.11 WLAN
standard by incorporating Quality of Service (QoS) support.

 It utilizes a cross-layer approach, allowing the MAC layer to collaborate

with higher layers such as the network and application layers, to provide
specific services based on the application’s needs.

 On the other hand, IEEE 802.16, or WiMAX, is intended for broadband

wireless access and utilizes a cross-layer design as well.

 This design allows the MAC layer to communicate with the physical layer
to adjust to the changing channel conditions, such as interference, noise,
and fading.
 4.4 Flat Routing
21

 A flat routing protocol is a type of network routing technique

in which all routers within the network function at the same
hierarchical level, sharing routing information with each
other.

 In flat routing protocol, if any node needs to transmit data, it

first searches for a valid route to the base station and then
transmits the data.

 Nodes to the base station may drain their energy quickly.

 4.4 Flat Routing
22

 They are the flat networks in which every incoming packet is

sent out on every outgoing line except the one it arrived on.

 Vast numbers of duplicate packets are generated.

 It is good for small networks and offers high reliability.

 4.4 Flat Routing
23

 Each hub within the network is capable of forwarding

packets and keeping up its possess routing table.
 Flat routing protocols are ordinarily utilized in small
networks with a constrained number of nodes, as they do not
scale well to bigger networks.
 They are generally straightforward to set up and keep up,
as there's nothing to organize network information into
hierarchical layers or levels.
 However, as the network develops, flat routing protocols can
end up congested and wasteful, as each node must keep up
routing information for all other nodes within the network.
 4.4 Flat Routing
24

 A few common examples of flat routing protocols include RIP

(Routing Information Protocol) and EIGRP (Enhanced Interior
Gateway Routing Protocol), which are commonly utilized in
small office or home office (SOHO) networks and small
business networks.

 These protocols utilize a distance-vector routing algorithm,

which permits them to calculate the shortest way between
two hubs within the network based on the number of jumps
or distance between them.
 4.4 Flat Routing
25

 In general, flat routing protocols are a simple and viable

tool for organizing and overseeing small networks with a
limited number of nodes.

 However, as the network develops, flat routing protocols can

get to be congested and wasteful, and hierarchical routing
protocols may be required to supply the adaptability, and
productivity needed for bigger and more complex systems.
 4.4 Flat Routing
26

 Advantages:
1. Simplicity: Flat routing protocols are simpler than
hierarchical protocols. They are easier to configure and
require less maintenance.
2. Lower Latency: Flat routing protocols have lower latency
than hierarchical protocols. This is because there are no
additional layers or segments that introduce delays.
3. Flexibility: Flat routing protocols are more flexible than
hierarchical protocols. They can be used in a variety of
network topologies and can adapt to changes more easily.
 4.4 Flat Routing
27

 Disadvantages:

1. Limited Scalability: Flat routing protocols are not as scalable as

hierarchical protocols. As the network grows, the routing tables and
updates required for each router can become unmanageable.

2. Less Traffic Control: Flat routing protocols have less traffic control than
hierarchical protocols. This can lead to unnecessary routing updates and
loops, which can increase network congestion and reduce network
efficiency.

3. Difficult to Troubleshoot: Flat routing protocols can be difficult to

troubleshoot and diagnose issues. With no hierarchical structure, it can
be difficult to isolate issues and determine their source.
 4.5 Directed Diffusion
28

 Directed Diffusion (DD) is a routing protocol for wireless sensor networks that allows
communication between source and sink nodes.

 Data-centric: DD is data-centric, meaning all routing decisions are made through local
interactions between neighbors.

 Reactive: DD discovers routes as needed between information sources and sinks.

 Energy-efficient: DD is energy-efficient because it can suppress duplicate events and

aggregate information in the network.

 Gradient mechanism: DD uses a gradient mechanism to concentrate traffic along the

best paths.

 Local data fusion and compression: DD can use local data fusion and compression
algorithms to reduce the amount of information circulating in the network.

 DD can be used in random and mesh topology networks. To improve energy efficiency,
DD can be combined with Passive Clustering (PC), which divides the network into small
clusters.
 4.5 Directed Diffusion
29
 4.6 SPIN - Sensor Protocol for Information via
Negotiation
30

 These protocols are designed to address the deficiency of flooding and

gossiping.

 SPIN uses three types of messages, ADV, REQ and DATA.

 The ADV message is broadcasted by a node which has some data.

 This message is broadcasted by the node.

 This message will say about type of data contained by the advertising
node. Interested nodes which got the ADV message send REQ message
requesting for the data.

 The node having the data sends the data to the interested nodes.

 The nodes after receiving data send ADV message, and the process
continues.
 4.6 SPIN - Sensor Protocol for Information via
Negotiation
31
 4.6 SPIN - Sensor Protocol for Information via
Negotiation
32

 These protocols are designed to address the deficiency of flooding

and gossiping.

 SPIN protocol Node 1 sends ADV message to all its neighbors, 2

and 3. Node 3 requests for the data using REQ message, for which
node 1 send data using message DATA to node 3.

 After receiving the data Node 3 sends ADV message to its

neighbors 4 and 5 and the process continues.

 It does not send to 1 because 3 knows that it received data from 1.

 The data is described in the ADV packet using high level data
descriptors, which are good enough to identify the data. These high
level data descriptors are called meta-data.
 4.6 SPIN - Sensor Protocol for Information via
Negotiation
33

 The meta-data of two different data’s should be different and

meta-data of two similar data should be similar.
 The use of meta-data prevents, the actual data being flooded
through out the network.
 The actual data can be given to only the nodes which need the
data.
 This protocol also makes nodes more intelligent, every node
will have a resource manager, which will inform each node
about the amount various resources left in the node.
 Accordingly the node can make a decision regarding, whether
it can as forwarding node or not.
 4.6 SPIN - Sensor Protocol for Information via
Negotiation
34
 4.6 SPIN - Sensor Protocol for Information via
Negotiation
35
 4.6 SPIN - Sensor Protocol for Information via
Negotiation
36
 4.7 COUGAR
37

 The Cougar approach is a method for processing queries in

sensor networks that uses declarative queries to abstract the
network's physical characteristics from the user.
 The Cougar approach can help to reduce resource usage and
extend the lifetime of a sensor network.

How it works
 Uses declarative queries to abstract the network's physical
characteristics from the user.
 A query optimizer generates an efficient query plan for in-
network query processing.
 4.7 COGUR
38

Benefits
 Reduces resource usage, extends the lifetime of a sensor
network, and shields the user from the physical characteristics
of the network.

Applications
 Environmental control, warehouse inventory, health care, and
military environments
 The Cougar approach is suitable for wireless sensor networks
(WSNs) because it abstracts the user from knowing the
execution plan of its queries.
 4.8 Hierarchical Routing
39

 Hierarchical routing is a network routing scheme that organizes

routers into a hierarchical structure to forward messages.
 It can be used for mobile networks to support mobile devices
by distinguishing between static and mobile devices.
 Hierarchical routing protocols consist of a hierarchical topology
to organize the network and routing information.
 Multiple layers and levels are introduced in a network.
 Each layer may be assigned a different responsibility like
forwarding packets, maintaining routing tables, etc.
 4.8 Hierarchical Routing
40

 HRPs are valuable for large networks, as they provide the

capability of organizing network information and reducing the
amount of routing information that should be exchanged
between nodes.
 Hence, HRPs demonstrate significant scalability and fault
tolerance.
 This is attributed to their hierarchical structure, which provides
redundancy and facilitates the efficient distribution of routing
data throughout the network.
 4.8 Hierarchical Routing
41

Basis Hierarchical Routing Protocol

Topology Hierarchical topology used
Network Suitable for large networks
Uses multiple routing tables to organize network
Routing Tables
information
Highly scalable, able to handle expansive networks with
Scalability
multiple layers
Complexity More complex to set up and maintain
Optimality Simple but non-optimal
Scheduling It is a channel reservation-based scheduling
Collisions Collisions are avoided
Allocation Ensures fair channel allocation
Energy Energy dissipation is constant
 4.8 Hierarchical Routing
42

Advantages of HRP
 Scalability: Hierarchical routing protocols exhibit excellent
scalability by partitioning the network into smaller segments or
areas. This division reduces the demand for routing tables and
updates on each router, enhancing network efficiency and
decreasing overall network traffic.
 Better Traffic Control: Hierarchical routing protocols demonstrate
superior traffic management compared to flat routing protocols. The
hierarchical framework enables more efficient traffic control,
mitigating the need for unnecessary routing updates and preventing
loops in the network.
 Easy to Manage: The organisational framework in these protocols
facilitates simplified management and maintenance. Segmentation
of the network into manageable sections enhances the ease of
troubleshooting and diagnosing issues.
 4.8 Hierarchical Routing
43

Disadvantages of HRP
 Complexity: Hierarchical routing protocols tend to be more
intricate compared to flat routing protocols. The presence of
additional layers and segments necessitates more extensive
configuration, posing potential challenges in implementation.

 Latency: Latency may be introduced into the network due to

the presence of additional layers and segments. Such delays in
data transmission can pose challenges, particularly for real-
time applications.
 4.8 Hierarchical Routing
44

Protocols of Hierarchical Routing

 There are two well known hierarchical routing protocols:
1. Hierarchical State Routing Protocol

2. Fisheye State Routing Protocol

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/hierarchical-routing/
 4.8 Hierarchical Routing
45

1. Hierarchical State Routing Protocol

 The hierarchical state routing protocol (HSR) is a multi-level and
distributed routing protocol.

 It makes use of clustering, present on different levels.

 Each level of cluster has the potential to manage its members

efficiently.

 This improves resource allocation and management. Leaders are

elected in each cluster, which form the members of the immediate
higher level.
 4.8 Hierarchical Routing
46

2. Fisheye State Routing Protocol

 Fisheye State Routing (FSR) is an implicit hierarchical routing
protocol most meant for mobile ad hoc networks.

 This protocol makes use of the fisheye technique to reduce

information required to represent graphical data, in order to
reduce routing overhead.

 It is based on the property of a fish’s eye that can capture pixel

information with greater accuracy near its eye’s focal point.
 4.9 Cluster Based Routing
47

 Cluster-based routing (CBR) is a routing approach that divides

sensor nodes into groups, or clusters, to address challenges like
packet loss and energy consumption:
How it works
 In CBR, a head node collects data from other nodes in its
cluster, performs an aggregation function, and then sends the
aggregated data to a base station.
Benefits
 CBR helps maintain the energy usage of sensor nodes by
including them in multi-hop communication.
 4.9 Cluster Based Routing
48
 4.9 Cluster Based Routing
49
 4.9 Cluster Based Routing
50

Protocols
 Some examples of CBR protocols include:
 CBR Mobile-WSN: This protocol uses adaptive Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA) scheduling, a round free cluster head
protocol, and sends data to cluster heads based on signal
strength.
 CBRP: This is an early hierarchical ad-hoc routing protocol
where nodes dynamically form clusters to minimize discovery
traffic.
 4.10 Scalable Coordination – LEACH, TEEN, APTEEN
51

LEACH
 In the context of mobile networks, "scalable coordination"
within the LEACH protocol refers to its ability to efficiently
manage communication and data aggregation in large-scale
sensor networks by dynamically forming clusters with localized
coordination, allowing the network to expand without
significantly impacting performance, thus achieving scalability
even as the number of nodes increases.
 LEACH uses localized coordination to enable scalability and
robustness for dynamic networks, and incorporates data fusion
into the routing protocol to reduce the amount of information
that must be transmitted to the base station.
 4.10 Scalable Coordination – LEACH, TEEN, APTEEN
52

Key points about LEACH and scalable coordination:

Clustering mechanism:
 LEACH divides sensor nodes into clusters, where each cluster elects a "cluster
head" responsible for collecting data from other nodes within the cluster and
then sending aggregated data to the base station.
Localized decision making:
 Cluster head selection happens locally within each cluster, meaning nodes
only need to communicate with nearby nodes to determine their role, which
reduces communication overhead and allows for efficient scaling.
Rotation of cluster heads:
 To distribute energy consumption evenly, LEACH rotates the role of cluster
head among different nodes across rounds, preventing a single node from
becoming overly burdened.
Data aggregation:
 By aggregating data at the cluster head level, the amount of data transmitted
to the base station is reduced, further enhancing network lifetime and
scalability.
 4.10 Scalable Coordination – LEACH, TEEN, APTEEN
53

Why is scalability important?

Large sensor networks:
 In many real-world applications, sensor networks can consist of hundreds or
even thousands of nodes, making efficient management of communication
crucial.
Dynamic environments:
 Scalability allows the network to adapt to changing conditions, such as node
mobility or varying data collection needs, without major protocol
modifications.

Limitations of LEACH regarding scalability:

Uneven energy distribution:
 Although rotation is implemented, in certain scenarios, energy consumption
can still be uneven depending on node placement and network topology.
Potential for congestion:
 In very large networks, even with clustering, communication bottlenecks can
occur at the base station if not properly managed.
 4.10 Scalable Coordination – LEACH, TEEN, APTEEN
54

LEACH (Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy)

□ Scalable hierarchical routing protocol that organizes sensor nodes into

clusters to reduce energy consumption.

□ Uses random cluster head selection to balance energy usage among

nodes.

□ Cluster heads aggregate and transmit data to the base station,

reducing direct communication overhead.

□ Suitable for periodic data collection but not for real-time applications.

□ Improves network lifetime by distributing energy consumption among

nodes.
 4.10 Scalable Coordination – LEACH, TEEN, APTEEN
55
 4.10 Scalable Coordination – LEACH, TEEN, APTEEN
56

TEEN (Threshold-sensitive Energy Efficient Sensor Network

Protocol)
□ Designed for time-critical applications requiring real-time data

transmission.
□ Uses two thresholds (hard and soft) to minimize unnecessary

data transmission and save energy.

□ Nodes send data only when sensed values cross the hard

threshold, reducing frequent transmissions.

□ Ideal for event-driven applications like environmental
monitoring.
□ Increases responsiveness but may cause nodes to remain idle

if no threshold is crossed.
 4.10 Scalable Coordination – LEACH, TEEN, APTEEN
57
 4.10 Scalable Coordination – LEACH, TEEN, APTEEN
58

APTEEN (Adaptive Periodic TEEN)

□ Hybrid of LEACH and TEEN, supporting both periodic and

event-driven data collection.

□ Nodes periodically transmit data but can also send data

when a threshold is exceeded.

□ Balances energy efficiency with real-time responsiveness.

□ More complex than TEEN and LEACH but improves data

accuracy and network lifespan.

Suitable for applications requiring both periodic monitoring and
event-based alerts.
 4.10 Scalable Coordination – LEACH, TEEN, APTEEN
59

Scalability and Energy Efficiency

□ All three protocols aim to enhance network scalability by

reducing direct transmissions.

□ Clustering reduces energy consumption by allowing only

cluster heads to communicate with the base station.

□ Dynamic cluster head rotation in LEACH ensures even

energy distribution across nodes.

□ TEEN and APTEEN introduce adaptive thresholds to

minimize redundant data transmissions.

These approaches extend the lifetime of large-scale WSN
deployments.
 4.10 Scalable Coordination – LEACH, TEEN, APTEEN
60

Application Scenarios

□ LEACH: Best for applications requiring periodic sensing,

such as environmental monitoring.

□ TEEN: Suitable for applications with sudden events, like

intrusion detection or disaster monitoring.

□ APTEEN: Ideal for hybrid applications needing both

periodic data collection and event-based reporting, such
as smart agriculture or industrial monitoring.
 4.11 Adapting to the dynamic nature of Wireless
Sensor Network
61

 Energy-Based Adaptation – Adjusts power consumption using

clustering (LEACH), sleep scheduling, and energy-aware
routing.

 Topology Adaptation – Dynamically reorganizes node

connections based on failures, mobility, or environmental
changes.

 Data Transmission Adaptation – Uses threshold-based (TEEN,

APTEEN) or event-driven techniques to reduce redundant data.

 Routing Adaptation – Implements self-healing protocols

(AODV, DSR) to reroute data in case of link failures.

 Security Adaptation – Adapts encryption and authentication

methods to protect data against evolving threats.
The dynamic nature of Wireless Sensor Network
 Scalability Adaptation

□ Ensures efficient network operation as the number of

nodes increases.

□ Uses clustering protocols (LEACH, HEED) to manage

large-scale networks.

□ Load balancing techniques distribute network traffic

evenly.

□ Adaptive data aggregation minimizes redundant

transmissions and conserves energy.
A hierarchical WSN with cluster heads managing
multiple sensor nodes. mobile networks
 Quality of Service (QoS) Adaptation

□ Adjusts data transmission priority based on application needs.

□ Implements congestion control to prevent packet loss.
□ Uses adaptive error correction and retransmission for
reliability.
□ Balances real-time and non-real-time communication for
efficient
 data flow.
 Environmental Adaptation
□ Adjusts sensing frequency based on environmental
changes (e.g., weather conditions, pollution levels).

□ Uses renewable energy sources (solar, wind) to extend

network lifetime.

□ Dynamically modifies power levels based on interference

and node density.

□ AI/ML-based predictive models optimize network behavior

in changing environments.
A smart WSN setup using solar-powered
nodes in a changing environment.