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Build Location
Apps on iOS
with Swift
Use Apple Maps, Google Maps, and
Mapbox to Code Location Aware
Mobile Apps
—
Jeffrey Linwood
 Build Location Apps
on iOS with Swift
Use Apple Maps, Google Maps,
and Mapbox to Code Location
Aware Mobile Apps

Jeffrey Linwood
Build Location Apps on iOS with Swift: Use Apple Maps, Google Maps, and
Mapbox to Code Location Aware Mobile Apps
Jeffrey Linwood
Austin, TX, USA

ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-6082-1 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-6083-8

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-6083-8

Copyright © 2020 by Jeffrey Linwood

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Table of Contents
About the Author���������������������������������������������������������������������������������ix
About the Technical Reviewer�������������������������������������������������������������xi

Chapter 1: Creating Your First MapKit App�������������������������������������������1

Getting started������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1
Adding a map��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������5
Adding a pin to your map������������������������������������������������������������������������������10
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������16

Chapter 2: Getting the User’s Location�����������������������������������������������17

Privacy and location permissions�����������������������������������������������������������������������17
Location permissions in the Info.plist file������������������������������������������������������18
Requesting location permissions from the end user������������������������������������������19
Requesting location updates�������������������������������������������������������������������������22
Displaying the user’s location on the map����������������������������������������������������24
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������26

Chapter 3: Displaying Annotations on a MapKit Map�������������������������27

Understanding MapKit and annotations��������������������������������������������������������������27
Using a custom annotation class������������������������������������������������������������������������28
Display custom annotations��������������������������������������������������������������������������������29
Customizing pins for annotations�����������������������������������������������������������������������30
Handling the user location����������������������������������������������������������������������������������33
Reusing annotation views�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������33

iii
Table of Contents

Dequeuing and creating annotation views����������������������������������������������������������35

Setting images on annotation views�������������������������������������������������������������������36
Using callouts with annotations��������������������������������������������������������������������������38
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������39

Chapter 4: Searching for Points of Interest����������������������������������������41

Getting started with local search������������������������������������������������������������������������41
Exploring the map items in the response�����������������������������������������������������������44
Displaying the search results on a map��������������������������������������������������������������44
Creating annotations for results��������������������������������������������������������������������������47
Filtering with points of interest categories���������������������������������������������������������47

Chapter 5: Getting Directions with MapKit�����������������������������������������53

Understanding the Directions API�����������������������������������������������������������������������53
Getting started with directions���������������������������������������������������������������������������54
Understanding route steps����������������������������������������������������������������������������������61
Building step-by-step directions�������������������������������������������������������������������������62
Displaying the current step���������������������������������������������������������������������������64
Saving the route in an instance variable�������������������������������������������������������66
Actions for the previous and next buttons�����������������������������������������������������67
Next steps�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������73
Summary������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������74

Chapter 6: Working with Geofences in CoreLocation��������������������������75

Concepts for region monitoring��������������������������������������������������������������������������75
Setting up your location-based application��������������������������������������������������������76
Getting started with region monitoring���������������������������������������������������������������78
Listening for geofence triggers���������������������������������������������������������������������������80

iv
 Table of Contents

Displaying a local notification inside the app�����������������������������������������������������82

Setting up the notification center������������������������������������������������������������������82
Displaying a local notification for a region����������������������������������������������������84
Monitoring region changes in the app delegate��������������������������������������������85
Removing geofences from the app���������������������������������������������������������������������87

Chapter 7: Displaying a Map with the Google Maps SDK�������������������89

Using the Google Maps Platform�������������������������������������������������������������������������89
Installing the Google Maps SDK for iOS library���������������������������������������������������90
Setting up a Google Maps API Key����������������������������������������������������������������������93
Including the API Key in your application������������������������������������������������������������98
Displaying Google Maps with a map view����������������������������������������������������������99
Allowing the Google Maps and Chrome URL schemes�������������������������������������102
Changing display options on the map view������������������������������������������������������103

Chapter 8: Exploring Google Map Views�������������������������������������������107

Changing the type of map tiles�������������������������������������������������������������������������107
Displaying map markers�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������108
Changing the marker icon���������������������������������������������������������������������������110
Responding to marker events���������������������������������������������������������������������110
User data and markers��������������������������������������������������������������������������������111
Adding shapes to the map��������������������������������������������������������������������������������112
Circles����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������113
Polylines and paths�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������114
Polygons������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������117
Removing markers and shapes������������������������������������������������������������������������119
Conclusion��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������119

v
Table of Contents

Chapter 9: Using Directions with the Google Directions API������������121

Setting up the Google Directions API����������������������������������������������������������������122
Restricting the API Key��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������124
Using the Google Directions API������������������������������������������������������������������������126
Creating the URL�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������127
Calling the Directions API with URLSession������������������������������������������������������128
Processing the directions response������������������������������������������������������������������130
Displaying the route as a polyline���������������������������������������������������������������������135
Updating the map bounding box�����������������������������������������������������������������������136
Next steps: Displaying each leg and step���������������������������������������������������������138

Chapter 10: Using Google Places in Your iOS App����������������������������139

Building a places finder with a map�����������������������������������������������������������������139
Creating the project������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������140
Getting a Google Places API key�����������������������������������������������������������������������140
Setting up CocoaPods���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������145
Providing an API key for Google Places and Google Maps��������������������������������147
Creating the user interface�������������������������������������������������������������������������������148
Understanding the autocomplete search����������������������������������������������������������151
Creating the autocomplete view controller�������������������������������������������������152
Setting geographic boundaries for the search��������������������������������������������152
Requesting a subset of data fields��������������������������������������������������������������153
Filtering results by type�������������������������������������������������������������������������������155
Displaying the view controller���������������������������������������������������������������������156
Implementing the delegate for autocomplete���������������������������������������������158
Displaying the place on the map�����������������������������������������������������������������������160
Additional functionality in Places SDK��������������������������������������������������������������162

vi
 Table of Contents

Chapter 11: Getting Started with the Mapbox SDK���������������������������165

Getting a Mapbox access token������������������������������������������������������������������������165
Starting a new project with the Mapbox SDK���������������������������������������������������167
Displaying a map view��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������170
Customizing the map view’s appearance���������������������������������������������������������172
Display a point annotation on the map�������������������������������������������������������������174

Chapter 12: Customizing Map Styles with Mapbox��������������������������179

Getting ready for map styles�����������������������������������������������������������������������������179
Changing the default style on the map view�����������������������������������������������������180
Creating map styles with Mapbox Studio���������������������������������������������������������180
Displaying the new map style in the app����������������������������������������������������������191

Chapter 13: Working with Datasets in Mapbox Studio���������������������193

Earthquake map������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������193
Downloading the earthquake data��������������������������������������������������������������������194
Creating a dataset on Mapbox Studio���������������������������������������������������������������197
Creating a tileset�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������204
Adding the tileset to a style������������������������������������������������������������������������������206
Styling the features with Mapbox Studio����������������������������������������������������������208
Displaying the dataset in the app���������������������������������������������������������������������215
Detecting a tap on the features������������������������������������������������������������������������217
Conclusion��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������218

Chapter 14: Turn-by-Turn Navigation with Mapbox��������������������������221

Setting up your app project������������������������������������������������������������������������������222
Setting up CocoaPods���������������������������������������������������������������������������������222
Adding entries to Info.plist��������������������������������������������������������������������������223
Adding required capabilities������������������������������������������������������������������������223

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Table of Contents

Using the Mapbox Directions API����������������������������������������������������������������������225

Displaying the navigation user interface����������������������������������������������������������228
Using the Mapbox simulated navigation�����������������������������������������������������������231
Customizing the navigation experience������������������������������������������������������������233
Conclusion��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������234

Chapter 15: Using Offline Maps with Mapbox����������������������������������235

Setting up your app project������������������������������������������������������������������������������235
Understanding offline map downloading����������������������������������������������������������236
Estimating the number of tiles used�����������������������������������������������������������������237
Downloading an offline map pack��������������������������������������������������������������������238
Monitoring offline map pack downloads�����������������������������������������������������������242
Considerations for using offline map tiles��������������������������������������������������������247

Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������249

viii
About the Author
Jeffrey Linwood is an experienced software developer who has worked
on many iOS and Android apps that use maps or location functionality.
He’s also taught and mentored college student application teams as they
develop their first iOS apps. While teaching, he noticed a lack of good
sample applications and tutorials for map and location applications. Jeff
also enjoys running, hiking, and spending time with his wife, Clover, in
Austin, Texas. You can follow Jeff on Twitter at @jefflinwood, or on his
blog, https://www.jefflinwood.com.

ix
About the Technical Reviewer
Felipe Laso is a Senior Systems Engineer working at Lextech Global
Services. He’s also an aspiring game designer/programmer. You can follow
him on Twitter at @iFeliLM or on his blog.

xi
CHAPTER 1

Creating Your First

MapKit App
This book will be project based – starting out simple and then getting more
complicated. With that in mind, our first iOS app will only be one screen
that displays a map. That map will have one pin on it, with the location of
my city, Austin, Texas. Feel free to use your own town for this example, of
course!

G
 etting started
The first step is to make sure that you have a recent version of Xcode (at
the time of writing, Xcode 11) installed on your Mac. If you’re using earlier
versions of Xcode, this code may not compile, and you may not be able to
follow directions. Xcode is free and may be downloaded from the Mac App
Store or from Apple’s developer portal.
We’ll also be using the Swift programming language, instead of Apple’s
older programming language for iOS, Objective-C. Almost all of this book
would be directly applicable to an Objective-C application. The underlying
application programming interfaces (APIs) used in iOS are generally the
same.
The Swift language has been evolving since its first release. This book
uses Swift 5, which is supported in Xcode 10 and above.

© Jeffrey Linwood 2020 1

J. Linwood, Build Location Apps on iOS with Swift,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-6083-8_1
Chapter 1 Creating Your First MapKit App

Go ahead and open up Xcode, and create a new application. We’ll be

creating a new Single View Application (Figure 1-1).

Figure 1-1. New project window in Xcode

Click the Next button, and then name your new project on
the options dialog, as seen in Figure 1-2. I’m going to call the new
application FirstMapsApp and give it an organization identifier of com.
buildingmobileapps.maps and use my name for the Organization Name.
Be sure to choose Swift as the Language.
For this project, we will not be using SwiftUI – we will be using UIKit as
the application framework. Leave the SwiftUI check box unchecked.
We do not need to include Core Data in our project – Core Data is an
Apple technology used for storing data locally on iOS, and we won’t need it
for this example. We won’t be using Core Data in this book.
You can also uncheck Include Unit Tests and Include UI Tests, as we
won’t be setting up any tests for this project.

2
 Chapter 1 Creating Your First MapKit App

Figure 1-2. New project options for an iOS app

Click Next, and save the project in a convenient location. You can
create a Git repository for your code if you want, but we won’t be directly
addressing source control in this book. It’s always a good idea to keep up
with Git commits as your project goes along, so that you can easily roll
back to a working copy.
After saving your project, Xcode will open your project and present an
overview of your application (Figure 1-3).

3
Chapter 1 Creating Your First MapKit App

Figure 1-3. Project overview

You should now have a working Xcode project – go ahead and run it in
one of the iOS Simulators, for instance, the iPhone XR (Figure 1-4).

4
 Chapter 1 Creating Your First MapKit App

Figure 1-4. New iOS application running in a simulator

You should expect to see a blank screen, as we have not written any
code for our application yet. If you do, your development environment is
set up and ready to go for the rest of this chapter.

Adding a map
Now it’s time to add a map to our view controller. Select the storyboard
on the left-hand side; it is the file named Main.storyboard. Once the
storyboard opens, select the View Controller Scene.

5
Chapter 1 Creating Your First MapKit App

In the upper right-hand corner of your Xcode window, choose the left-­
most button (the Object library), which is the button with the plus sign in
the previous figure, as shown in Figure 1-5.

Figure 1-5. Choosing an MKMapView map from the Object library

in Xcode

Either type Map into the search box underneath the list or scroll down
until you find the Map Kit View. Once you have found the Map Kit View,
drag it onto your view controller (Figure 1-6).

6
 Chapter 1 Creating Your First MapKit App

Figure 1-6. Map View on storyboard

The map view won’t automatically expand to fill the whole screen, so
you will need to do that yourself by dragging the edges of the map view to
fill the extent of the view. In Figure 1-7, you can see how the map view fills
the entire view controller on an iPhone XR device with a notch at the top.

7
Chapter 1 Creating Your First MapKit App

Figure 1-7. Map View fills view

Even though we dragged the edges of the map view out to the edges of
the view controller’s view, that doesn’t mean that the map view will use the
entire screen on all sizes of the iPhone and iPad. To make the map view fill
the view controller’s view (also known as its parent view), we will need to
add constraints to the map view.
On the right-hand side of the toolbar underneath your view controller,
you will see five icons – the first icon is usually grayed out. The third icon
(Add New Constraints) opens up the Add New Constraints dialog box,
which we can use for our layouts.
Uncheck the “Constrain to margins” check box, as we are going to fill
the entire view with the map, not leaving any margins. Go ahead and select
the faint dashed red line for all four constraints (top, bottom, left, and
right). After selecting them, make sure that all of the values are 0, and press
the “Add 4 Constraints” button (Figure 1-8).

8
 Chapter 1 Creating Your First MapKit App

Figure 1-8. Adding constraints to a Map View

Your map view will now properly fill up the entire screen on an iPhone
or iPad. If you would like to double-check this, select the Map View on
the storyboard. Next, choose the fifth icon on the right-hand side, the Size
Inspector, and you will see that you have constraints for all four sides of
your Map View.
Now try running your iOS app, and you will see that you have a nice,
large map on your app – as seen in Figure 1-9.

9
Chapter 1 Creating Your First MapKit App

Figure 1-9. An iOS app with a full-screen map view

This was a pretty straightforward process to get the map up and

running and didn’t even involve writing any code in Swift.

Adding a pin to your map

Now that we have our map, it’s time to add a pin that shows our home city!
Before we add the pin to the map, we will need to create an outlet for
the map, named mapView, using Xcode’s Assistant. While you have the
Main.storyboard editor open, choose the Assistant view from the Editor
menu. You’ll see the ViewController class open up next to your view
controller in the storyboard (Figure 1-10).

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 Chapter 1 Creating Your First MapKit App

Figure 1-10. Xcode Editor and Assistant view

Select the map view on the storyboard or on the outline view, hold
down the Control key, and then drag an outlet into the ViewController
class, as shown in Figure 1-11.

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Chapter 1 Creating Your First MapKit App

Figure 1-11. Creating an outlet

After creating the outlet, name the outlet mapView in the dialog box that
appears (Figure 1-12).

Figure 1-12. Naming the outlet

You’ll notice that the ViewController class will no longer compile –

that is because our map is an MKMapView, part of the MapKit framework. We
need to import this framework into our ViewController class so that we

12
 Chapter 1 Creating Your First MapKit App

can use classes from the MapKit framework. Otherwise, Xcode will show
errors when we try and build our project.
Add the following line right below the import UIKit statement to
import the MapKit framework.

    import MapKit

Beyond maps themselves, the MapKit framework has a wide range

of functionality. With MapKit, we represent locations on the map as
annotations. Annotations implement the MKAnnotation protocol, which
consists of a latitude and longitude coordinate pair and an optional title
and subtitle. The MapKit framework comes with a basic implementation
of MKAnnotation, the MKPointAnnotation class, but for most apps, you will
want to create your own implementation of MKAnnotation. In this chapter,
we will use MKPointAnnotation, but the later chapters of this book will use
our own implementation, so you can see how it works both ways.
Once you have an annotation (or many annotations), you can just add
it to the map using the addAnnotation() or addAnnotations() method on
the MKMapView class.
Annotations are not the actual pin that the map displays – those are
annotation views, which are subclasses of the MKAnnotationView class. By
default, you will get an MKPinAnnotationView, which is the standard red
pin that you see in many mapping apps. You can customize the pin color a
little, but for most apps, you will want to put in your custom images. We’ll
use our own custom images in the next chapters of this book.
To create an annotation as an MKPointAnnotation, we do need to be able
to create a coordinate, which we can do with CLLocationCoordinate2DMake().
For our purposes in this chapter, we are going to add all of the code to the
viewDidLoad() method in the ViewController class. Xcode created this
method for you when you generated a new project.
This method is currently empty except for a call to super.viewDidLoad().
Leave that line of code in the viewDidLoad() method, and place this code
beneath that.

13
Chapter 1 Creating Your First MapKit App

Pass in the latitude and the longitude (as double values) to create the
coordinate. The MKPointAnnotation will need this coordinate set, such as
in the following code:

    let austin = MKPointAnnotation()

    austin.coordinate = CLLocationCoordinate2DMake(30.25, -97.75)

The longitude for Austin is going to be negative, because Austin, Texas,

is in the Western Hemisphere. The latitude is positive because the city is in
the Northern Hemisphere.
To give the annotation a title, we can simply set the title property

    austin.title = "Austin"

And then after setting the title and coordinate properties, we can call
one method on the map view to add the annotation

    mapView.addAnnotation(austin)

Run this class (Listing 1-1), and you will see the iPhone app displaying
the Austin pin, after you scroll the map to show Texas on your Simulator.
Go ahead and change the pin to your city or to any other location you
want. Add more pins for different locations!

Listing 1-1. The ViewController class with a pin that displays on the
Map view
import UIKit
import MapKit

class ViewController: UIViewController {

    @IBOutlet weak var mapView: MKMapView!

    override func viewDidLoad() {
        super.viewDidLoad()
        // Do any additional setup after loading the view.

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 Chapter 1 Creating Your First MapKit App

        let austin = MKPointAnnotation()

        austin.coordinate = CLLocationCoordinate2DMake(30.25,
-97.75)
        austin.title = "Austin"
        mapView.addAnnotation(austin)
    }
}

Figure 1-13 shows the iPhone app with the Austin pin.

Figure 1-13. The completed iOS app, showing the pin for Austin on
the map

15
Chapter 1 Creating Your First MapKit App

S
 ummary
We have now created an iOS application that shows a pin on a map.
Along the way, we have covered the MapKit framework, map views, and
annotations.
In the next chapter, we will build on the basic map application we built
here and display the user’s location on the map. If you would like to try a
similar project to this example out with the Google Maps for iOS SDK or
the Mapbox SDK, please see Chapters 7 and 11, respectively.

16
CHAPTER 2

Getting the User’s

Location
Let’s take our app one step further and show the user’s location on
the map. The location functionality in iOS is extremely powerful – you
can get the user’s current location, or you can track the user’s location
as it changes over time to show their path on a map. We will use the
CoreLocation framework for this, as well as the MapKit framework we
discussed earlier.
We will add additional functionality to the project from Chapter 1. That
FirstMapsApp project already has the map view in place that we will use to
show the user’s location.

Privacy and location permissions

Because an app can do so much with the user’s location, Apple has added
protections for the user’s privacy that you as an application developer
need to understand.
An iOS app can request permission to use the user’s location while
the application is in use or while the application is in the background. You
may have seen these alerts pop up when you use location-based apps on
an iPhone or iPad yourself. If your app doesn’t have a compelling reason to
get the user’s location, the user is very likely to not allow the app access.

© Jeffrey Linwood 2020 17

J. Linwood, Build Location Apps on iOS with Swift,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-6083-8_2
Chapter 2 Getting the User’s Location

If your app relies on using the user’s location in the background, iOS
will pop up a confirmation alert to the user that says your app is continuing
to use their location in the background, and would they like to continue
providing their location? Many users will turn off location sharing at that
point.

Location permissions in the Info.plist file

Your iOS app will require modifications in two places to access the user’s
location – the Info.plist application configuration file and your app
delegate or a view controller. The Info.plist will need to have values for
one or both of two keys, depending on which location access your app
needs – when in use or always:

• NSLocationWhenInUseUsageDescription

• NSLocationAlwaysAndWhenInUseUsageDescription

These settings are configurable through the Xcode Property List

Editor, so you do not have to edit the plist directly in XML. You also don’t
need to know these exact key definitions – in the Property List Editor,
the descriptions are listed as Privacy - Location When In Use Usage
Description and Privacy - Location Always and When In Use Usage
Description.
Select the Info.plist file in Xcode. The Property List Editor appears,
as in Figure 2-1.

18
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
the way places during the persecutions, he was scarcely in a mood
to do so when he was flung into a filthy dungeon, or when he was
stretched on the rack thirteen different times as a prelude to being
hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburn.
Eleven years after that tragedy, Jacob Balde was born in the
imperial free town of Ensisheim in Alsace. He studied the classics
and rhetoric in the Jesuit college of that place, and philosophy and
law at Ingolstadt, where he became a Jesuit on July 1, 1624. To
amuse himself, when professor of rhetoric, he wrote his mock-heroic
of the battle of the frogs and mice, "Batrachomyomachia." His
mastery of classical Latin and the consummate ease with which he
handled the ancient verse made him the wonder of the day. "His
patriotic accents," says Herder, "made him a German poet for all
time." The tragedies of the Thirty Years War urged him to strive to
awaken the old national spirit in the hearts of the people. He was
chiefly a lyrist, and was hailed as the German Horace, but he was at
home in epic, drama, elegy, pastoral poetry and satire. Of course, he
wrote in Latin, which was the language of the cultured classes, for
German was then too crude and unwieldy to be employed as a
vehicle for poetry. His works fill eight volumes.
No less a personage than Isaac Watts, the English hymnologist,
makes Mathias Sarbiewski (Sarbievius), the Pole, another Horace,
though his poetry was mostly Pindaric. Grotius puts him above
Horace (Brucker, 505). He was a court preacher, a companion of the
king in his travels, a musician and an artist. He wrote four books of
lyrics, a volume of epodes, another of epigrams, and there is a
posthumous work of his called "Silviludia." His muse was both
religious and patriotic, and because of the former, he was called by
the Pope to help in the revision of the hymns of the Breviary; and for
that work he was crowned by King Wladislaw. His prose works run
into eight volumes. There are twenty-two translations of his poems
in Polish, and there are others in German, Italian, Flemish,
Bohemian, English and French.
 Gosse in his "Seventeenth Century Studies" says that Famian
Strada who wrote "The Nightingale" was not professedly a poet but
a lecturer on rhetoric. "The Nightingale" was first published in Rome
in 1617 in a volume of "Prolusiones" on rhetoric and poetry, and
occurs in the sixth lecture of the second course. "This Jesuit
Rhetorician," Gosse informs us, "had been trying to familiarize his
pupils with the style of the great Classic poets, by reciting to them
passages in imitation of Ovid, Lucretius, Lucian and others. 'This,' he
told them 'is an imitation of the style of Claudian,' and so he gives us
the lines which have become so famous. That a single fragment in a
schoolbook should so suddenly take root and blossom in European
literature, when all else that its voluminous author wrote and said
was promptly forgotten, is very curious but not unprecedented." In
England, the first to adopt the poem was John Ford in his play of
"The Lover's Melancholy" in 1629; Crashaw came next with his
"Music's Duel," Ambrose Philips essayed it a century later; and in our
own days, François Coppée introduced it with charming effect in his
"Luthier de Crémone."
The French Jesuit Sautel was a contemporary of Strada and
Balde. He was considered the Ovid of his time, and was as
remarkable for the holiness of his life as for his unusual poetical
ability.
About this time, there was a German Jesuit, named Jacob Masen
or Masenius, who was a professor of rhetoric in Cologne, and died in
1681. Among his manuscripts found after his death were three
volumes, the first of which was a treatise on general literature, the
second a collection of lyrics, epics, elegies etc., and the third a
number of dramas. In the second manuscript was an epic entitled
"Sarcotis." The world would never have known anything about
"Sarcotis" had not a Scotchman, named Lauder, succeeded in finding
it, somewhere, about 1753, i. e. seventy-two years after Masen's
death. He ran it through the press immediately, to prove that Milton
had copied it in his "Paradise Lost." Whereupon all England rose in
its wrath to defend its idol. Lauder was convicted of having
intercalated in the "Sarcotis," a Latin translation of some of the lines
of "Paradise Lost," and had to hide himself in some foreign land to
expiate his crime against the national infatuation. Four years later
(1757), Abbé Denouart published a translation of the genuine text of
"Sarcotis." The poem was found to be an excellent piece of work,
and like "Paradise Lost," its theme was the disobedience of Adam
and Eve, their expulsion from Paradise, the disasters consequent
upon this sin of pride. Whether Milton ever read "Sarcotis" is not
stated.
Frederick von Spee is another Jesuit poet. He was born at
Kaiserwerth on the Rhine on February 25, 1591, entered the Society
in 1610, and studied, taught and preached for many years like the
rest of his brethren. An attempt to assassinate him was made in
1629. He was in Treves, when it was stormed by the imperial forces
in 1635, witnessed all its horrors, and died from an infection which
he caught while nursing the sick and wounded soldiers in the
hospital. It was only in the stormy period of his life that he wrote in
verse. Two of his works, the "Goldenes Tugendbuch," and the
"Trutznachtigal" were published after his death. The former was
highly prized by Leibniz as a book of devotion. The latter, which has
in recent times been repeatedly reprinted and revised, occupies a
conspicuous place among the lyrical collection of the seventeenth
century. His principal work, however, the one, in fact, which gave
him a world-wide reputation, (a result he was not aiming at, for the
book was probably published without his consent), is the "Cautio
Criminalis," which virtually ended the witchcraft trials. It is written in
exquisite Latin, and describes with thrilling vividness and cutting
sarcasm the horrible abuses in the prevailing legal proceedings,
particularly the use of the rack. The moral impression produced by
the work soon put a stop to the atrocities in many places, though
many a generation had to pass before witch-burning ceased in
Germany.
Perhaps it may be worth while to mention the wonderful Beschi,
a missionary in Madura, whose Tamil poetry ordinary mortals will
never have the pleasure of enjoying. Besides writing Tamil grammars
and dictionaries, as well as doctrinal works for his converts, not to
speak of his books of controversy against the Danish Lutherans who
attempted to invade the missions, he wrote a poem of eleven
hundred stanzas in honor of St. Quiteria, and another known as the
"Unfading Garland," which is said to be a Tamil classic. It is divided
into thirty-six cantos, containing in all 3615 stanzas. Baumgartner
calls it an epic which for richness and beauty of language, for easy
elegance of metre, true poetical conception and execution, is the
peer of the native classics, while in nobility of thought and subject
matter it is superior to them as the harmonious civilization of
Christianity is above the confused philosophical dreams and
ridiculous fables of idolatry. It is in honor of St. Joseph. His satire
known as "The Adventures of Guru Paramarta" is the most
entertaining book of Tamil literature. Beschi himself translated it into
Latin; it has also appeared in English, French, German and Italian.
These are about the only poets of very great prominence the
Society can boast of; but though she rejoices in the honor they won,
she regards their song only as an accidental attraction in the lives of
those distinguished children of hers. What she cherishes most is the
piety of Sarbiewski and Balde, the martyrdom of charity gladly
accepted by von Spee, the missionary ardor of Beschi, and the blood
offering made by Southwell to restore the Faith to his unhappy
country.
Apart from these, Gresset also may be claimed as a Jesuit poet,
but unfortunately it was his poetry that blasted his career as an
apostle, for the epicureanism of one of his effusions compelled his
dismissal from the Society. His brilliant talents counted for nothing in
such a juncture. He left the Order with bitter regret on his part, but
never lost his affection for it, and never failed to defend it against its
calumniators. His "Adieux aux Jésuites" is a classic. In vain Voltaire
and Frederick the Great invited him to Potsdam. He loathed them
both, and withdrew to Amiens, where he spent the last eighteen
years of his life in seclusion, prayer and penance, never leaving the
place except twice in all that time. On both occasions it was to go to
the French Academy, of which his great literary ability had made him
a member. In 1750 he founded at Amiens the Academy of Sciences,
Arts and Letters which still exists. It is said that before he died he
burned all his manuscripts, and one cannot help regretting that
instead of publishing he had not committed to the flames the poem
that caused his withdrawal from the Society. For Gresset the Jesuits
have always had a great tenderness, and it might be added here
that he is a fair sample of most of those who, for one reason or
another, have severed their connection with the Society. There have
been only a few instances to the contrary, and even they repented
before they died.
In the matter of oratory, the Society has had some respectable
representatives as for example, that extraordinary genius, Vieira, the
man whose stormy eloquence put an end to the slavery of the
Indians in Brazil, and whose "Discourse for the success of the
Portuguese arms," pronounced when the Dutch were besieging
Bahia in 1640, was described by the sceptical Raynal to be "the most
extraordinary outburst of Christian eloquence." He is considered to
have been one of the world's masters of oratory of his time, and to
have been equally great in the cathedrals of Europe and the rude
shrines of the Maranhão. He was popular, practical, profoundly
original and frequently sublime. He has left fifteen volumes of
sermons alone. Though brought up in Brazil he is regarded as a
Portuguese classic.
Paolo Segneri, who died in 1694, is credited with being, after St.
Bernardine of Siena and Savonarola, Italy's greatest orator. For
twenty-seven years he preached all through the Peninsula. His
eloquence was surpassed only by his holiness, and to the ardor of an
apostle he added the austerities of a penitent. He has been
translated into many languages, even into Arabic.
Omitting many others, for we are mentioning only the
supereminently great, there is a Bourdaloue, who is entitled by even
the enemies of the Society the prédicateur des rois et le roi des
prédicateurs (the preacher of kings and the king of preachers.) For
thirty-four years he preached to the most exacting audience in the
world, the brilliant throngs that gathered around Louis XIV, and till
the end, it was almost impossible to approach the church when he
was to occupy the pulpit. Lackeys were on guard days before the
sermon. The "Edinburgh Review" of December, 1826, says of him:
"Between Massillon and Bossuet, at a great distance certainly above
the latter, stands Bourdaloue, and in the vigor and energy of his
reasoning he was undeniably, after the ancients, Massillon's model.
If he is more harsh, and addressed himself less to the feelings and
passions, it is certain that he displays a fertility of resources and an
exuberance of topics, either for observation or argument, which are
not equalled by any orator, sacred or profane. It is this fertility, this
birthmark of genius, that makes us certain of finding in every subject
handled by him, something new, something which neither his
predecessors have anticipated nor his followers have imitated."
To this Protestant testimony may be added that of the Jansenist
Sainte-Beuve in his "Causeries du Lundi." His estimate of Bourdaloue
is as follows: "I know all that can be said and that is said about
Bossuet. But let us not exaggerate. Bossuet was sublime in his
'Funeral Orations', but he had not the same excellence in his
sermons. He was uneven and unfinished. In that respect, even while
Bossuet was still living, Bourdaloue was his master. That was the
opinion of their contemporaries, and doubtless of Bossuet himself.
Unlike Bossuet, Bourdaloue did not hold the thunders in his hand,
nor did the lightnings flash around his pulpit, nor, like Massillon, did
he pour out perfumes from his urn. But he was the orator, such as
he alone could have been, who for thirty-four years in succession
could preach and be useful. He did not spend himself all at once, did
not gain lustre by a few achievements, nor startle by some of those
splendid utterances which carry men away and evoke their plaudits;
but he lasted; he built up with perfect surety; he kept on incessantly,
and his power was like an army whose work is not merely to gain
one or two battles, but to establish itself in the heart of the enemy's
country and stay there. That is the wonderful achievement of the
man whom his contemporaries called 'The Great Bourdaloue', and
whom people obstinately persist in describing as 'the judicious and
estimable Bourdaloue.'
 "He had what was called the imperatoria virtus, that sovereign
quality of a general who rules every alignment and every step of his
soldiers, so that nothing moves them but his command. Such is the
impression conveyed by the structure of his discourses; by their
dialectical form, by their solid demonstrations, which move forward
from the start, first by pushing ahead the advance corps, then
dividing his battalions into two or three groups, and finally
establishing a line of battle facing the consciences of his hearers. On
one occasion, when he was about to preach at St. Sulpice there was
a noise in the church because of the crowd, when above the tumult
the voice of Condé was heard, shouting, as Bourdaloue entered the
pulpit: 'Silence! Behold the enemy!'"
We may subjoin to these two appreciations the judgment of the
Abbé Maury, himself a great orator. He is cited by Sainte-Beuve:
"Bourdaloue is more equal and restrained than Bossuet in the beauty
and incomparable richness of his designs and plans, which seem like
unique conceptions in the art and control of a discourse wherein he
is without a rival; in his dialectic power, in his didactic and steady
progress, in his ever increasing strength, in his exact and serried
logic, and in the sustained eloquence of his ratiocination, in the
solidity and opulence of his doctrinal preaching he is inexhaustible
and unapproachable." Sainte-Beuve adds to this eulogy:
"Bourdaloue's life and example proclaim with a still louder emphasis,
that to be eloquent to the end, to be so, both far and near, to wield
authority and to compel attention, whether on great or startling,
simple or useful themes, you must have what is the principle and
source of it all, the virtue of Bourdaloue."
With the exception of Padre Isla, the satirist, and Baltasar
Gracián, author of "Worldly Wisdom" and of "El Criticón," which
seems to have suggested Robinson Crusoe to Defoe, the Society has
not produced any very remarkable prose writer in the lighter kind of
literature, and perhaps even their style in other kinds of writing may
have suffered because of the intensity and rapidity with which they
were compelled to work. Nevertheless some of them are said to be
classics in their respective languages as, for instance, Vieira in
Portuguese, Ribadeneira in Spanish, and Skarga in Polish. The
Frenchman, Dominique Bouhours, is perhaps the one who is most
remarkable in this respect. Petit de Julleville in his "Histoire de la
langue et de la littérature française" says that "Bouhours was
incontestably the master of correct writing in his generation. The
statutes of the Jesuits prevented him from being an Academician,
but he 'was something better,' as someone said when the Father was
striving to evade him: 'Academiam tu mihi solus facis — For me you
constitute the Academy.' Not only in his Order was he considered the
official censor, under whose eyes all sorts of writings had to pass,
even those of Maimbourg and Bourdaloue, but people came from all
parts of the literary world to consult him. Saint-Evremond and
Bossuet were only too glad to be guided by him. The President
Lamoigno submitted to him his official pronouncements, and Racine
sent his poems with the request to 'mark the faults that might have
been made in the language of which you are one of the most
excellent judges.' In the history of the French language Bouhours
left no date — he made an epoch."
The Jesuits were also literary arbiters in countries and
surroundings where there was no Bouhours. Thus the Society had
four or five hundred grammarians and lexicographers of the
languages of almost every race under the sun. Wherever the
missionaries went, their first care was to compile a dictionary and
make a grammar of the speech of the natives among whom they
were laboring, and if the learned world at present knows anything at
all of the language of vast numbers of aboriginal tribes who have
now vanished from the earth, it is due to the labors of the Jesuit
missionaries.
But this was only an infinitesimal part of their literary output. In
his "Bibliothèque des écrivains de la compagnie de Jésus," which is
itself a stupendous literary achievement, Sommervogel has already
drawn up a list of 120,000 Jesuit authors and he has restricted
himself to those who have ceased from their labors on earth and are
now only busy in reading the book of life. Nor do these 120,000
authors merely connote 120,000 books; for some of these writers
were most prolific in their publications. The illustrious Gretser, for
instance, "the Hammer of Heretics," as he was called, is credited
with two hundred and twenty-nine titles of printed works and thirty-
nine MSS. which range over the whole field of erudition open to his
times: archæology, numismatics, theology, philology, polemics,
liturgy, and so on. Kircher, who died in 1680, wrote about
everything. During the time he sojourned in Rome, he issued forty-
four folio volumes on subjects that are bewildering in their diversity
and originality: hieroglyphics, astronomy, astrology, medico-physics,
linguistics, ethnology, horoscopy, and what not else besides. We owe
to him the earliest counting-machine, and it was he who perfected
the Aeolian harp, the speaking tube, and the microscope.
We have chosen these great men merely as examples of the
literary activity of the Society during the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. Indeed, this inundation of books grew so alarming in its
proportions that the enemies of the Church complained that it was a
plot of the Jesuits who, being unable to suppress other books, had
determined to deluge the world with their own publications.
In the domain of church history they have, it is true, nothing to
compare, in size, with the thirty volumes of the Dominican Natalis
Alexander; the thirty-six of Fleury; or the twenty-eight of the
"España Sagrada" of the Augustinian Flórez, which, under his
continuator, Risco, reached forty volumes. Bérault-Bercastel, indeed,
wrote twenty-eight, but it was after the Society was suppressed.
Perhaps they refrained from entering that field because they
regarded it to be sufficiently covered, or because, in order to devote
one's self to historical work, one needs leisure, great libraries, and
security of possession. Their absorbing pedagogical and missionary
work left leisure to but a few Jesuits in those stirring times, and they
were besides being continually despoiled of the great libraries they
had gathered, and never sure of having a roof over their heads the
day after a work might be begun. Seizures and expulsions form a
continual series in the Society's history. On the other hand, they
were making history by their explorations, and the letters they sent
from all parts of the world which according to rule they were
compelled to write, furnish to-day and for all time, the most
invaluable historical data for every part of the globe. As a matter of
fact, they had not even time to write an account of their own Order.
Cordara, Orlandini, Jouvancy, and Sacchini cover only limited
periods, and as has been remarked above, it was not until Father
Martín ordered a complete series of histories of the various sections
of the Society that the work was undertaken. This is planned on a
much vaster scale than the older writers ever dreamt of, and some
of the volumes have already been published.
In profane history, however, the versatile Famian Strada
distinguished himself in 1632 by his "Wars of Flanders," and the
work was continued by two of his religious brethren, Dondini and
Gallucio. Clavigero's "Ancient History of Mexico," in three quarto
volumes, published after the Suppression, is a notable work, as are
also his "History of California," and a third on the "Spanish
Conquest." Alegre's three volumes, "History of the Society of Jesus
in New Spain" is of great value. Mariana's complete "History of
Spain," in twenty-five books, is still recognized as an authority, and it
will be of interest to know that as late as 1888 a statue was erected
at Talavera, in honor of the same tumultuous writer, who was
incarcerated for his book on "Finance." Charlevoix's voluminous
histories of New France, of Japan, of Paraguay, and of Santo
Domingo are also worthy of consideration. Bancroft frequently refers
to him as a valuable historian, and John Gilmary Shea insists that he
is too generally esteemed to need commendation.
There is, however, an historical work of the Society which has no
peer in literature: the great hagiological collection known as the
"Acta Sanctorum" of the Bollandists, which was begun in the first
years of the seventeenth century, and is still being elaborated. It
consists at present of sixty-four folio volumes. This vast enterprise
was conceived by the Belgian Father Rosweyde, but is known as the
work of the Bollandists, from the name of Rosweyde's immediate
successor, Bollandus. When the first volume, which was very
diminutive when compared with the present massive tomes, was
sent to Cardinal Bellarmine, he exclaimed: "this man wants to live
three hundred years." He regarded the plan as chimerical, but it has
been realized by a self-perpetuating association of Jesuits living at
Brussels. When one member is worn out or dies, someone else is
appointed to fill the gap, and so the work goes on uninterruptedly.
The two first volumes, containing pages, which appeared in 1643,
aroused the enthusiasm of the scientific world, and Pope Alexander
VII publicly testified that "there had never been undertaken a work
more glorious or more useful to the Church."
In other fields of work the Society has not been idle. Even the
acrid "Realencyclopädie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche"
says (VIII, 758), "the Order has not lacked scholars. It can point to a
long series of brilliant names among its members, but they have
only given real aid to the advancement of science in those spheres
which have close connection with the doctrines of the Church, such
as mathematics, the natural sciences, chronology, explanation of
classical writers and inscriptions. The service of Jesuit astronomers
like Christopher Schlüssel (Clavius), the corrector of the calendar;
Christopher Schreiner, the discoverer of the sun spots; Francesco Da
Vico, the discoverer of a comet and observer of the transit of Venus;
Angelo Secchi, the investigator of the sun, and a meteorologist, are
universally acknowledged. And no less credit is given to the services
of the Order afforded by the optician Grimaldi; and that much
praised all-round scholar and universal genius (Doctor centum
artium) Athanasius Kircher. Among the classical writers is Angelo
Mai."
This is certainly not a bad list from an unfriendly source, and
possibly might be helped out by a few suggestions. Thus Otto
Hartig, the Assistant Librarian of the Royal Library of Munich, tells us
in "The Catholic Encyclopedia" that Ritter very justly traces the
source and beginning of modern geography to the "Acta Sanctorum"
of the Jesuit Bollandists, who gathered up the crude notes of the
journeys of the early missionaries with their valuable information
about the customs, language and religion of the inhabitants on the
frontiers of the Roman Empire, along the Rhine and Danube, of the
British Isles, Russia, Poland, the Faröe Islands, Iceland and the Far
East. Another signal contribution to geography was the "Historia
natural y moral de las Indias" of José d'Acosta, one of the most
brilliant writers on the natural history of the New World and the
customs of the Indians. The first thorough exploration of Brazil was
made by Jesuit missionaries led by Father Ferre (1599-1632). The
Portuguese priests, Alvares and Bermudes, who went to Abyssinia on
an embassy to the king of that country, were followed by the Jesuits.
Fernandes crossed southern Abyssinia in 1613, and set foot in
regions which until recently were closed to Europeans. Páez and
Lobo were the first to reach the sources of the Blue Nile, and as
early as the middle of the seventeenth century, they with Almeida,
Menendes and Teles drew up a map of Abyssinia which is considered
the best produced before the time of Abbadie (1810-97). The Jesuit
missionaries, Machado, Affonso and Paiva, in 1630 endeavored to
establish communications between Abyssinia and the Congo; Ricci
and Schall, both of whom were learned astronomers, made a
cartographic survey of China. Ricci is commonly known as the
Geographer of China, and is compared to Marco Polo. Andrada was
the first to enter Tibet, a feat which was not repeated until our own
times. The Jesuits of Canada, among whom was Marquette, were
the first to furnish the learned world with information about upper
North America; Mexico and California as far as the Rio Grande, were
travelled by Kino (1644-1711), Sedlmayer (1703-79) and Baegert
(1717-77); and the Jesuit, Wolfgang Beyer, reached Lake Titicaca
between 1752 and 1766 — eighty years before the celebrated globe-
navigator Meyer arrived there. Ramion sailed up the Cassiquiare,
from the Río Negro to the Orinoco in 1744, and thus anticipated La
Condamine, Humboldt, and Bonpland. Samuel Fritz in 1684
established the importance of the Maranhão as the main tributary of
the Amazon, and drew the first map of the country. Techo (1673),
Harques (1687), and Durán (1638) told the world all about
Paraguay, and d'Ovaglia (1646) about Chile. Gruber and d'Orville
reached Lhasa from Pekin, and went down into India through the
Himalaya passes.
 Possibly it is worth while here to give more than a passing notice
to the ascent of the Nile in the seventeenth century, made by the
noted Pedro Páez, a Spanish Jesuit. He left an account of it which
Kircher published in his "Œdipus Ægyptiacus" but which James
Bruce angrily described as an invention. Bruce claims that he himself
was the first to explore the river. But Bruce followed Páez by at least
150 years. The question is discussed at length by two writers in the
"Biographie universelle," under the titles "Bruce" and "Paez."
Páez was born at Olmeda in 1564. He entered the Society when
he was eighteen years of age and was sent to Goa in 1588. He was
assigned to attempt an entry of Abyssinia; to facilitate his work, he
assumed the dress of an Armenian. He had to wait a year for a ship
at Ormuz, and when, at last, he embarked he was captured by an
Arab pirate, ill-treated and thrown into prison. As he was unable to
procure a ransom, he spent seven years chained to the oar as a
galley slave, but was finally set free and reached Goa in 1596. He
was then employed in several missions of Hindostan, but again set
out for Abyssinia which he reached in 1603. To acquaint himself with
the language of the people he buried himself in a monastery of
Monophysite monks, and then began to give public lessons in the
city. His success as a teacher attracted attention, and he was finally
called before the emperor, where his eloquence and correctness of
speech captivated and ultimately helped to convert the monarch. A
grant of land was given him at Gorgora where he built a church. The
question of the sources of the Nile was frequently discussed, and in
1618 Páez ascended the river. He was thus the first modern
European to make the attempt. He told the story in the two large
octavos, which at the time of the Suppression could be found in
most of the libraries of the Society. Bruce asserts, however, that
nothing is said in these volumes about the discovery, and he accuses
Kircher of imposture. But, says the writer in the "Biographie
universelle," the fact is that between the account of Páez and that of
Bruce there is scarcely any difference except in a few insignificant
details; so that if Bruce is right, so also are Páez and Kircher. Páez
explored the river as early as 1618, whereas Bruce arrived there only
in 1772, that is 154 years later. "Bruce," says another writer "makes
it clear that someone had preceded him and displays his temper in
every line."
The great English work, "The Dictionary of National Biography,"
handles Bruce more severely. "He was in error," it says, "in regarding
himself as the first European who had reached these fountains.
Pedro Páez, the Jesuit, had undoubtedly done so in 1615, and
Bruce's unhandsome attempt to throw doubt on the fact only proves
that love of fame is not literally the last infirmity of noble minds, but
may bring much more unlovely symptoms in its train. He was
endowed with excellent abilities, but was swayed to an undue
degree by self-esteem and thirst for fame. He was uncandid to those
he regarded as rivals, and vanity and the passion for the picturesque
led him to embellish minor particulars and perhaps in some
instances to invent them. He delayed for twelve years the
composition of his narrative and then dictated it to an amanuensis,
indolently omitting to refer to the original journals and hence
frequently making a lamentable confusion of facts and dates. His
report is highly idealised and he will always be the poet of African
travel." The book did not appear till 1790. The missionary success of
Páez consisted in uniting schismatical Abyssinia to Rome in 1624. He
died shortly afterwards, and, when the depraved Emperor Basilides
mounted the throne in 1634, the Jesuit missionaries were handed
over to the axe of the executioner. Páez, it may be remarked, was
not the only one whom Bruce vilified. After Páez came the
Portuguese Jesuit Jeronimo Lobo, a very interesting and lengthy
account of whose daring missionary work may be found in the
"Biographie universelle." The writer tells us that Lobo published his
narrative in 1659, and that it was again edited by the Royal Society
of London in 1688. Legrand translated it into French in 1728, and Dr.
Samuel Johnson gave a compendious translation of it in 1734. The
complete book was reprinted in 1798, and in the preface the editors
take Bruce to task for his treatment of both Páez and Lobo. It is
worthy of remark that the notice of "Bruce" in the "Encyclopedia
Britannica" (ninth edition) does not say a single word either of Páez
or Lobo, although both had attracted so much notice in the modern
literary world.
It was due to the Jesuits that France established subventions for
geographical research. In 1651 Martino Martini, kinsman of the
celebrated Eusebio Kino, published his "Atlas Sinensis", which
Richtoven described as "the fullest geographical description of China
that we have." Kircher published his famous "China illustrata" in
1667. Verbiest was the imperial astronomer in China, and so aroused
the interest of Louis XIV that he sent out six Jesuit astronomers at
his own expense and equipped them with the finest instruments.
One of these envoys, Gerbillon, explored the unknown regions north
of China, and he, with Buvet, Régis and Jarton and others, made a
survey of the Great Wall, and then mapped out the whole Chinese
empire (1718). Manchuria and Mongolia as far as the Russian
frontier and Tibet to the sources of the Ganges were included. The
map ranks as a masterpiece even to-day. It consists of 120 sheets,
and it has formed the basis of all the native maps made since then.
De Halde edited all the reports sent to him by his brethren, and
published them in his "Description géographique, historique,
politique, physique et chronologique de l'empire de Chine et de la
Tartarie chinoise." The material for the maps in this work was
prepared by d'Anville, the greatest geographer of the time, but he
was not a Jesuit. In addition to these works, were written fifteen
volumes by the missionaries of Pekin about the history and customs
of the Chinese, and published in Paris.
These Jesuit astronomers and geographers were associate
members of all the learned societies of Europe, and were especially
serviceable to those bodies in being able to determine the longitude
and latitude of the places they described. Between 1684 and 1686
they fixed the exact position of the Cape of Good Hope and of
Louveau in Siam. As early as 1645 Riccioli attempted to determine
the length of a degree of longitude. Similar work was done by
Thoma in China, Boscovitch and Maire in the Papal States, Leisganig
in Austria; Mayer in the Palatinate, and Beccaria and Canonica in
northwestern Italy. Veda published the first map of the Philippines
about 1734. Mezburg and Guessman made maps of Galicia and
Poland, Andrian of Carinthia, and Christian Meyer of the Rhine from
Basle to Mainz. Riccioli, a distinguished reformer of cartography,
published his "Almagestum novum", and his "Geographia et
hydrographia reformata" as early as 1661. Kircher gave the world his
"Arsmagnetica" and "Mundus subterraneus" about the same time,
and made the ascent of Etna and Stromboli at the risk of his life, to
measure their craters. His theory of the interior of the earth was
accepted by Leibniz and by the entire Neptunist school of geology.
He was the first to attempt to chart the ocean currents. Heinrich
Scherer of Dillingen (1620-1704) devoted his whole life to
geography, and made the first orographical and hydrographical
synoptic charts. Johann Jacob Hemmer was the founder of the first
meteorological society, which had contributors from all over the
world. This list is sufficiently glorious.
Perhaps it might be noted here that these eminent men were
not primarily seeking distinction or aiming at success in the sciences
to which they devoted themselves. That consideration occupied only
a secondary place in their thoughts and the glory they achieved was
sought exclusively to enable them the more easily to reach the souls
of men. But on the other hand, that motive inspired them with
greater zeal in the prosecution of their work than a merely human
purpose would have done. Assuredly, it would have been much more
comfortable for Ricci and Schall and Verbiest and Grimaldi to be
looking through telescopes in the observatories of Europe than at
Canton or Pekin, where every moment they were in danger of
having their heads cut off. As a matter of fact, after more than forty
years of service for China's education in mathematics and
astronomy, the only reward that Father Schall reaped was, as we
have seen, to be dragged to court, though he was paralyzed and
speechless, and to be condemned to be hacked to pieces.
It is quite true that the philosophers of the Society have never
evolved any independent philosophical or theological thought, in the
modern acceptation of that term. That is, they have never acted like
the captain of a ship who would throw his charts and compass
overboard, and insist that North is South because he thinks it so.
The aim of philosophy is intellectual truth and not the extravagances
of a disordered imagination. Contrary to the modern superstition,
Catholic philosophers are not hampered in their speculations by
authority, nor are they compelled in their study of logic, metaphysics
and ethics to draw proofs from revelation. Philosophy is a human not
a divine science, but on the other hand, Catholic philosophy is
prevented from going over the abyss by the possession of a higher
knowledge than unassisted human reason could ever attain. Thus
protected, it speculates with an audacity, of which those who are not
so provided can have no conception. For them philosophy runs
through the whole theological course, and when Holy Scripture, the
pronouncements of the Church, and the utterances of the Fathers
have established the truth of the particular doctrine which is under
consideration, then reason enters, and elevated, ennobled, fortified
and illumined, it walks secure in the highest realms of thought.
Three entire years are given to the explicit study of it, in the
formation of the Jesuit scholastic, and it continues to be employed
throughout his four or five years of theology. Both sciences are
fundamental in the Society's studies, and it has not lacked honor in
either. But as philosophy is subsidiary and ancillary, it will be
sufficient to set forth what is said about the Society's theologians.
Dr. Joseph Pohle writing in "The Catholic Encyclopedia" tells us
that controversial theology was carried to the highest perfection by
Cardinal Bellarmine. Indeed, there is no theologian who has
defended almost the whole of Catholic theology against the attacks
of the Reformers with such clearness and convincing force. Other
theologians who were remarkable for their masterly defence of the
Catholic Faith were the Spanish Jesuit Gregory of Valencia (d. 1603)
and his pupils Adam Tanner (d. 1635) and Jacob Gretser (d. 1625).
Nor can there be any question that Scholastic theology owes most of
its classical works to the Society of Jesus. Molina was the first Jesuit
to write a commentary on the theological "Summa" of St. Thomas,
and was followed by Cardinal Toletus and those other brilliant
Spaniards, Gregory of Valencia, Suárez, Vasquez, and Didacus Rúiz.
Suárez, the most prominent among them, is also the foremost
theologian the Society of Jesus has produced. His renown is due not
only to the fertility and wealth of his literary productions, but also to
his clearness, moderation, depth and circumspection. He had a critic,
both subtle and severe, in his colleague, Gabriel Vásquez. Didacus
Rúiz wrote masterly treatises on God and the Trinity, as did
Christopher Gilles; and they were followed by Harruabal, Ferdinand
Bastida, Valentine Herice, and others whose names will be forever
linked with the history of Molinism. During the succeeding period,
John Præpositus, Caspar Hurtado, and Antonio Pérez won fame by
their commentaries on St. Thomas. Ripalda wrote the best treatise
on the supernatural order. To Leonard Lessius we owe some
beautiful treatises on God and his attributes. Coninck made the
Trinity, the Incarnation, and the Sacraments his special study.
Cardinal John de Lugo, noted for his mental acumen and highly
esteemed as a moralist, wrote on the virtue of Faith and the
Sacraments of Penance and the Eucharist. Claude Tiphanus is the
author of a classical monograph on the notions of personality and
hypostasis, and Cardinal Pallavicini, known as the historiographer of
the Council of Trent, won repute as a dogmatic theologian by several
of his writings (XIV, 593-94).
With regard to moral theology, Lehmkhul tells us that in the
middle of the eighteenth century there arose a man who was, so to
say, a blessing of Divine Providence. Owing to the eminent sanctity
which he combined with solid learning, he definitely established the
system of moral theology which now prevails in the Church. That
man was St. Alphonsus Maria Liguori, who was canonized in 1839,
and declared a Doctor of the Church in 1871. In his youth he was
imbued with the stricter principles of moral theology, but as he
himself confesses, the experience of fifteen years of missionary life
and careful study brought him to realize the falseness and the evil
consequences of the system in which he had been educated, and
the necessity of a change. He, therefore, took the "Medulla" of the
Jesuit, Hermann Busembaum, subjected it to a thorough
examination, confirmed it by internal reasons and external authority,
and then published a work which was received with universal
applause, and whose doctrine is entirely on Probabilistic principles.
This approval and appropriation of Busembaum's teaching by one
who has been made a Doctor of the Church is a sufficient vindication
of the doctrine of Probabilism, for which the Society suffered so
much, and is at the same time a magnificent tribute to the greatness
of Busembaum, "whose book," Lehmkuhl contents himself with
saying, "was widely used," whereas forty editions of it had been
issued during the author's own life, which happened to be an entire
century before the publication of Liguori's great work. Busembaum's
"Medulla" was printed in 1645, and Liguori's "Moral Theology" in
1748. Up to 1845, there were 200 editions of Busembaum; that is,
one edition for every year of its existence. In the history of moral
theology Sánchez, Layman, Azor, Castro Palao, Torres, Escobar also
may be cited as leading lights.
In Scripture there are the illustrious names of Maldonado,
Ribera, Prado, Pereira, Sancio and Pineda. Of the saintly Cornelius a
Lapide (Vanden Steen) a Protestant critic, Goetzius, said in 1699:
"He is the most important of Catholic Scriptural writers." His
"Commentary of the Apocalypse" has been translated into Arabic. In
ascetical theology, St. Ignatius is a leader in modern times; and his
"Spiritual Exercises" form a complete system of asceticism. With him
are a great number of his sons, whose names are familiar in every
religious house, such as Bellarmine, Rodríguez, Alvarez de Paz,
Gaudier, da Ponte, Lessius, Lancicius, Surin, Saint-Jure, Neumayr,
Dirckink, Scaramelli, Nieremberg and many others. Finally, it can not
be denied that the Society has hearkened to the second rule of the
Summary of its Constitutions, which is read publicly and with an
unfailing regularity every month of the year, in every one of its
houses throughout the world, namely: that "the End of this Society
is not only to attend to the salvation and perfection of our own
souls, with the divine grace, but with the same, seriously to employ
ourselves in procuring the salvation and perfection of our neighbor."
The canonization of saints proceeds very slowly in the modern
Church. Years and years are spent in preliminary investigations of
the life, the holiness, the doctrines, and the miracles of the one who
is to be presented to the public recognition of the Church.
Theologians and canonists have to pass on all those points and
those who testify speak only under the most solemn oaths and the
threat of dire censure if they witness to what they know to be false.
Infinite labor has been expended before the question is presented to
the Holy See. Very many of these causes never reach even that
stage, for everywhere, in its progress, stands an official called the
Promoter of the Faith, but popularly known as the "Devil's
Advocate," whose work consists in doing his utmost to throw
obstacles in the way of the canonization. Nevertheless, the Society
has a sufficient number on its roll of fame, in spite of its
comparatively brief and perpetually perturbed existence, to convince
the world that it is not the maleficent organization that it is credited
with being.
At the head of the list come the two friends, Ignatius and Xavier,
dying within four years of each other: the latter in 1552, the former
in 1556. The third is Borgia, who died in 1572. He had set aside all
the honors of the world, except that of actual royalty, in order to
take the lowest place in the Society, but he became its chief. In
charming contrast with these three great men, are the three boy
saints: Stanislaus, Aloysius, and Berchmans, dying respectively in
1568, 1591 and 1621. Stanislaus, the little Polish noble, travelled all
the way from Vienna to Rome on foot, a distance of 1500 miles, to
enter the novitiate. He had no money, or guide, or friends, but he
arrived safely, for the angels gave him Communion on his journey,
and he has ever since been the darling of the beginners in religious
life. Aloysius was of princely blood, but died nursing the sick in the
hospital. He is the patron of youthful purity, and was never a priest,
though an unwise writer makes a missionary of him. The third, John
Berchmans, was neither prince nor noble. On the contrary, it used to
be the delight of foreigners, when rambling through the little Flemish
town of Diest, to see the name of "Berchmans" on the humble shops
of hucksters and grocers, and to fancy that some of the little lads
who clattered about in their sabots, on their way to school, were
relatives of his. His sanctity has made his family name famous in the
world. His beatification was especially welcome, because, as
Berchmans was the very incarnation of the Jesuit rule, the Order
cannot have been the iniquitous organization it is frequently said to
be.
Then there are three Japanese Jesuits who were crucified at
Nagasaki in 1597; and in 1616 came Alfonso Rodríguez, who had
prepared Peter Claver to be the Apostle of the negro slaves in
America, and who went quietly from his post at the gates of the
College of Minorca to the gates of heaven. Peter Claver had to wait
for thirty-eight years before going to join his venerable friend.
Besides the two St. Francises of the early days, there are two more
of that name in the Society: the Frenchman, John Francis Regis, who
died in 1640, and the Italian, Francis Hieronymo, whose work ended
in 1716. They were both preachers to the most abandoned classes.
Hieronymo could gather as many as 15,000 men to a regular
monthly Communion, and when he entered the royal convict ships,
he converted those sinks of iniquity into abodes of peace and
resignation.
It may be noted here that St. Francis Regis had a distinction
peculiarly his own. Long after his canonization as a saint, he was
proclaimed to have been actually expelled from the Society, and that
the public disgrace was prevented only by his death, which occurred
before the official papers arrived from Rome. This accusation is
trident-like in its wounding power or purpose. It transfixes Regis,
and kills his reputation for virtue; then it inflicts a gash on the
Society by making it present to the Church, as worthy of being
raised to the altars, a man whom it was unwilling to keep in its own
houses; finally, it assails the Church and attempts to show that no
respect should be had for its decrees of canonization. It was almost
unnecessary for the learned Bollandist, Van Ortroy, to show that
there is no foundation whatever for this story of the dismissal of St.
John Francis Regis from the Society of Jesus.
 Such are the canonized Jesuits. The Blessed are more numerous.
There are ninety-one of them. First in time are the forty Portuguese
martyrs under Ignatius de Azevedo, who were slain by the French
Huguenots in a harbor of the Azores in the year 1570. Then follow
the English witnesses to the Truth. The first to die was Thomas
Woodhouse, who was executed in 1573. Between that date and
1582 four others were put to death; among them the illustrious
Edmund Campion. Of those who died in the persecutions of Japan,
between 1617 and 1627, there are thirty-one Japanese as well as
European Jesuits. Rudolf Aquaviva was put to death in Madura in
1583, and John de Britto in 1693. Two Hungarians, Melchior Grodecz
and Stephen Pongracz were slain in Hungary in 1619, and Andrew
Bobola was butchered by the Cossacks in 1657. There are others
among the Society's Blessed who were not martyred, but would
have been willing to win their crown in that way, if God so wanted.
They are Peter Faber, the first priest of the Society; Peter Canisius,
the Apostle of Germany; and the Italian Antonio Baldinucci, a great
missionary who used to whip himself to blood, to move the hearts of
the hardened sinners around him, and who lighted bonfires of bad
books and pictures and playing cards in the public squares to
impress his excitable fellow-countrymen. His missionary methods
were somewhat like those of Savonarola.
Those who are ranked as Venerable are fifty in number, including
Claude de la Colombiére, the Apostle of the devotion to the Sacred
Heart; Cardinal Bellarmine; Nicholas Lancicius, the well-known
ascetical writer; Julien Maunoir, the apostle of his native Brittany;
and José Anchieta, the thaumaturgus of Brazil. There are, however,
a great many others under consideration, among them being the
heroes of North America — Jogues, Goupil, Lalande, Brébeuf,
Lalemant, Garnier, Daniel, Chabanel — who were slain by the
Iroquois. In the conclaves of 1605, which elected Clement VIII and
Leo XI, Bellarmine was very seriously considered as a possible pope,
but the fact that he was a Jesuit was an obstacle in the eyes of
many. When he died in 1621, there was a general expectation that
he would be canonized for his extraordinarily holy life. In fact, Urban
VIII who was so rigid in such matters placed him among the
"Venerable" six years after his death. His case was re-introduced for
beatification in 1675, 1714, 1752 and 1832, but nothing was done
chiefly because it would have angered the French regalist politicians,
as his name was associated with a doctrine most obnoxious to them.
In 1920 the case was again taken up.
We omit the countless thousands of Jesuits who ever since the
Society was established have striven in every possible way to realize
its ideals; the heroes who have hurried with delight to the most
disgusting and dangerous missions they could find in the farthermost
parts of the world; who have died by thousands of disease and
exhaustion in the pest-laden ships that carried them to their
destination or flung them dead on some desolate coast; or those
who have been slain by savages or devoured by wild beasts; or who
died of starvation in the forests and deserts where they were
hunting for souls; or have given their lives with joy for the privilege
of ministering to the plague-stricken. Nor do we mention here the
great phalanxes of the unknown who, without a single regret for
what they might have been in the world, have endeavored to obey,
to some extent, at least, that startling admonition that they hear so
often: Ama nesciri et pro nihilo reputari: "Love to be unknown and
to be reputed as nothing," — the men who have truly lived up to that
ideal in the repulsiveness of hospitals and jails and asylums, or in
the ceaseless drudgery and obscurity of the class-room and the
unchanging routing of household occupations.
These men have seen themselves time and time again robbed of
all their possessions, hounded out of their own countries and cities
as if they were criminals, their names branded with infamy and a by-
word for all that is vile, and they understood better and better, as
time went on, what is meant by that page which stares at them from
their rule book and which is entitled: "The Sum and Scope of Our
Constitutions," and which tells them: "We are men crucified to the
world, and to whom the world is crucified; new men who have put
off their own affections to put on Christ, dead to themselves to live
to justice; who, with St. Paul, in labors, in watching, in fastings, in
chastity, in knowledge, in long-suffering, in sweetness, in the Holy
Ghost, in charity unfeigned, in the word of truth, shew themselves
ministers of God; and, by the armor of justice, on the right hand and
on the left, by honor and dishonor, by evil report and good report,
by good success and ill success, press forward with great strides to
their heavenly country, and by all means possible, and with all zeal,
urge on others also, ever looking to God's greatest glory."
 CHAPTER XII
FROM VITELLESCHI TO RICCI
1615-1773
Pupils in the Thirty Years War — Caraffa; Piccolomini; Gottifredi — Mary Ward
— Alleged decline of the Society — John Paul Oliva — Jesuits in the Courts of Kings
— John Casimir — English Persecutions. Luzancy and Titus Oates — Jesuit
Cardinals — Gallicanism in France — Maimbourg — Dez — Troubles in Holland. De
Noyelle and Innocent XI — Attempted Schism in France — Gonzáles and
Probabilism — Don Pedro of Portugal — New assaults of Jansenists —
Administration of Retz — Election of Ricci — The Coming Storm.

As Mutius Vitelleschi's term of office extended from 1615 to

1645, it coincided almost exactly with the Thirty Years War. Of
course, the colleges, which had been established in almost every
country in Europe, felt the effects of this protracted and devastating
struggle, but, on the other hand, comfort was found in the fact that
many of the great statesmen and soldiers of that epoch had been
trained in those schools. There was, for instance, the Emperor
Ferdinand, of whom Gustavus Adolphus used to say, "I fear only his
virtues," and associated with him was Maximilian, the Great, who
was so ardent in the practice of his religion that Macaulay describes
him as, "a fervent missionary wielding the powers of a prince." He
appointed the Jesuit poet, Balde, as his court preacher, and called to
Ingolstadt the Jesuit astronomer, Scheiner, who disputed with Galileo
the discovery of the sun-spots — as a matter of fact, the discoveries
of both synchronized with each other, but Fabricius is asserted to
have anticipated both. Scheiner suggested and planned the optical
experiment which bears his name, and also invented the
pantograph.
 Tilly, one of the greatest warriors of his time, had first thought of
entering the Society, but, on the advice of his spiritual guides, took
up the profession of arms. According to Spahn "he displayed genuine
piety, remarkable self-control and disinterestedness and seemed like
a monk in the garb of a soldier" (The Catholic Encyclopedia, XIV,
724). As he was in command of the league of the Catholic states,
and was ordered to restore the lands which had been wrested from
their Catholic owners, of course, he gained the reputation of being a
bitter foe of Protestantism — an attitude of mind which was
attributed to his education at Cologne and Chatelet. Wallenstein, his
successor, was educated at the Jesuit college of Olmütz and was a
liberal benefactor of his old masters in the work of education. The
fact that in 1633 they saved from the fury of a Vienna mob their
rancorous enemy, the famous Count de Thurn, when he was taken
prisoner by Wallenstein in the Bohemian uprising, ought to count for
something in dissipating the delusion that Jesuits are essentially
persecutors. When the Emperor Mathias sent them back to Bohemia
and founded a college for them at Tirnau and affiliated it to the
University of Prague, they showed their gratitude by sacrificing a
number of their men in the pestilence which was then raging.
Richelieu, who was prominent in what was called the French
period of the war, was particularly solicitous in protecting the
interests of his former teachers. Although politically supporting the
Protestant cause, he invariably stipulated in his treaties that the
Jesuits should be protected in the territories handed over to
Protestant control, even when they opposed him, as for instance, in
the Siege of Prague, where Father George Plachy, a professor of
sacred history in the university, led out his students in a sortie and
drove back the foe — an exploit which merited for him a mural crown
from the city while Emperor Ferdinand III sent an autograph letter
to the General of the Society to thank him for the patriotism
displayed by Plachy. Indeed, when the Protestant ministers of
Charenton wanted Richelieu to suppress the Jesuits, he answered
that "it was the glory of the Society to be condemned by those who
attack the Church, calumniate the saints, and blaspheme Christ and
God. For many reasons, the Jesuits ought to be esteemed by
everyone; indeed there are not a few who love them precisely
because men like you hate them."
There is one of their pupils who, at this time, though a man of
unusual ability, brought sorrow not only on the Society but also on
the universal Church: Marc Antonio de Dominis. He was a Dalmatian,
whose family had given a Pope and many illustrious prelates to the
Church. He followed the course of the Jesuit college in Illyria, and
amazed his masters by the brilliancy of his talents. He entered the
novitiate, and contrary to the practice of the Society was
immediately made a professor of sacred eloquence, philosophy and
mathematics. Crowds flocked to hear him; meantime he
distinguished himself in the pulpit. Apparently he was a priest when
he became a novice. The fame he acquired, however, turned his
head and he left the Society to become a bishop, and later an
archbishop, in Dalmatia. But his utterances soon showed that he was
at odds with the Church. He was with Venice in its quarrel with the
Pope, and then relinquishing his archbishopric, he fled to England,
where he was received with enthusiasm by James I, who kept him at
court, showered rich benefices on him and made him Dean of
Windsor. There he wrote a book entitled "De republica christiana"
(1620), which denied the primacy of the Pope. Pursued by remorse
he went to Rome and at the feet of Gregory XV implored forgiveness
for his apostasy. But his repentance was feigned. His letters to
certain individuals showed that he was still a heretic, and he was
imprisoned in Sant' Angelo, where he died in 1624, giving signs at
the last moment of genuine repentance.
The long Generalate of Vitelleschi was clouded by one disaster:
the expulsion of the Jesuits from the Duchy of Lorraine. They had
opposed the bigamous marriage of the duke, but his confessor,
Father Cheminot, claimed that there were sufficient grounds for
invalidating the first marriage, and took the opposite side. He was
expelled from the Society or left it.
 During Vitelleschi's time, the famous English nun, Mary Ward,
appeared in Rome. She had been a Poor Clare, but found that it was
not her vocation to be a contemplative, and she, therefore, proposed
to establish a religious congregation which would do for women in
their own sphere what the Jesuits were doing for men. For that end
she asked for dispensation from enclosure, choir duty, the religious
habit and also freedom from diocesan control. As all this was an
imitation of the Society's methods, she and her companions began
to be called by their enemies "Jesuitesses." Their demands, of
course, evoked a storm, but Father Vitelleschi encouraged them, and
Suárez and Lessius were deputed to study the constitutions of the
new congregation. Nevertheless, although the women were the
recipients of very great consideration from three Popes, Paul V,
Gregory XV, and Urban VIII, the committee of cardinals to whom the
matter was referred, refused in 1630 to approve of their rules. In
1639 the little group returned to England where, under the
protection of Queen Henrietta Maria, they began their work, and
were approved by the Holy See. At first, they were known in Rome
as "The English Ladies." In Ireland and America they are "The
Loretto Nuns" (A masterly review of this incident may be found in
Guilday's "English Refugees," I, c. vi).
Vitelleschi died in February, 1645, and was followed in rapid
succession by Fathers Caraffa, Piccolomini, Gottifredi and Nickel,
whose collective terms amounted only to seventeen years. Caraffa
governed the Society for three years; Piccolomini for two; and
Gottifredi died before the congregation which elected him had
terminated its work. Nickel was chosen in 1652. He was old and
infirm and after nine years, felt compelled to ask for a Vicar-General
to assist him in his work. The one chosen for this office was John
Paul Oliva. He served three years in that capacity, but as he had
been made Vicar with the right of succession, he became General
automatically when Father Nickel died on July 31, 1664. This
departure from usage had been allowed with the approval of Pope
Alexander VII. Oliva was a Venetian and two of his family, his
grandfather and uncle, had been Doges of the Republic. Before his
election to the office of General he had been ten years master of
novices and had also been named rector of the Collegium
Germanicum. He was on terms of intimacy with Condé and Turenne;
and Innocent X died in his arms. His election evidently gave great
satisfaction. Princes and cardinals began to multiply the colleges of
the Society throughout Italy, where they already abounded. Milan,
Naples, Cuneo, Monbasileo, Volturna, Genoa, Turin, Savigliano, Brera
and other cities all wanted them.
It is this period from 1615 to 1664, which, for some
undiscoverable reason, is described both by Ranke and Böhmer-
Monod as marking the deterioration and decay of the Society. An
examination of this indictment is, of course, imperative; and though
it must necessarily be somewhat polemical, it may be helpful to a
better understanding of the situation and give a more complete
knowledge of facts. Ranke begins his attack by throwing discredit on
Vitelleschi, describing him as a man of "little learning," adducing as
his authority for this assertion a phrase in some Italian writer who
says that Vitelleschi was a man "di poche lettre ma di santità di vita
non ordinaria." Now the obvious meaning of this is, not that he was
a man of "little learning," but that "he wrote very few letters." As he
belonged to an unusually illustrious family of princes, cardinals, and
popes; and as he had not only made the full course of studies in the
Society, but had taught philosophy and theology for several years
and was subsequently appointed to be the Rector of the Collegium
Maximum of Naples, which was the Society's house of advanced
studies, and as he was, besides, the author of several learned works,
it is manifestly ridiculous to class him with the illiterates. As a matter
of fact, Mutius Vitelleschi was a far better educated man than
Leopold von Ranke.
Father Nickel, in turn, is set down as "rude, discourteous, and
repulsive; to such an extent that he was deposed from his office by
the general congregation, which explicitly declared that he had
forfeited all authority."
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