AERODYNAMICS - THEORY OF FLIGHT

To cover this module, the following sub-module should be covered

1. Physics of the Atmosphere
2. Aerodynamics
3. Theory of Flight
4. Flight Stability and Dynamics

Aerodynamics. the study of the properties of moving air and the interaction between the air
and moving object through it. the properties of a solid object regarding the manner in which
air flows around it.
Is the study that deals with the properties of moving air and interaction of the body move
through it.
Is the study that deals with the interactions of air with moving objects.
Aerodynamics is the study of forces and the resulting motion of objects through the air.

Aerodynamics is the study of air in motion, which includes changes in the physical
characteristics, such as pressure and density. Because the air is in motion, changes in velocity
and mass flow-rates are also important.
As observed from the definitions, most of them deals with moving objects and air can be
stationary or moving. This air will be subjected to changes includes changes in the physical
characteristics, such as pressure and density. Because the air is in motion, changes in velocity
and mass flow-rates are also important.

We must also consider the option when the air is stationary and an object moves through it as
in the case of an aircraft in flight. In reality it makes little difference if the air is flowing
around an object at a certain velocity, or the object is moving at the same velocity in still air.
Aerodynamics also involves the study of forces being generated (e.g. the "lift" force on a
wing), and so a brief mention must be made of some basic principles.

Why the aircraft can fly?

“Aircraft” means any machine that can derive support in the atmosphere from the reactions of
the air other than the reactions of the air against the earth’s surface; OR
An aircraft is a vehicle or machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air by
buoyancy or by the dynamic action of air on its surfaces, especially powered airplanes,
gliders, and helicopters and balloons.

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Aircraft can fly because have wings with an aerofoil shape, when these wings moved through
the air by the force called thrust the wing creates the lift force which move an aircraft
upwards.
But the production of the lift force can be explained based on 3 principles which are
Bernoulli’s principle, Newton’s third law and the Coanda effect. All these three principles
will be explained later.

INTRODUCTION
Three topics that are directly related to the manufacture, operation, and repair of aircraft are:
aerodynamics, aircraft assembly, and rigging. Each of these subject areas, though studied
separately, eventually connect to provide a scientific and physical understanding of how an
aircraft is prepared for flight. A logical place to start with these three topics is the study of
basic aerodynamics. By studying aerodynamics, a person becomes familiar with the
fundamentals of aircraft flight.

Aerodynamics is the study of the dynamics of gases. The interaction between a moving
object and the atmosphere is the primary interest in this module. The movement of an object
and its reaction to the air flow around it can be seen when watching water passing the bow of
a ship. The major difference between water and air is that air is compressible and water is
incompressible. The action of the airflow over a body is a large part of the study of
aerodynamics. Some common aircraft terms, such as rudder, hull, water line, and keel beam,
were borrowed from nautical terms.

Many textbooks have been written about the aerodynamics of aircraft flight. It is not
necessary for an airframe and power plant technician to be as knowledgeable as an
aeronautical design engineer about aerodynamics. The technician must be able to understand
the relationships between how an aircraft performs in flight and its reaction to the forces
acting on its structural parts. Understanding why aircraft are designed with particular types of
primary and secondary control systems and why the surfaces must be aerodynamically
smooth becomes essential when maintaining today’s complex aircraft.

The theory of flight should be described in terms of the laws of flight because what happens
to an aircraft when it flies is not based upon assumptions, but upon a series of facts.
Aerodynamics is a study of laws which have been proven to be the physical reasons why an
airplane flies. The term aerodynamics is derived from the combination of two Greek words:
“aero,” meaning air, and “dyne,” meaning force of power. Thus, when “aero” joins

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“dynamics” the result is “aerodynamics”—the study of objects in motion through the air and
the forces that produce
or change such motion.

Aerodynamically, an aircraft can be defined as an object traveling through space that is

affected by the changes in atmospheric conditions. To state it another way, aerodynamics
covers the relationships between the aircraft, relative wind, and atmosphere.

OVERVIEW
Before a technician can consider performing maintenance on an aircraft, it is necessary to
understand the pieces that make up the aircraft. Names like fuselage, empennage, wing, and
so many others, come into play when describing what an airplane is and how it operates. For
helicopters, names like main rotor, anti-torque rotor, and autorotation come to mind as a
small portion of what needs to be understood about rotorcraft. The study of physics, which
includes basic aerodynamics, is a necessary part of understanding why aircraft operate the
way they do.

The aircraft fixed wing consist of the following primary five units as follows:
1. A wing to generate a lift force;
2. A fuselage to house the payload;
3. Tail surfaces /Empennage (Vertical and Horizontal Stabilizer) to add stability;
4. Control surfaces to change the direction of flight; and
5. Engines to make it go forward.
6. Power-plant

In general, the airframe of a fixed-wing aircraft consists of five principal units: the fuselage,
wings, stabilizers, flight control surfaces, and landing gear. [Figure 1-13] Helicopter
airframes consist of the fuselage, main rotor and related gearbox, tail rotor (on helicopters
with a single main rotor), and the landing gear.

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 Figure 1-13. Principal airframe units

1. Wings are airfoils that when moved rapidly through the air, create lift.
2. Flight Control Surfaces, for the directional control of a fixed-wing aircraft that takes
place around the lateral, longitudinal, and vertical axes by means of flight control
surfaces designed to create movement about these axes.
3. Fuselage is the main structure or body of the fixed-wing aircraft. It provides space for
cargo, controls, accessories, passengers, and other equipment.
4. Stabilizers (Empennage/Tail Section) for stability control.
5. Landing Gear. The landing gear supports the aircraft during landing and while it is on
the ground.
6. Power-plant. To produce thrust and power to running other systems.

The process of lift generation is fairly straightforward and easy to understand. Over the year’s
aircraft designers, aerodynamicists and structural engineers have refined the basics and, by
intelligent changes of shape and configuration, have made maximum use of the current
understanding of the physical properties of air to produce aircraft best suited to a particular
role.
Aircraft come in different shapes and sizes, each usually designed for a specific task. All
aircraft share certain features, but to obtain the performance required by the operator, the
designer will configure each type of aeroplane in a specific way.

As can be seen from the illustrations on the facing page, the position of the features shared by
all types of aircraft i.e. wings, fuselage, tail surfaces and engines varies from type to type.
1. Why are wing plan shapes different?
2. Why are wings mounted sometimes on top of the fuselage instead of the bottom?

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 3. Why are wings mounted in that position and at that angle?
4. Why is the horizontal stabilizer mounted sometimes high on top of the fin rather than
on either side of the rear fuselage?

Every feature has a purpose and is never included merely for reasons of style.

Figure 1.1

DEFINITIONS & TERMS

Mass - The quantity of matter in a body.’ The mass of a body is a measure of how difficult it
is to start or stop. Unit - Kilogram (kg)
1. The larger the mass, the greater the FORCE required to start or stop it in the same
distance.
2. Mass has a big influence on the time and/or distance required to change the direction
of a body.
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Density - is the mass per unit volume of the matter. Unit is Kg/m 3(The ‘number’ of air
particles in a given space).

The density of air is an important property in the study of aerodynamics and varies with
changes in pressure, temperature, and humidity. Such changes have a significant effect on
aircraft performance.

Force - ‘A push or a pull’. That which causes or tends to cause a change in motion of a body.
Unit - newton (N). There are four forces acting on an aircraft in flight - pushing or pulling in
different directions.
An external influence capable of altering the state of rest or motion of a body, proportional to
the rate of change of momentum of a body
Force = Mass x Acceleration

One Newton is the force required to give a mass of one kilogram an acceleration of one metre
per second per second.

Pressure – Is the force exerted per unit area. Unit is N/m 2 .This is measured in Newtons per
square metre (N/m2) and is called the Pascal (Pa). Pressure is the force applied in a
perpendicular direction to the surface of an object. Often, pressure is measured in pounds of
force exerted per square inch of an object, or PSI.
Force
Pressure = Area

In aviation, the bar is more commonly used to measure pressure. 1 bar =105 Pa, or 1 mb = 1
hPa. In aerodynamics three types of pressure exist.

Weight - The force due to gravity’. OR The gravitational force of attraction that the Earth
exerts on a body of given mass; measured in kilograms (kg) Unit - newton (N)
Weight (F) = m × g
Weight = Mass x Acceleration due to Gravity

Where (m) is the mass of the object and (g) is the acceleration due to the gravity constant,
which has the value of 9.81 m/s2. (A 1 kg mass ‘weighs’ 9.81 newton’s)

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Example: If the mass of a B737 is 60 000 kg and
F=m×g
it is necessary to generate: [60 000 kg × 9.81 m/s 2]
588 600 N of lift force.

Unlike the mass of a body, which remains constant irrespective of its location, the weight of a
body varies with distance between the body and the centre of the Earth. This is because
acceleration due to gravity varies with geographical location and altitude, but under standard
conditions, this term is assumed to be 9.81 m/s2.

Centre of Gravity (CG) - The point through which the weight of an aircraft acts.
1. An aircraft in flight rotates around its CG.
2. The CG of an aircraft must remain within certain forward and aft limits, for reasons of
both stability and control.

Work – Is the Force times distance.

The effort needed when a force is applied to a body causing it to be lifted or moved a given
distance in the same direction as the force.

A force is said to do work on a body when it moves the body in the direction in which the
force is acting. The amount of work done on a body is the product of the force applied to the
body and the distance moved by that force in the direction in which it is acting. If a force is
exerted and no movement takes place, no work has been done.
Work = Force × Distance (through which the force is applied)

A newton metre(Nm), the unit of work, is called a joule (J). One Joule is the work done when
a force of one Newton moves a body through a distance of one metre in the direction of the
force. Work is also stated in terms of Newton metres (Nm), where 1 Joule = 1 Nm.

Moment is the product of force and distance from the point of application.
Moment (M) = Force (F) x Distance(d)

Moment of a force /Torque

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Whereas work is described as a force acting through a distance, torque is described as a force
acting along a distance. Torque is something that creates twisting and tries to make
something rotate.
Torque = Force × distance

A moment of a force, also known as a torque, is a measure of how much a force causes an
object to rotate. Simply this is the measure of the rotational effect of a force about a point or
axis.
Moment refers to the tendency of a force to cause an object to rotate about a specific point or
axis. Moments are crucial in understanding how forces influence rotational motion.

Even though the formula looks the same as the one for calculating work, recognize that the
distance value in this formula is not the linear distance an object moves, but rather the
distance along which the force is applied.
Notice that with torque nothing had to move, because the force is being applied along a
distance and not through a distance. Notice also that although the units of work and torque
appear to be the same, they are not. The units of work were inch-pounds and the units of
torque were pound-inches, and that is what differentiates the two.

Energy – is the ability to do work. The amount of energy a body possesses is measured by
the amount of work it can do. The unit of energy will, therefore, be the same as those of
work, joules.
In mechanics, energy exists in two basic forms:
1. Potential energy - due to position.
2. Kinetic energy - due to motion.
The unit of energy is the Joule (J), where 1 Joule = 1 Nm.

Kinetic Energy - The energy possessed by mass because of its motion’. ’A mass that is
moving can do work in coming to rest’.
KE = ½mV2 joules
From the above example it can be seen that doubling the velocity will have a greater impact
on the kinetic energy than doubling the mass (velocity is squared).

Potential Energy – The energy possessed by the mass due to its position
P.E. = mgh joules

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Power - is simply the rate of doing work (the time taken to do work). Unit - Watt (W)
Power (W) = Force (N) × Distance (m)
Time (s)

Power(W) = Force x Velocity

Measured in units of work per unit time; measured in Watts (W), where 1 watt = 1 J/s or 1
Nm/s.

Motion - When a body changes its position in relation to its surroundings.

Speed - is the rate of change of position.
Speed measured Metres per second (m/s) is used in most formulae, but nautical miles per
hour or knots (kt) are commonly used to measure the speed of an aircraft. There are 6080 ft in
1 nautical mile and 3.28 ft in 1 metre.
Displacement - is the change in position of an object in a particular direction.
Velocity - Velocity is the rate of change of displacement. Velocity is a vector quantity having
both magnitude and direction. Unit - Metres per second (m/s).
Acceleration - Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. Unit - Metres per second per
second (m/s2)
The terms speed and velocity are often used interchangeably, but they do not have the same
meaning. Speed is the rate of motion in relation to time, and velocity is the rate of motion in a
particular direction in relation to time.
Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity. An aircraft increasing in velocity is
an example of positive acceleration, while another aircraft reducing its velocity is an example
of negative acceleration, or deceleration.

Couple - A couple consists of two equal, opposite and parallel forces not acting through the
same point.
Equilibrium - A body is said to be in equilibrium when
1. Algebraic sum of all the forces acting on the body is zero.
2. Clockwise moment is equal to the anticlockwise moment about any point.

2. Newton’s Laws of Motion

The fundamental laws governing the action of air about a wing are known as Newton’s laws
of motion.

Newton’s First Law of Motion

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Newton’s first law is normally referred to as the law of inertia. It simply states that “A body
will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted on by an external
force.” (i.e. it has inertia). If a body is moving at uniform speed in a straight line, force must
be applied to increase or decrease the speed.
To move a stationary object or to make a moving object change its direction, a force must be
applied.

According to Newton’s law, since air has mass, it is a body. When an aircraft is on the
ground with its engines off, inertia keeps the aircraft at rest. An aircraft is moved from its
state of rest by the thrust force created by a propeller, or by the expanding exhaust, or both.
When an aircraft is flying at uniform speed in a straight line, inertia tends to keep the aircraft
moving. Some external force is required to change the aircraft from its path of flight.

Inertia is the opposition which a body offers to a change in motion. A property of all bodies,
inertia is a quality, but it is measured in terms of mass, which is a quantity.
1. The larger the mass, the greater the force required for the same result.
2. A large mass has a lot of inertia.
3. Inertia refers to both stationary and moving masses.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

Newton’s second law states that “The acceleration of a body from a state of rest, or uniform
motion in a straight line, is proportional to the applied force and inversely proportional to the
mass.” OR
“If a body moving with uniform speed is acted upon by an external force, the change of
motion is proportional to the amount of the force, and motion takes place in the direction in
which the force acts.”
This law may be stated mathematically as follows:
States that a body at rest or in uniform motion will, when acted on by an external force,
accelerate in the direction of the force. The magnitude of the acceleration for any given mass
is directly proportional to the size of the force applied (i.e. when a force of 1 N is applied to a
mass of 1 kg, it will accelerate at 1 m/s2).
Force (F) = Mass (m) × Acceleration (a)

If an aircraft is flying against a headwind, it is slowed down. If the wind is coming from
either side of the aircraft’s heading, the aircraft is pushed off course unless the pilot takes
corrective action against the wind direction.

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 1. For the same mass; the bigger the force, the greater the acceleration.
2. For the same force; the larger the mass, the slower the acceleration.

Momentum - The quantity of motion in a body is known as momentum of the body and is
equal to the product of mass and velocity
The quantity of motion possessed by a body. The tendency of a body to continue in motion
after being placed in motion. At the same velocity, a large mass has more momentum than a
small mass.

Newton’s Third Law

Newton’s third law is the law of action and reaction. This law states that “Every action has an
equal and opposite reaction.”
If a force accelerates a mass in one direction, the body supplying the force will be subject to
the same force in the opposite direction.

This law can be illustrated by the example of firing a gun. The action is the forward
movement of the bullet while the reaction is the backward recoil of the gun.

The three laws of motion that have been discussed apply to the theory of flight. In many
cases, all three laws may be operating on an aircraft at the same time.

Question: From 3 Newton’s Laws of motion, state them and explain any 2 applications to an
aircraft for each law.

Temperature
The unit for temperature is °C, or K. It is degrees Celsius (or centigrade) when measured
relative to the freezing point of water, or Kelvin when measured relative to absolute zero.
(0°C is equivalent to 273 K).
Temperature decreases with increasing altitude up to about 36 000 ft and then remains
constant.

Gas Laws
The simple structure of gases makes them readily adaptable to mathematical analysis from
which has evolved a detailed theory of the behavior of gases. This is called the kinetic theory
of gases. The theory assumes that a body of gas is composed of identical molecules which
behave like minute elastic spheres, spaced relatively far apart and continuously in motion.

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The degree of molecular motion is dependent upon the temperature of the gas. Since the
molecules are continuously striking against each other and against the walls of the container,
an increase in temperature with the resulting increase in molecular motion causes a
corresponding increase in the number of collisions between the molecules. The increased
number of collisions results in an increase in pressure because a greater number of molecules
strike against the walls of the container in a given unit of time.

If the container were an open vessel, the gas would expand and overflow from the container.
However, if the container is sealed and possesses elasticity, such as a rubber balloon, the
increased pressure causes the container to expand. For instance, when making a long drive on
a hot day, the pressure in the tires of an automobile increases, and a tire which appeared to be
somewhat “soft” in cool morning temperature may appear normal at a higher midday
temperature.

Such phenomena as these have been explained and set forth in the form of laws pertaining to
gases and tend to support the kinetic theory.

Boyle’s Law
As previously stated, compressibility is an outstanding characteristic of gases. The English
scientist, Robert Boyle, was among the first to study this characteristic that he called the
“springiness of air.”
By direct measurement he discovered that when the temperature of a combined sample of gas
was kept constant and the absolute pressure doubled, the volume was reduced to half the
former value.
As the applied absolute pressure was decreased, the resulting volume increased. From these
observations, he concluded that for a constant temperature the product of the volume and
absolute pressure of an enclosed gas remains constant. (Figure 3-15)

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 Figure 5-37. Boyle’s law example.

Boyle’s law is normally stated: “The volume of an enclosed dry gas varies inversely with its
absolute pressure, provided the temperature remains constant.” OR
“The volume of a given mass of gas, whose temperature is maintained constant, is inversely
proportional to the gas pressure”.
The following formula is used for Boyle’s law calculations. Remember, pressure needs to be
in the absolute.

Px V =K
Volume 1 × Pressure 1 = Volume 2 × Pressure 2
Or
V1P1 = V2P2
The useful applications of Boyle’s law are many and varied. Some applications more
common to aviation are:
1. the carbon dioxide (CO₂) bottle used to inflate life rafts and life vests; 2
2. the compressed oxygen and the acetylene tanks used in welding;
3. the compressed air brakes and shock absorbers; and
4. the use of oxygen tanks for high altitude flying and emergency use.
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Charles’ Law
The French scientist, Jacques Charles, provided much of the foundation for the modern
kinetic theory of gases. He found that all gases expand and contract in direct proportion to the
change in the absolute temperature, provided the pressure is held constant. As a formula, this
law is shown as follows:

“If the pressure of a given mass of a gas is maintained constant, the volume of gas increases
as its temperature is increased”.
V αT
V
=K
T
Volume 1 × Absolute Temperature 2 =Volume 2 × Absolute Temperature 1
Or
V1T2 = V2T1

By itself Boyle's Law is of little use because in practice air is not compressed at a constant
temperature. Although if we use Boyle's Law in combination with Charles' Law, it becomes
more useful. Charles' Law states that if air is heated at a constant pressure, the change in
volume will vary with the change in temperature. Therefore, the volume of a mass of gas at
constant pressure is proportional to the temperature of the gas (air). So, the product of the
pressure and volume of the air through each stage within a turbine engine is proportional to
the temperature of the air at the stage.

Charles’ law also works if the volume is held constant, and pressure and temperature are the
variables. In this case, the formula would be as follows:
P1T2 = P2T1
For this second formula, pressure and temperature must be in the absolute.

General Gas Law

By combining Boyle’s and Charles’ laws, a single expression can be derived which states all
the information contained in both. The formula which is used to express the general gas law
is as follows:
Pressure 1(Volume 1) Pressure 2(Volume 2)
=
Temperature1 Temperature2

When using the general gas law formula, temperature and pressure must be in the absolute.
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Dalton’s Law
If a mixture of two or more gases that do not combine chemically is placed in a container,
each gas expands Throughout the total space and the absolute pressure of each gas is reduced
to a lower value, called its partial pressure. This reduction is in accordance with Boyle’s law.
The pressure of the mixed gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures. This fact was
discovered by Dalton, an English physicist, and is set forth in Dalton’s law: “A mixture of
several gases
which do not react chemically exerts a pressure equal to the sum of the pressures which the
several gases would exert separately if each were allowed to occupy the entire space alone at
the given temperature.”

Ideal Gas/Universal Gas Law

The ideal gas law is used to describe the state of a gas under a given set of conditions such as
temperature, pressure, and volume. Scientists and designers use this for a thorough analysis
of the behaviour of gases.
The law assumes that gases are ideal, that is that the molecules are perfectly uniform and
simply collide with each other but do not interact. It considers all of the energy to be the
kinetic energy of the molecules bouncing of each other. Therefore, any change in energy
within the system also changes the temperature. This does not or is not actually the case when
working with real gases.
The relationship between pressure, density and temperature is;

This equation only applies to a perfect gas when a given mass occupies a given volume, but
from this equation it is possible to establish the effect of pressure and temperature on density
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PHYSICS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Aviation is so dependent upon that category of fluids called gases and the effect of forces and
pressures acting upon gases that a discussion of the subject of the atmosphere is important to
the persons maintaining and repairing aircraft.

Before examining the fundamental laws of flight, several basic facts must be considered. An
aircraft operates in the air. Therefore, those properties of air that affect the control and
performance of an aircraft must be understood.
Data available about the atmosphere may determine whether a flight will succeed, or whether
it will even become airborne. The various components of the air around the earth, the
changes in temperatures and pressures at different levels above the earth, the properties of
weather encountered by aircraft in flight, and many other detailed data are considered in the
preparation of flight plans.

The air in the earth’s atmosphere is composed mostly of nitrogen and oxygen. Air is
considered a fluid because it fits the definition of a substance that has the ability to flow or
assume the shape of the container in which it is enclosed. If the container is heated, pressure
increases; if cooled, the pressure decreases.

1. Composition of the Atmosphere

The word Atmosphere is derived from the Greek ‘Atoms’ means ‘vapour’ and ‘phere’ means
‘sphere’. Atmosphere means the gaseous sphere surrounding the earth. The percentage of
each gas in the atmosphere does not vary with altitude, but vary with volumetric.

Atmosphere is the medium in which an aircraft operates. The atmosphere is a region of air
surrounding the Earth up to a height of approximately 500 miles (900 km).
Aviation is so dependent upon that category of fluids called gases and the effect of forces and
pressures acting upon gases, that a discussion of the subject of the atmosphere is important to
the persons maintaining and repairing aircraft.

Data available about the atmosphere may determine whether a flight will succeed, or whether
it will even become airborne. The various components of the air around the earth, the changes
in temperatures and pressures at different levels above the earth, the properties of weather
encountered by aircraft in flight, and many other detailed data are considered in the
preparation of flight plans.

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Air in the atmosphere consist a mixture of different number of gases by the following
proportions (by volume):
1. Nitrogen - 78.03 %
2. Oxygen - 20.99 %
3. Argon - 00.94 %
4. CO2 and other gases - 00.04 %
Or simply can be as
1. Nitrogen 78%
2. Oxygen 21%
3. Other gases 1% (e.g. argon, carbon dioxide, water vapour)

These percentages are volumetric. This ratio remains constant regardless of the altitude but,
as the air pressure is the weight of the column of air above a fixed point, the highest pressure
is at ground level and this pressure decreases with altitude. These proportions do not change
much with altitude.

Oxygen is essential for the sustenance of life and the combustion of materials. In the context
of aviation, oxygen is required for the combustion of fuel, a deficiency of this gas resulting in
incomplete burning and reduced engine efficiency.
Water vapour is present in the atmosphere in varying proportions, and is responsible for the
weather around the earth, which in turn affects aircraft operations and performance.
Additionally, the presence of water vapour may cause icing of the airframe or engine which
may impair an aircraft's performance.
Up to a height of 6 miles (11 km), water vapour also occurs in varying quantities. The actual
amount of water vapour in a given mass of air depends on the temperature and whether the
air has recently passed over a large area of water. Generally, the higher the temperature, the
greater the amount of water vapour a given mass of air can hold. Air has weight and is also
compressible. Its pressure, density, and temperature all decrease with increasing altitude. An
aircraft performs work on the air to sustain flight, and any change in pressure, density, and
temperature will affect the amount of energy that the aircraft can extract from the air.

The ratios of the gases vary little with height although the moisture contents drop with
increase in altitude. Because of these variations and to allow standardization and calibration
of instruments and engine performance figures etc. A standard atmosphere has been advised.

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This allows engines to be test run in, almost any ambient condition and the performance
figures adjusted to standard atmospheric conditions and allowing the performance of one
engine to be direct compared to another. Pitot static operated instruments can be calibrated
using the standard atmosphere and they can be set for flight using the same parameters e.g
QNE on the altimeter
Apart from the above gases air also contains some impurities like dust and salt particles.
Water vapour and traces of other gases are also present.

The atmosphere is a complex and ever changing mixture. Its ingredients vary from place to
place and from day to day. In addition to a number of gases, it contains quantities of foreign
matter such as pollen, dust, bacteria, soot, volcanic ash, spores, and dust from outer space.
The composition of the air remains almost constant from sea level up to its highest level, but
its density diminishes rapidly with altitude. Six (6) miles up, for example, it is too thin to
support respiration, and 12 miles up, there is not enough oxygen to support combustion,
except in some specially designed turbine engine powered airplanes.
At a point several hundred miles above the earth, some gas particles spray out into space,
some are dragged by gravity and fall back into the ocean of air below, while others never
return. Physicists disagree as to the boundaries of the outer fringes of the atmosphere. Some
think it begins 240 miles above the earth and extends to 400 miles; others place its lower
edge at 600 miles and its upper boundary at 6,000 miles.
There are also certain nonconformities at various levels. Between 12 and 30 miles, high solar
ultraviolet radiation reacts with oxygen molecules to produce a thin curtain of ozone, a very
poisonous gas without which life on earth could not exist. This ozone filters out a portion of
the sun’s lethal ultraviolet rays, allowing only enough coming through to give us sunburn, kill
bacteria, and prevent rickets. At 50 to 65 miles up, most of the oxygen molecules begin to
break down under solar radiation into free atoms, and to form hydroxyl ions (OH) from water
vapor. Also in this region, all the atoms become ionized.
The atmosphere is divided into concentric layers or levels. Transition through these layers is
gradual and without sharply defined boundaries.

The four atmosphere layers are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and the ionosphere.
The upper portion of the stratosphere is often called the chemosphere or ozonosphere, and the
exosphere is also known as the mesosphere while also thermosphere is called Ionosphere.

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The Troposphere. The first layer of the atmosphere that extends from the earth’s surface to
about 35,000 ft at middle latitudes, but varies from 28,000 ft at the poles to about 54,000 ft at
the equator.
The troposphere is characterized by large changes in temperature and humidity and by
generally turbulent conditions. Temperature decreases with an increase in height.
In this region nearly all significant weather occurs. Nearly all cloud formations are within the
troposphere. Approximately three-fourths of the total weight of the atmosphere is within the
troposphere.

Tropopause. The layer exists between the first and second layer. The tropopause is defined
as the point in the atmosphere at which the decrease in temperature, with increasing altitude,
abruptly ceases. Tropopause is the dividing line between Troposphere and Stratosphere.
The tropopause is therefore the upper limit of significant weather, the first point of lowest
temperature, and additionally it is the region for maximum wind strengths.

The height of the tropopause varies with latitude, season of the year, and prevailing weather
conditions with the result that it is usually higher in low latitudes, in summer and in fine
weather.
Typical heights for the tropopause are:
Latitude Tropopause Height
Equator 16 - 47 km 53,000-57,000 ft
45° NIS 1 0 - 12 km 33,000-39,000 ft
Poles 71/2 - 9 km 25,000-29,000 ft

The Stratosphere. Extends from the upper limits of the troposphere and the tropopause ,
which extends to the upper limit of the atmosphere. The upper part of the earth's atmosphere,
extending upward from about 36,000 feet above the surface of the earth, to about 85.000 feet.
And is characterized by the temperature being steady or increasing with height.

Temperature increases with altitude in the stratosphere to near 0 °C before decreasing again
in
the mesosphere, which lies above it. The stratosphere contains the ozone layer that protects
the earth’s inhabitants from harmful UV rays. Some civilian flights and numerous military
flights occur in the stratosphere.

19
The temperature in the stratosphere remains constant at -56.5 oC (-69.7°F), but the pressure
continues to decrease. The boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere is called
the
tropopause.

The Mesosphere. From 50 km to 80 km. The temperature generally decreases with height.
The exosphere, or mesosphere, is the outer layer of the atmosphere. It begins at an altitude of
600 miles and extends to the limits of the atmosphere. In this layer, the temperature is fairly
constant at 2,500° Kelvin, and propagation of sound is thought to be impossible due to lack
of molecular substance.

The Ionosphere. Ranges from the 50-mile level to a level of 300 to 600 miles. In this layer
Temperature increases with height.
Little is known about the characteristics of the ionosphere, but it is thought that many
electrical phenomena occur there. Basically, this layer is characterized by the presence of
ions and free electrons, and the ionization seems to increase with altitude and in successive
layers.

Temperature and Altitude

Temperature variations in the atmosphere are of concern to aviators. Weather systems
produce changes in temperature near the earth’s surface. Temperature also changes as altitude
is increased. Studies of the atmosphere have revealed that the temperature does not decrease
uniformly with increasing altitude; instead it gets steadily colder up to a height of about 7
miles, where the rate of temperature change slows down abruptly and remains almost
constant at −55° Centigrade (218° Kelvin) up to about 20 miles.

The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere. On average, it ranges from the earth’s
surface to about 38,000 feet above it. Over the poles, the troposphere extends to only 25,000 -
30,000 feet and, at the equator, it may extend to around 60,000 feet. This oblong nature of the
troposphere is illustrated in Figure 1-5.

20
 Figure 1-5. The troposphere extends higher above the earth’s surface at the equator than it
does at the poles.

Most civilian aviation takes place in the troposphere in which temperature decreases as
altitude increases. The rate of change is somewhat constant at about –2 °C or –3.5 °F for
every 1,000 feet of increase in altitude. The upper boundary of the troposphere is the
tropopause. It is characterized as a zone of relatively constant temperature of –57 °C or –69
°F (-55°C approximation).
Then the temperature begins to rise to a peak value of 77° Centigrade (350° Kelvin) at the 55-
mile level. Thereafter it climbs steadily, reaching 2,270° Centigrade (2,543° Kelvin) at a
height of 250 to 400 miles. From the 50-mile level upward, a man or any other living
creature, without the protective cover of the atmosphere, would be burned on the side facing
the sun and frozen on the other.

Above the tropopause lies the stratosphere. Temperature increases with altitude in the
stratosphere to near 0 °C before decreasing again in the mesosphere, which lies above it. The
stratosphere contains the ozone layer that protects the earth’s inhabitants from harmful UV
rays. Some civilian flights and numerous military flights occur in the stratosphere. Figure 1-6
diagrams the temperature variations in different layers of the atmosphere.

21
 Figure 1-6. The atmospheric layers with temperature changes depicted by the red line.

As stated, density varies inversely with temperature or, as temperature increases, air density
decreases. This phenomenon explains why on very warm days, aircraft take-off performance
decreases. The air available for combustion is less dense. Air with low density contains less
total oxygen to combine with the fuel.

Air Is A Fluid
The atmosphere is the medium in which an aircraft operates. It is the properties of the
atmosphere, changed by the shape of the wing, that generate the required lift force. The most
important property is air density (the “thickness” of air),

THE KEY FACT IS THAT If air density decreases, the mass of air flowing over the aircraft
in a given time will decrease.
A given mass flow will generate the required lift force, but a decrease in air density will
reduce the mass flow and hence reduces lift force. To maintain the required lift force if

22
density decreases, the speed of the aircraft through the air must be increased. The increased
speed of airflow over the wing will maintain the mass flow and lift force at its required value.

When most people hear the word “fluid,” they usually think of liquid. However, gasses, like
air, are also fluids.
Fluids take on the shape of their containers. Fluids generally do not resist deformation when
even the smallest stress is applied, or they resist it only slightly.
We call this slight resistance viscosity. Fluids also have the ability to flow. Just as a liquid
flows and fills a container, air will expand to fill the available volume of its container. Both
liquids and gasses display these unique fluid properties, even though they differ greatly in
density. Understanding the fluid properties of air is essential to understanding the principles
of flight.

The Physical Properties of Air

Air has substance! Air has mass; not very much if compared to other matter, but nevertheless
a significant amount. A mass of moving air has considerable kinetic energy; for example,
when moving at 100 knots the kinetic energy of air can inflict severe damage to man-made
structures.

Air is a compressible fluid and is able to flow or change its shape when subjected to even
minute pressure differences. (Air will flow in the direction of the lower pressure). The
viscosity of air is so low that very small forces are able to move the molecules in relation to
each other.
When considering the portion of atmosphere in which most aircraft operate (up to 40 000 ft),
with increasing altitude, the characteristics of air undergo a gradual transition from those at
sea level. Since air is compressible, the lower layers contain much the greater part of the
whole mass of the atmosphere. Pressure falls steadily with increasing altitude, but
temperature falls steadily only to about 36 000 ft, above which it then remains constant
through the stratosphere.

1. Viscosity
Viscosity can be simply defined as the internal friction of a fluid caused by molecular
attraction which makes it resist a tendency to flow. OR Viscosity is the property of a fluid
that causes it to resist flowing.

23
The way individual molecules of the fluid tend to adhere, or stick, to each other determines
how much a fluid resists flow. High-viscosity fluids are “thick” and resist flow; low-viscosity
fluids are “thin” and flow easily. Air has a low viscosity and flows easily.

The viscosity of air is important when discussing airflow in the region very close to the
surface of the aircraft. This region is called the boundary layer. The viscosity of gases is
unlike that of liquids, in that with gases an increase in temperature causes an increase
in viscosity.
The viscosity of liquids decreases rapidly with an increase in temperature, and the viscosity
of gases increases with an increase in temperature.

Dynamic viscosity /Absolute Viscosity

Is the force needed by a fluid to overcome its own internal molecular friction so that the fluid
can flow.
Dynamic viscosity = force × time ÷ area.
The unit of viscosity, accordingly, is newton-second per square metre, which is usually
expressed as pascal-second in SI units.

The coefficient of absolute viscosity has been assigned the symbol μ (mu). The viscosity of
gases is unusual in that the viscosity is generally a function of temperature alone and an
increase
in temperature increases the viscosity. Since many parts of aerodynamics involve
consideration of viscosity and density, a more usual form of viscosity measure is the
proportion of the coefficient of absolute viscosity and density. This combination is termed the
“kinematic viscosity” and is noted by v (nu).
Kinematic Viscosity: ν = μ / ρ

All fluids are viscous and have a resistance to flow, whether or not we observe this resistance.
We cannot easily observe the viscosity of air. However, since air is a fluid and has viscosity
properties, it resists flow around any object to some extent.

2. Friction
Another factor at work when a fluid flows over or around an object is called friction. Friction
is the resistance that one surface or object encounters when moving over another. Friction
exists between any two materials that contact each other.

24
The effects of friction can be demonstrated using a similar example as before. If identical
fluids are poured down two identical ramps, they flow in the same manner and at the same
speed. If the surface of one ramp is rough, and the other smooth, the flow down the two
ramps differs significantly.
The rough surface ramp impedes the flow of the fluid due to resistance from the surface
(friction). It is important to remember that all surfaces, no matter how smooth they appear,
are not smooth on a microscopic level and impede the flow of a fluid.
The surface of a wing, like any other surface, has a certain roughness at the microscopic
level. The surface roughness causes resistance and slows the velocity of the air flowing over
the wing. [Figure 4-1]

Figure 4-1. Microscopic surface of a wing.

Molecules of air pass over the surface of the wing and actually adhere (stick, or cling) to the
surface because of friction. Air molecules near the surface of the wing resist motion and have
a relative velocity near zero. The roughness of the surface impedes their motion. The layer of
molecules that adhere to the wing surface is referred to as the boundary layer.

Once the boundary layer of the air adheres to the wing by friction, further resistance to the
airflow is caused by the viscosity, the tendency of the air to stick to itself. When these two
forces act together to resist airflow over a wing, it is called drag.

3. Air Density
Density is ‘mass per unit volume’ (The ‘number’ of air particles in a given space). Density
varies with static pressure, temperature and humidity.
2. Density decreases if static pressure decreases.
3. Density decreases with increase in altitude
4. Density decreases if temperature increases.

25
 5. Density decreases if humidity increases.

Air Density is proportional to pressure and inversely proportional to temperature. This is

shown
in the ideal/universal gas law formula below.

where p = pressure, T = temperature, and ρ = density

Density decreases with increasing altitude because of decreasing static pressure. However,
with increasing altitude temperature also decreases, which would tend to increase density,
but the effect of decreasing static pressure is dominant.

Since both temperature and pressure decrease with altitude, it might appear that the density of
the atmosphere would remain fairly constant with increased altitude. This is not true,
however, because pressure drops more rapidly with increased altitude than does the
temperature. The result is that density decreases with increased altitude. Starts at 1.2kg per
meter cubed at sea level and falls at a similar rate to pressure ie non-linear rate (the graph is
curved).

Density is weight per unit of volume. Since air is a mixture of gases, it can be compressed. If
the air in one container is under half as much pressure as an equal amount of air in an
identical container, the air under the greater pressure weighs twice as much as that in the
container under lower pressure. The air under greater pressure is twice as dense as that in the
other container. For the equal weight of air, that which is under the greater pressure occupies
only half the volume of that under half the pressure.

Thus, air at high altitudes is less dense than air at low altitudes, and a mass of hot air is less
dense than a mass of cool air. Changes in density affect the aerodynamic performance of
aircraft with the same horsepower.
An aircraft can fly faster at a high altitude where the air density is low than at a low altitude
where the density is greater. This is because air offers less resistance to the aircraft when it
contains a smaller number of air particles per unit of volume.

26
This equation only applies to a perfect gas when a given mass occupies a given volume, but
from this equation it is possible to establish the effect of pressure and temperature on density
The effect of pressure, temperature, humidity and static pressure and altitude

THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON DENSITY

Air is a gas and can be easily compressed or expanded. When air is compressed, the number
of molecules, or mass, in a given volume increases and the density rises. Conversely, as air
expands, the original volume contains fewer molecules and the density decreases. At a lower
pressure, the original column of air contains a smaller mass of air. Density is therefore
directly proportional to pressure (i.e. if the pressure doubles, the density also doubles); if the
pressure is lowered, the density is lowered. This statement is only true if the temperature
remains constant.
Density ∝ Pressure

THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY

As air is heated, the molecules tend to speed up and the spacing increases between them.
Thus. a given volume contains fewer molecules and the air density decreases. Conversely, as
air cools. the degree of molecular movement decreases and a given volume contains a greater
number of molecules. so the density increases. Increasing the temperature of a substance
decreases its density. Conversely, decreasing the temperature increases the density.

Air density is inversely proportional to temperature (i.e. if the temperature doubles the
density halves). This statement is only true if the pressure remains constant. In the
atmosphere, both temperature and pressure decrease with altitude and have conflicting effects
upon density. However, a fairly rapid drop in pressure as altitude increases usually has a
dominating effect. Hence, pilots can expect the density to decrease with altitude.

Density ∝1/Temperature

THE EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON DENSITY

With increasing altitude, pressure and temperature both decrease. As stated previously, the
drop in temperature causes an increase in density whilst the drop in pressure causes a
decrease in density. These factors act in opposition to each other, but pressure has a
dominating influence over density. Consequently, pressure. temperature, and density all
decrease with increasing altitude.

27
THE EFFECT OF HUMIDITY ON DENSITY
The preceding paragraphs assume that air is perfectly dry. In fact, there is always a certain
amount of water vapour suspended in the atmosphere, which varies from place to place and
day to day. May be almost negligible under certain conditions, but in other conditions
humidity
may become an important factor in the performance of an aircraft.

Water vapor is lighter than air; consequently, moist air is lighter than dry air. When air
contains water vapour, the density of the air is reduced because water vapour is less dense
than dry air. The density of water vapour under standard sea level conditions is 0.760 kg/m 3,
whereas the density of dry air is 1.225 kg/m3. Water vapour therefore weighs 5/8 as much as
dry air. This means that, for a given volume. air is least dense when it contains a maximum
amount of water vapour and most dense when it is perfectly dry. Humidity will therefore
affect aircraft performance.
Therefore, as the water content of the air increases, the air becomes less dense, increasing
density altitude and decreasing performance. It is lightest or least dense when, in a given set
of conditions, it contains the maximum amount of water vapor.

4. Pressure
Is the force exerted per unit area. Unit is N/m 2 .This is measured in Newtons per square metre
(N/m2) and is called the Pascal (Pa). Pressure is the force applied in a perpendicular direction
to the surface of an object. Often, pressure is measured in pounds of force exerted per square
inch of an object, or PSI.
Force
Pressure = Area

In aviation, the bar is more commonly used to measure pressure. 1 bar =105 Pa, or 1 mb = 1
hPa. In aerodynamics three types of pressure exist.

An object completely immersed in a fluid will feel pressure uniformly around the entire
surface of the object. If the pressure on one surface of the object becomes less than the
pressure exerted
on the other surfaces, the object will move in the direction of the lower pressure.
Air has substance! Air has mass; not very much if compared to other matter, but nevertheless
a significant amount. A mass of moving air has considerable kinetic energy; for example,
when moving at 100 knots the kinetic energy of air can inflict severe damage to man-made
structures.

28
In Aerodynamics two types of pressure exist
i. Static Pressure – Static pressure is the result of the weight of the atmosphere pressing
down on the air beneath. The pressure exerted by air when is at rest. When air
stationary it exerts Pressure equally in all directions. For example, a mass of
stationary air in container exerted a certain amount of static pressure on the
surrounding walls of the container.
 Static pressure is the result of the weight of the atmosphere pressing down on
the air beneath.
 Static pressure will exert the same force per square metre on all surfaces of an
aeroplane.
 The lower the altitude, the greater the force per square metre. It is called static
pressure because of the air’s stationary or static presence.
 An aircraft always has static pressure acting upon it.

Static pressure at a particular altitude will vary from day to day, and is about 1000 hPa at sea
level. In those countries that measure static pressure in inches of mercury (inHg), sea level
static pressure is about 30 inHg. The symbol is lower case ‘p’
Force
Pressure = Area

ii. Dynamic Pressure - The pressure exerted by air when is in motion, the unit for
dynamic pressure is N/m2 and the symbol is lower case ‘q’ or upper case ‘Q’.
 Because air has mass, air in motion must possess kinetic energy, and will exert
a force per square metre on any object in its path. (KE = ½ m V2)
 It is called DYNAMIC pressure because the air is moving in relation to the
object being considered, in this case an aircraft.
 Dynamic pressure is proportional to the density of the air and the square of the
speed of the air flowing over the aircraft.

An aircraft immersed in moving airflow will therefore experience both static AND dynamic
pressure. (Remember, static pressure is always present).
1 2
Q= ρ V
2

29
 Figure 2: Static Pressure and Dynamic Pressure

If the velocity of air at the throat has doubled, its dynamic pressure has risen by a value of
four, and the static pressure has decreased. Dynamic pressure is common to ALL
aerodynamic forces and determines the air loads imposed on an aeroplane moving through
the air.

The kinetic energy of one cubic metre of air moving at a stated speed is given by the formula:
1 2
Q(Kinetic Energy)= ρ V where Q is in Joules
2
where ρ is the local air density in kg/m3 and V is the speed in m/s

If this cubic metre of moving air is completely trapped and brought to rest by means of an
open-ended tube the total energy will remain constant, but by being brought completely to
rest the kinetic energy will become pressure energy which, for all practical purposes, is equal
to:
1 2
Q ( Dyamic Pressure )= ρ V
2

Consider air flowing at 52 m/s (100 kt) with a density of 1.225 kg/m3
(100 kt = 100 NM/h = 100 × 6080 ft/h = 608000 ÷ 3.28 = 185366 ÷ 60 ÷ 60 m/s = 52 m/s)
Dynamic pressure = 0.5 × 1.225 × 52 × 52 = 1656 N/m2 (16.56 hPa)

If speed is doubled, dynamic pressure will be four times greater

If the cross-sectional area of the tube is 1 m2 a force of ½ ρ V2 newtons will be generated.

(Force = Pressure × Area)
Dynamic pressure (½ ρ V2) is common to ALL aerodynamic forces and determines the air
loads imposed on an aeroplane moving through the air.

The symbol for dynamic pressure (½ ρ V2) is q or Q

30
Key Facts
A pilot needs to know how much dynamic pressure is available, but dynamic pressure cannot
be measured on its own because static pressure will always be present. The sum of static and
dynamic pressure, in this context, is known as ‘Total’ pressure.

(Dynamic + Static pressure can also be referred to as Stagnation or Pitot pressure).

Total Pressure = Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure
This can be re-arranged to show that:
Total Pressure - Static Pressure = Dynamic Pressure

The significant point is that:

Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure is a constant. This constant can be referred to either as:
TOTAL PRESSURE, STAGNATION PRESSURE or PITOT PRESSURE.

Because dynamic pressure is dependent upon air density and the speed of the aircraft through
the air, it is necessary for students to fully appreciate the factors which affect air density.
i. Temperature - increasing temperature decreases air density. Changes in air density
due to air temperature are significant during all phases of flight.
ii. Static pressure - decreasing static pressure decreases air density. Changes in air
density due to static pressure are significant during all phases of flight.
iii. Humidity - increasing humidity decreases air density. (The reason increasing
humidity decreases air density is that the density of water vapour is about 5/8 that of
dry air).
Humidity is most significant during take-off and landing.

Increasing altitude will decrease air density because the effect of decreasing static pressure is
more dominant than decreasing temperature.

Measuring Dynamic Pressure

All aerodynamic forces acting on an aircraft are determined by dynamic pressure, so it is
essential to have some means of measuring dynamic pressure and presenting that information
to the pilot.

31
A sealed tube, open at the forward end, is located where it will collect air when the aircraft is
moving. The pressure in the tube (pitot tube) is Dynamic + Static and, in this context, is
called
“Pitot” pressure (because the air is inside the pitot tube).

Some way of ‘removing’ the static pressure from the pitot pressure must be found. A hole
(vent) in a surface parallel to the airflow will sense static pressure. Referring to the diagram
below, if the pressure from the pitot tube is fed to one side of a diaphragm mounted in a
sealed case, and static pressure is fed to the other side, the two static pressures will cancel
each other and the diaphragm movement will be influenced only by changes in dynamic
pressure.

Movement of the diaphragm moves a pointer over a scale so that changes in dynamic
pressure can be observed by the flight crew. But the instrument is calibrated at ISA sea level
density, so the instrument will only give a ‘true’ indication of the speed of the aircraft
through the air when the air density is 1.225 kg/m3.
This is not a problem because the pilot needs an indication of dynamic pressure, and this is
what the instrument provides. The instrument is made in such a way that it indicates the
square root of the dynamic pressure in nautical miles per hour (knots) or statute miles per
hour (mph). So, if this “Indicated Airspeed” is doubled, the speed of the aircraft through the
air will also be doubled.

Figure 2.1 Schematic of the airspeed indicator (ASI)

Relationships between Airspeeds

Indicated Airspeed: (IAS). The speed registered on the Airspeed Indicator. The indicated
airspeed of an aircraft as shown on its pitot static airspeed indicator (ASI).
32
This provides vital airspeed information, e.g. stalling and structural limitation airspeeds, to
the flight-crew. It is calibrated to reflect standard atmospheric adiabatic compressible flow at
sea level and is uncorrected for airspeed system errors.

Calibrated Airspeed: (CAS). An accurate measure of dynamic pressure when the aircraft is
flying slowly. The position of the pitot tube(s) and static vent(s), together with the aircraft’s
configuration (flaps, landing gear etc.) and attitude to the airflow (angle of attack and
sideslip) will affect the pressures sensed, particularly the pressures sensed at the static
vent(s).
The indicated airspeed of an aircraft corrected for position and instrument errors. CAS
is equal to True Airspeed (TAS) in standard atmosphere at sea level only.

Under the influence of the above conditions a false dynamic pressure (IAS) will be displayed.
When IAS is corrected for this ‘position’ or ‘pressure’ error, as it is called, the resultant is
Calibrated Airspeed. (The airspeed corrections to be applied may be displayed on a placard
on
the flight-deck, or in the Flight Manual, and will include any instrument error).

Equivalent Airspeed: (EAS). The calibrated airspeed of an aircraft corrected for

compressibility error at a particular altitude. EAS is equal to CAS at airspeeds less than 300
kt and is equal to TAS in standard atmosphere at sea level only.

An accurate measure of dynamic pressure when the aircraft is flying fast. Air entering the
pitot tube(s) is compressed, which gives a false dynamic pressure (IAS) reading, but only
becomes significant at higher speeds.
At a given air density, the amount of compression depends on the speed of the aircraft
through
the air. When the IAS is corrected for ‘position’ AND ‘compressibility’ error, the
resultant is Equivalent Airspeed.

True Airspeed: (TAS) or (V). The speed of the aircraft through the air. THE ONLY SPEED
THERE IS - All the other, so called, speeds are pressures.

33
The Airspeed Indicator is calibrated for ‘standard’ sea level density, so it will only read TAS
if the density of the air through which the aircraft is flying is 1.225 kg/m 3. Thus at 40000 ft
where the ‘standard’ density is one quarter of the sea-level value, to maintain the same EAS
the aircraft will have to move through the air twice as fast!

The Speed of Sound: (a) Sound is ‘weak’ pressure waves which propagate spherically
through the atmosphere from their source. The speed at which pressure waves propagate is
proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature of the air. The lower the
temperature, the lower the speed of propagation. On a ‘standard’ day at sea level the speed of
sound is approximately 340 m/s (660 kt TAS).

Mach Number (M).

The ratio of the TAS of an aircraft to the speed of sound in the surrounding atmosphere (i.e.
the local speed of sound (LSS).

At higher aircraft True Airspeeds (TAS) and/or higher altitudes, it is essential to know the
speed of the aircraft in relation to the local speed of sound. This speed relationship is known
as the Mach Number (M).

If the True Airspeed of the aircraft is four tenths the speed at which pressure waves propagate
through the air mass surrounding the aircraft, the Mach meter will register M 0.4

Critical Mach Number: (MCRIT) The critical Mach number is the Mach number of the
aircraft when the speed of the airflow over some part of the aircraft (usually the point of
maximum thickness on the aerofoil) first reaches the speed of sound.

Airspeed
The airspeed indicator is really a pressure gauge, the ‘needle’ of which responds to changes
in dynamic pressure (½ρV2).

34
Calibration of the airspeed indicator is based on standard sea level density (1.225 kg/m3).
The “airspeed” recorded will be different from the actual speed of the aircraft through the air
unless operating under standard sea level conditions (unlikely).
The actual speed of the aircraft relative to the free stream is called true airspeed (TAS), and
denoted by (V). The ‘speed’ recorded by the airspeed indicator calibrated as above, if there
are no other errors, is called equivalent airspeed (EAS)

It may seem to be a drawback that the instrument records equivalent rather than true airspeed,
but the true airspeed may always be determined from it. Also, many of the handling
characteristics of an aircraft depend mainly on the dynamic pressure, i.e. on the equivalent
airspeed, so it is often more useful to have a direct reading of EAS than TAS.

Errors and Corrections

An airspeed indicator is, however, also subject to errors other than that due to the difference
between the density of the air through which it is flying and standard sea level density.

Instrument Error: This error may arise from the imperfections in the design and
manufacture of the instrument, and varies from one instrument to another. Nowadays this
type of error is usually very small and for all practical purposes can be disregarded. Where
any instrument error does exist, it is incorporated in the calibrated airspeed correction chart
for the particular aeroplane.

Position Error (Pressure Error): This error is of two kinds, one relating to the static
pressure measurement, the other to the pitot (total) pressure measurement. The pitot tube(s)
and static port(s) may be mounted in a position on the aircraft where the flow is affected by
the presence of the aircraft, changes in configuration (flaps and maybe gear) and proximity to
the ground (ground effect).

If so, the static pressure recorded will be the local and not the free stream value. The pitot
pressure may be under-recorded because of incorrect alignment - the tube(s) may be inclined
to the airstream instead of facing directly into it (changes in angle of attack, particularly at
low speeds). The magnitude of the consequent errors will generally depend on the angle of
attack and, hence, the speed of the aircraft.

35
Compressibility Error: At high speeds, the dynamic pressure is not simply ½ρV2, but
exceeds it by a factor determined by Mach number. Thus the airspeed indicator will over-
read.

Because of the errors listed, the ‘speed’ recorded on the airspeed indicator is generally not the
equivalent airspeed. It is called instead the indicated airspeed. Corrections to rectify the
instrument and position errors are determined experimentally.
In flight, using special instruments, measurements are taken over the whole range of speeds
and configurations, from which a calibration curve is obtained which gives the corrections
appropriate to each indicated airspeed. The compressibility error correction may be obtained
by calculation.
The indicated airspeed, after correction for instrument, position (pressure) and
compressibility errors, gives the equivalent airspeed ½ρV2.

V Speeds
These include: VS, V1, VR, V2, VMD, VMC, VYSE and many others - these are all Calibrated
Airspeeds (CAS) because they relate to aircraft operations at low speed. However, the
appropriate corrections are made and these speeds are supplied to the pilot in the Flight
Manual as IAS.

VMO - The maximum operating IAS is, however, an EAS because it is a high speed, but again
it is supplied to the pilot in the Flight Manual as an IAS.

Aircraft ‘V’ speeds are CAS, except VMO which is an EAS, but all are presented to the pilot in
the Flight Manual as IAS.

Atmospheric Pressure
Although there are various kinds of pressure, pilots are mainly concerned with atmospheric
pressure. It is one of the basic factors in weather changes, helps to lift an aircraft, and actuates
some of the important flight instruments. These instruments are the altimeter, airspeed
indicator, vertical speed indicator, and manifold pressure gauge.

The weight of air is heaviest at sea level where it has been compressed by all of the air above.
This compression of air is called atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure is usually
defined as the force exerted against the earth’s surface by the weight of the air above that
surface.

36
Air is very light, but it has mass and is affected by the attraction of gravity. Therefore, like
any other substance, it has weight, and because of its weight, it has force. Since air is a fluid
substance, this force is exerted equally in all directions. Its effect on bodies within the air is
called pressure.

Pressure is the amount of force acting on a specific amount of surface area.

Weight is force applied to an area that results in pressure. Force (F) equals area (A) times
pressure (P), or F = AP. Therefore, to find the amount of pressure, divide area into force (P =
F/A). The pressure can be measured in inches of mercury ("Hg), millimeters of mercury (mm
Hg), millibars (mb), Pounds per square inch (psi) , Newton’s per square meter or Pascal.

The human body is under pressure, since it exists at the bottom of a sea of air. This pressure
is due to the weight of the atmosphere. On a standard day at sea level, a column of air (one
square inch) extending from sea level to the top of the atmosphere weighs approximately 14.7
pounds; therefore, atmospheric pressure is stated in pounds per square inch (psi). Thus,
atmospheric pressure at sea level is 14.7 psi. (Figure 1-1)

Figure 1-1. The weight exerted by a 1 square inch column of air stretching from sea level to
the top of the atmosphere is what is measured when it is said that atmospheric pressure is
equal to 14.7 pounds per square inch.

Under standard conditions at sea level, the average pressure exerted by the weight of the
atmosphere is approximately 14.70 pounds per square inch (psi) of surface, or 1,013.2
millibars (mb) or 29.92 inches of mercury or 760 millimeters of mercury (mm Hg). The
thickness of the atmosphere is limited; therefore, the higher the altitude, the less air there is
37
above. For this reason, the weight of the atmosphere at 18,000 feet is one-half what it is at sea
level.

Pascan and Torricelli have been credited with developing the barometer, an instrument for
measuring atmospheric pressure. The results of their experiments are still used today with
very little improvement in design or knowledge. They determined that air has weight which
changes as altitude is changed with respect to sea level. Today scientists are also interested in
how the atmosphere affects the performance of the aircraft and its equipment.

Atmospheric pressure is measured with an instrument called a Barometer, composed of

mercury in a tube that records atmospheric pressure in inches of mercury ("Hg). (Figure 1-2)
The standard measurement in aviation altimeters and U.S. weather reports has been "Hg.
However, world-wide weather maps and some non-U.S. manufactured aircraft instruments
indicate pressure in millibars (mb), an SI metric unit.

Figure 1-2. Barometer used to measure atmospheric pressure.

Aviators often interchange references to atmospheric pressure between linear displacement

(e.g., inches of mercury) and units of force (e.g., psi). Over the years, meteorology has shifted
its use of linear displacement representation of atmospheric pressure to units of force. The
unit of force nearly universally used today to represent atmospheric pressure in meteorology
is the Hector-Pascal (hPa). A Pascal is a SI metric unit that expresses force in Newton’s per

38
square meter. A Hector-Pascal is 100 Pascals. 1 013.2 hPa is equal to 14.7 psi which is equal
to 29.92 "Hg. (Figure 1-3)

Figure 1-3. Various equivalent representations of atmospheric pressure at sea level.

Atmospheric pressure is often measured by a mercury barometer. The concept behind

measuring pressure in inches of mercury involves filling a test tube with the liquid mercury
and then covering the top. The test tube is then turned upside down and placed in an open
container of mercury, and the top is uncovered.
A glass tube somewhat over 30 inches in length (or 1016 millibars ) is sealed at one end and
then filled with mercury. It is then inverted and the open end placed in a dish of mercury.
Immediately, the mercury level in the inverted tube will drop a short distance, leaving a small
volume of mercury vapor at nearly zero absolute pressure in the tube just above the top of the
liquid mercury column.

Gravity acting on the mercury in the tube will try to make the mercury run out. Atmospheric
pressure pushing down on the mercury in the open container tries to make the mercury stay in
the tube. At some point these two forces (gravity and atmospheric pressure) will equilibrate
out and the mercury will stabilize at a certain height in the tube at 29.92 inches for inch
measurement out of 30 inches and 1013 millibars (mb) measurement out of 1016 millibars
(mb).
Under standard day atmospheric conditions, the air in a 1 square inch column extending to
the top of the atmosphere would weigh 14.7 lb. A 1-in 2 column of mercury, 29.92 inches tall,
would also weigh 14.7 lb. That is why 14.7 psi is equal to 29.92 "Hg. Figure 5-50
demonstrates this point.

39
 Figure 5-50. Atmospheric pressure as inches of mercury.

The pressure of the atmosphere varies with time and location. Due to the changing
atmospheric pressure, a standard reference was developed. The standard atmosphere at sea
level is a surface temperature of 59 °F or 15 °C and a surface pressure of 29.92 inches of
mercury ("Hg) or 1,013.2 mb. [Figure 1-2].

A second means of measuring atmospheric pressure is with an aneroid barometer. This

mechanical instrument is a much better choice than a mercury barometer for use on airplanes.
Aneroid barometers, or altimeters, are used to indicate altitude in flight. The calibrations are
made in thousands of feet rather than in psi or inches of mercury. For example, the standard
pressure at sea level is 29.92 "Hg, or 14.7 psi.

At 10,000 feet above sea level, standard pressure is 20.58 "Hg, or 10.10 psi. Altimeters are
calibrated so that if the pressure exerted by the atmosphere is 10.10 psi, the altimeter will
point to 10,000 ft. [Figure 5-51]

40
 Figure 5-51. An airplane’s altimeter is an aneroid barometer.

Since atmospheric pressure at any altitude is due to the weight of air above it, pressure
decreases with increased altitude. Obviously, the total weight of air above an area at 15,000
ft. would be less than the total weight of the air above an area at 10,000 ft.

Atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude. The simplest explanation for this is
that the column of air that is weighed is shorter. How the pressure changes for a given
altitude is shown in Figure 1-4. The decrease in pressure is a rapid one and, at 50,000 feet, the
atmospheric pressure has dropped to almost one-tenth of the sea level value. The pressure
drop is non-liner rate with altitude (is curved).

Figure 1-4. Atmospheric pressure decreasing with altitude. At sea level the pressure is 14.7
psi, while at 40,000 feet, as the dotted lines show, the pressure is only 2.72 psi.

As an aircraft ascends, atmospheric pressure drops, the quantity of oxygen decreases, and
temperature drops. These changes in altitude affect an aircraft’s performance in such areas as

41
lift and engine horsepower. The effects of temperature, altitude, and density of air on aircraft
performance are covered in the following paragraphs.

Gauge Pressure
Gauge pressure is a pressure simply measured by an instrument. When an instrument, such as
an oil pressure gauge, fuel pressure gauge, or hydraulic system pressure gauge, displays
pressure which is over and above ambient, the reading is referred to as gauge pressure (psig).
This can be seen on the fuel pressure gauge shown in Figure 5-34. When the oil, fuel, or
hydraulic pump is not turning, and there is no pressure being created, the gauge will read
zero.

Figure 5-34. Psig read on a fuel pressure gauge.

Absolute Pressure
A gauge that includes atmospheric pressure in its reading is measuring what is known as
absolute pressure, or psia. Absolute pressure is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric
pressure.
If someone hooked up a psia indicating instrument to an engine’s oil system, the gauge would
read atmospheric pressure when the engine was not running. Since this would not make good
sense to the typical operator, psia gauges are not used in this type of application.
For the manifold pressure on a piston engine, a psia gauge does make good sense. Manifold
pressure on a piston engine can read anywhere from less than atmospheric pressure if the
engine is not supercharged, to more than atmospheric if it is supercharged. The only gauge
that has the flexibility to show this variety of readings is the absolute pressure gauge. Figure
5-35 shows a manifold pressure gauge, with a readout that ranges from 10 "Hg to 35 "Hg.
Remember that 29.92 "Hg is standard day atmospheric.

42
 Figure 5-35. Manifold pressure gauge indicating absolute pressure.

Differential Pressure
Differential pressure, or psid, is the difference between pressures being read at two different
locations within a system. For example, in a turbine engine oil system the pressure is read as
it enters the oil filter, and as it leaves the filter. These two readings are sent to a transmitter
which powers a light located on the flight deck. Across anything that poses a resistance to
flow, like an oil filter, there will be a drop in pressure. If the filter starts to clog, the pressure
drop will become greater, eventually causing the advisory light on the flight deck to come on.

Figure 5-36 shows a differential pressure gauge for the pressurization system on a Boeing
737. In this case, the difference in pressure is between the inside and the outside of the
airplane. If the pressure difference becomes too great, the structure of the airplane could
become overstressed.

43
 Figure 5-36. Differential pressure gauge.

These pressure reading are absolute readings. This means that if an ordinary pressure gauge is
open to atmospheric pressure it will read zero. To illustrate the point checking a tyre pressure
with it say 30 psi the read will be 30 psi. This is called Gauge Pressure of the tyre. Its
absolute pressure would be Gauge Pressure Plus Atmospheric Pressure = 30 psi + 14.7psi
=44.7 psi Absolute Pressure

There are numerous systems of measuring pressure, in aviation there are three common
systems in use.
Pounds per square inch - This is perhaps the most common measure of pressure and simply
expresses the force in pounds that the air exerts on each square inch of area. In our standard
atmosphere at sea level, the air exerts a pressure of 14.69 pounds per square inch (psi.).
Approximately one half of our atmosphere is below 18,000 feet (ft.) and at that altitude; the
air pressure has dropped to 7.34 psi.

Inches of mercury - A manometer is a device employed to measure pressure. It is based on

the principle that by filling a tube with mercury and inverting it in a bowl of mercury, the
liquid in the tube will drop and create a vacuum above it. The liquid will drop until the force
exerted by the air on the surface of the mercury in the bowl is exactly equal to the weight of
mercury in the tube.
The pressure of the air under Standard Sea Level conditions will support a column of
mercury to a height of 29.92 inches or 760 mm. Both inches and millimeters of mercury (mm
Hg) are used as a unit of pressure. 1 mm Hg is called 1 torr. A pressure of 1 torr or 1 mm Hg
is literally the pressure that produces a 1 mm difference in the heights of the two columns of
mercury in a manometer.

Millibars - Weather forecasters use millibars (mb) as a measure of pressure, on weather

maps for example, the standard sea level pressure is 1013.25 mb. The altimeter in an aircraft
does not measure how high it is; rather, it measures the absolute pressure caused by the
weight of air above it. The scale, however, is normally marked in feet rather than in units of
pressure. By setting the barometric scale to sea level pressure the altimeter shows the height
above sea level. This scale is either in millibars or inches of Mercury (American).

Fluid Pressure

44
The pressure exerted on the bottom of a container by a liquid is determined by the height of
the liquid and not by the shape of the container. This can be seen in Figure 5-41, where three
different shapes and sizes of containers are full of colored water. Even though they are
different shapes and have different volumes of liquid, each one has a height of 231 inches.
Each one would exert a pressure on the bottom of 8.34 psi because of this height. The
container on the left, with a surface area of 1 in2, contains a volume of 231 in 3 (one gallon).
One gallon of water weighs 8.34 lb, which is why the pressure on the bottom is 8.34 psi.

Figure 5-41. Fluid pressure based on column height.

Still thinking about Figure 5-41, if the pressure was measured half way down, it would be
half of 8.34, or 4.17 psi. In other words, the pressure is adjustable by varying the height of the
column. Pressure based on the column height of a fluid is known as static pressure. With
liquids, such as gasoline, it is sometimes referred to as a head of pressure. For example, if a
carburetor needs to have 2 psi supplied to its inlet, or head of pressure, this could be
accomplished by having the fuel tank positioned the appropriate number of inches higher
than the carburetor.

As identified in the previous paragraph, pressure due to the height of a fluid column is known
as static pressure. When a fluid is in motion, and its velocity is converted to pressure, that
45
pressure is known as ram. When ram pressure and static pressure are added together, the
result is known as total pressure. In the inlet of a gas turbine engine, for example, total
pressure is often measured to provide a signal to the fuel metering device or to provide a
signal to a gauge on the flight deck.

6. Humidity
Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air or atmosphere. The maximum amount of
water vapor that air can hold varies with the temperature. The higher the temperature of the
air, the more water vapor it can absorb.
The colder the air is, the less moisture it can hold so therefore like temperature, pressure and
density, humidity decreases with increase in altitude.

In the troposphere, the air is rarely completely dry. It contains water vapor in one of two
forms:
1. Fog or
2. Water vapor.

Fog consists of minute droplets of water held in suspension by the air. Clouds are
composed of fog. The height to which some clouds extend is a good indication of the
presence of water in the atmosphere almost up to the stratosphere. The presence of water
vapor in the air is quite evident in Figure 5-52, with a military F-18 doing a high-speed fly-by
at nearly Mach 1. The temperature and pressure changes that occur as the airplane
approaches supersonic flight cause the water vapor in the air to condense and form the
vapor cloud that is visible.

46
 Figure 5-52. F-18 high-speed fly-by and a vapor cloud.

As a result of evaporation, the atmosphere always contains some moisture in the form of
water vapor. The moisture in the air is called the humidity of the air. Moisture does not
consist of tiny particles of liquid held in suspension in the air as in the case of fog, but is an
invisible vapor truly as gaseous as the air with which it mixes. Fog and humidity both affect
the performance of an aircraft. In flight, at cruising power, the effects are small and
receive no consideration. During take-off, however, humidity has important effects.

Two things are done to compensate for the effects of humidity on take-off performance.
Since humid air is less dense than dry air, the allowable take-off gross weight of an aircraft is
generally reduced for operation in areas that are consistently humid. Second, because the
power output of reciprocating engines is decreased by humidity, the manifold pressure may
need to be increased above that recommended for take-off in dry air in order to obtain the
same power output.

Engine power output is calculated on dry air. Since water vapor is incombustible, its pressure
in the atmosphere is a total loss as far as contributing to power output. The mixture of water
vapor and air is drawn through the carburetor, and fuel is metered into it as though it were all
air. This mixture of water vapor, air, and fuel enters the combustion chamber where it is
ignited. Since the water vapor will not burn, the effective fuel/air ratio is enriched and the
engine operates as though it were on an excessively rich mixture. The resulting horsepower
loss under humid conditions can therefore be attributed to the loss in volumetric efficiency
47
due to displaced air, and the incomplete combustion due to an excessively rich fuel and air
mixture.
The reduction in power that can be expected from humidity is usually given in charts in the
flight manual. There are several types of charts in use. Some merely show the expected
reduction in power due to humidity; others show the boost in manifold pressure necessary to
restore full take-off power.

The effect of fog on the performance of an engine is very noticeable, particularly on engines
with high compression ratios. Normally, some detonation will occur during acceleration, due
to the high BMEP, which stands for brake mean effective pressures, developed. However, on
a foggy day it is difficult to cause detonation to occur. The explanation of this lies in the fact
that fog consists of particles of water that have not vaporized. When these particles enter the
cylinders, they absorb a tremendous amount of heat energy in the process of vaporizing. The
temperature is thus lowered, and the decrease is sufficient to prevent detonation.

Fog will generally cause a decrease in horsepower output. However, with a supercharged
engine, it will be possible to use higher manifold pressures without danger of detonation.

Absolute Humidity
Absolute humidity is the weight of water vapor in a unit volume of air.
Absolute humidity is the actual amount of the water vapor in a mixture of air and water. It is
expressed either in grams per cubic meter or pounds per cubic foot.

The amount of water vapor that can be present in the air is dependent upon the temperature
and pressure. The higher the temperatures, the more water vapor the air is capable of holding,
assuming constant pressure. When air has all the water vapor it can hold at the prevailing
temperature and pressure, it is said to be saturated.

Relative Humidity
Humidity, also called relative humidity, refers to the amount of water vapor contained in the
atmosphere and is expressed as a percentage of the maximum amount of water vapor the air
can hold. This amount varies with temperature. Warm air holds more water vapor, while cold
air holds less. Perfectly dry air that contains no water vapor has a relative humidity of
zero percent, while saturated air, which cannot hold any more water vapor, has a
relative humidity of 100 percent.

48
Humidity alone is usually not considered an important factor in calculating density altitude
and aircraft performance, but it is a contributing factor.

Relative humidity is the ratio, in percent, of the moisture actually in the air to the moisture it
would hold if it were saturated at the same temperature and pressure. OR
Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapor actually present in the
atmosphere to the amount that would be present if the air were saturated at the prevailing
temperature and pressure. OR
Relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapour in the air to the amount which
would saturate it at the same temperature and is expressed as a percentage.

This ratio is usually multiplied by 100 and expressed as a percentage. Suppose, for example,
that a weather report includes the information that the temperature is 75 °F and the relative
humidity is 56 percent. This indicates that the air holds 56 percent of the water vapor required
to saturate it at 75 °F. If the temperature drops and the absolute humidity remain constant, the
relative humidity will increase. This is because less water vapor is required to saturate the air
at the lower temperature.
Humidity is normally stated as a percentage. If the humidity is specified as 60%, it means that
the air is holding 60% of the maximum vapour that can be held at that temperature.

Assuming that the temperature and pressure remain the same, the density of the air varies
inversely with the humidity. On humid days, the air density is less than on dry days. For this
reason, an aircraft requires a longer runway for take-off on damp (humid) days than it does
on dry days.

By itself, water vapor weighs approximately five-eighths as much as an equal amount of

perfectly dry air. Therefore, when air contains water vapor, it is not as heavy as dry air
containing no moisture.
49
 Figure 1.3 Humidity graph.

By itself, water vapour weighs approximately 5/8 of an equal volume of perfect dry air,
therefore when air contains water vapour it is not so heavy as air which contains no moisture.
This is due to water being composed of hydrogen, an extremely light gas, and oxygen,
whereas air is composed of mainly nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%) which are both heavier
than hydrogen.
Assuming temperature and pressure remains the same, the density (mass/volume) of the air
varies with the humidity, so therefore on damp/humid days the air density will be less than on
dry days.
As temperature increases, the air can hold greater amounts
of water vapor. When comparing two separate air masses,
the first warm and moist (both qualities tending to lighten
the air) and the second cold and dry (both qualities making
it heavier), the first must be less dense than the second.
Pressure, temperature, and humidity have a great influence
on aircraft performance because of their effect upon density.
There are no rules of thumb that can be easily applied, but
the affect of humidity can be determined using several online
formulas. In the first example, the pressure is needed at the
altitude for which density altitude is being sought. Using
Figure 4-2, select the barometric pressure closest to the

50
associated altitude. As an example, the pressure at 8,000 feet
is 22.22 "Hg. Using the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) website (www.srh.noaa.gov/
epz/?n=wxcalc_densityaltitude) for density altitude, enter
the 22.22 for 8,000 feet in the station pressure window. Enter
a temperature of 80° and a dew point of 75°. The result is a
density altitude of 11,564 feet. With no humidity, the density
altitude would be almost 500 feet lower.

Another website (www.wahiduddin.net/calc/density_

altitude.htm) provides a more straight forward method of
determining the effects of humidity on density altitude
without using additional interpretive charts. In any case, the
effects of humidity on density altitude include a decrease in
overall performance in high humidity conditions.

Dew Point
The dew point is the temperature to which humid air must be cooled at constant pressure to
become saturated. If the temperature drops below the dew point, condensation occurs.
People who wear eyeglasses have experience going from cold outside air into a warm room
and having moisture collect quickly on their glasses. This happens because the glasses were
below the dew point temperature of the air in the room. The air immediately in contact with
the glasses was cooled below its dew point temperature, and some of the water vapor was
condensed out. This principle is applied in determining the dew point. A vessel is cooled until
water vapor begins to condense on its surface. The temperature at which this occurs is the
dew point.

Vapor Pressure
Vapor pressure is the portion of atmospheric pressure that is exerted by the moisture in the
air, which is expressed in tenths of an inch of mercury. The dew point for a given condition
depends on the amount of water pressure present; thus, a direct relationship exists between
the vapor pressure and the dew point.

7. Air Temperature
Under standard conditions, temperature decreases at approximately 1.98 ºC for each
increase of altitude of 1000 feet. This decrease of temperature with altitude is defined as the

51
lapse rate and continues up until an altitude of 38,000 feet, where the temperature remains at
a constant -56.5 ºC up to 65,000 feet. The ICAO Standard Temperature at sea level is + 15
ºC.

International Standard Atmosphere (ISA)

The atmosphere is never at rest. Pressure, temperature, humidity, and density of the air are
continuously changing in any given layer of the atmosphere. As air a gas will have the
physical properties such as pressure, density and temperature, which can vary. These
properties vary within the atmosphere depending on where you may be in the world. Because
of these variations, the performance of an aircraft will vary.
If meaningful comparisons between measured performances are to be made, we must have a
reference for all of our aerodynamic computations, the International Civil Aviation
Organisation, (ICAO), has agreed upon a “Standard Atmosphere”. This is known as the
International Standard Atmosphere or ISA. The standard atmosphere represents the mean or
average properties of the atmosphere. The properties ISA is taken from 45 degrees’ latitude.

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), ISO, and various governments has
established and publish this as a worldwide standard values, and it is often referred to as
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) or ICAO Standard Atmosphere. Any temperature
or pressure that differs from the standard lapse rates is considered nonstandard temperature
and pressure. (Figure 1-7)

The pressures, temperatures

and densities in this atmosphere may not be typical of our location, but they do serve as a
reference. When all aerodynamic computations are related to this Standard, we can
compare flight test data and other information, relative to our aircraft and its
performance, regardless of where the readings were taken and the results will be
meaningful.

The ICAO (International Civil Aeronautical Organization) standard atmosphere, also known
as the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), is a hypothetical condition whose
parameters have been accepted by international agreement as representative of the
atmosphere surrounding the earth for the purposes of aircraft design and performance
calculations, and for the calibration of aircraft instruments.

52
Since aircraft performance is compared and evaluated with respect to the standard
atmosphere, all aircraft instruments are calibrated for the standard atmosphere. In order to
properly account for the nonstandard atmosphere, certain related terms must be defined.

Figure 1-2. Conditions of the standard ICAO atmosphere

To provide a basis for theoretical calculations, performance comparisons of aircraft and

instrumentation equivalence and the calibration, standard values for these and other
characteristic of the atmosphere have been developed. The standard atmosphere represents
the mean or average properties of the atmosphere.
To enable accurate comparison of aircraft performance and the calibration of pressure
instruments, a ‘standard’ atmosphere has been adopted.

If the performance of an aircraft is computed, either through flight tests or wind tunnel tests,
some standard reference condition must be determined first in order to compare results with
those of similar tests. The conditions in the atmosphere vary continuously, and it is generally
not possible to obtain exactly the same set of conditions on two different days or even on two
successive flights. For this reason, a set group of standards must be used as a point of
reference. The set of standard conditions presently used in the United States is known as the
U.S. Standard Atmosphere.

The standard atmosphere approximates the average conditions existing at 40° latitudes, and is
determined on the basis of the following assumptions. The standard sea level conditions are:
1. Pressure at 0 altitude (Po) = 29.92 "Hg
2. Temperature at 0 altitude (To) = 15 °C or 59 °F
3. Gravity at 0 altitude (Go) = 32.174 fps/s

53
The U.S. Standard Atmosphere is in agreement with the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) Standard Atmosphere over their common altitude range. The ICAO
Standard Atmosphere has been adopted as standard by most of the principal nations of the
world.

Figure 1-7. The International Standard Atmosphere.

Figure 1-7 shows how pressure and temperature change with altitude. Notice that the pressure
continues to drop as altitude increases, but the temperature stabilizes at the beginning of the
stratosphere, which is 36,089 feet. The speed of sound, which is affected only by the
temperature, stabilizes at the same altitude as the temperature.

A standard temperature lapse rate is when the temperature decreases at the rate of
approximately 3.5 °F or 2 °C per 1,000 feet up to 36,000 feet, which is approximately –65 °F
or –55 °C. Above this point, the temperature is considered constant up to 80,000 feet. A
standard pressure lapse rate is when pressure decreases at a rate of approximately 1 "Hg per
1,000 feet of altitude gain to 10,000 feet. [Figure 4-3]/ Figure 1-7

NOTE: High Density Altitude means that the conditions that actually exist at the airport of
take-off or landing represent those of a higher altitude in the International Standard
Atmosphere i.e. less air density

54
In practical flight conditions, air pressure is measured in terms of altitude rather than inches
of mercury or pounds per square inch. The altimeter is an absolute-pressure gage, or
barometer, that measures the pressure of the air and indicates the altitude at which that
pressure exists.

THE ICAO REGULATION CONCERNING A STANDARD ATMOSPHERE

The equation representing the relationship between meteorological and physical quantities
satisfying the ICAO standard atmosphere are deduced on the basics of established
meteorological and physical theory.
It has been shown that the primary variables (pressure, temperature and density) of the
standard atmosphere based upon the certain simple assumptions were in fairly good
agreement with average values observed at about latitude 40 0 N. Such standard atmosphere
may therefore be regarded as a suitable reference basic of the certain parameters in free air
(excluding those dependent on water vapour).

The standard ICAO atmosphere is an arbitrary statement of conditions which is accepted as

a basic of comparison of aircraft and engine performance and for the calibration of
instruments.

THE STANDARD ICAO ATMOSPHERE STATES THAT:

THE AIR OF THE STANSRD ATMOSPHERE IS ASSUMED TO BE DRY. THE PRESSURE
AT SEA LEVEL WILL BE 1013.25 MILLIBARS AT A TEMPERATURE OF 15 0 C AND THE
TEMPERATURE LAPS RATE WILL BE 1.98 0C PER 1000 FEET UP TO A HEIGHT OF
36090 FEET ABOVE WHICH THE TEMPERATURE WILL REMAIN CONSTANT AT -
56.50C TO 65,800 FEET. “G” WILL BE GIVEN A UNIFORM VALUE OF 9.81 M/SEC. 2 AT
SEA LEVEL.

For heights above 65,800 feet an extension to the ICAO law assuming a temperature lapse
rate of approximately +0.3030C /1,000 feet to -44,65650C at 105,000 feet was introduced in
1963.

The standard day conditions that have been accepted by the International Civil Aviation
Organization (ICAO) are seen in Figure 10-8.

55
Standard day. A set of atmospheric conditions that have been agreed upon by scientists and
engineers who work with aircraft and engines that allow them to correct all measurements to
the same conditions.

Figure 10 – 8. Parameters of the ICAO standard day.

Standard day conditions. Conditions that have been decided upon by the ICAO
(International Civil Aeronautics Organization) for comparing all aircraft and engine
performance. The most basic standard day conditions are: temperature, 15°C or 52°F;
altitude, mean sea level; pressure, 29.92 inches of mercury.

Geopotential of the tropopause. The point in the standard atmosphere where the
temperature stops dropping and becomes constant.

8. Air Density
By use of the general gas law, studied earlier, it can be shown that for a particular gas,
pressure and temperature determine the density. Since standard pressure and temperatures
have been associated with each altitude, the density of the air at these standard temperatures
and pressures must also be considered standard. Thus, a particular atmospheric density is
associated with each altitude. This gives rise to the expression “density altitude,” symbolized
“Hd.” A density altitude of 15,000 ft is the altitude at which the density is the same as that
considered standard for 15,000 ft.

Remember, however, that density altitude is not necessarily true altitude. For example, on a
day when the atmospheric pressure is higher than standard and the temperature is lower than
standard, the density which is standard at 10,000 ft might occur at 12,000 ft. In this case, at

56
an actual altitude of 12,000 ft, we have air that has the same density as standard air at 10,000
ft.
Density altitude is a calculated altitude obtained by correcting pressure altitude for
temperature.

Altitudes Types and Measurements

In practical flight conditions, air pressure is measured in terms of altitude rather than inches
of mercury or pounds per square inch. The altimeter is an absolute-pressure gage, or
barometer, that measures the pressure of the air and indicates the altitude at which that
pressure exists.
When the barometric scale of the altimeter is set at the standard sea-level pressure, 29.92
inches of mercury, the indication is called pressure altitude.
Pressure altitude. The altitude in standard atmosphere at which the pressure is the same as the
existing air.
Density altitude, used to determine the amount of lift produced by an airfoil and the amount
of power produced by an engine, is found by correcting pressure altitude for nonstandard
temperature.
Density altitude. The altitude in standard air at which the density is the same as that of the
existing air.

Pressure Altitude
Pressure altitude is the height above a standard datum plane
(SDP), which is a theoretical level where the weight of the
atmosphere is 29.92 "Hg (1,013.2 mb) as measured by a
barometer. An altimeter is essentially a sensitive barometer
calibrated to indicate altitude in the standard atmosphere. If
the altimeter is set for 29.92 "Hg SDP, the altitude indicated
is the pressure altitude. As atmospheric pressure changes, the
SDP may be below, at, or above sea level. Pressure altitude
is important as a basis for determining airplane performance,
as well as for assigning flight levels to airplanes operating at
or above 18,000 feet.

The pressure altitude can be determined by one of the following methods:

57
1. Setting the barometric scale of the altimeter to 29.92
and reading the indicated altitude
2. Applying a correction factor to the indicated altitude
according to the reported altimeter setting

Density Altitude
SDP is a theoretical pressure altitude, but aircraft operate in a
nonstandard atmosphere and the term density altitude is used
for correlating aerodynamic performance in the nonstandard
atmosphere. Density altitude is the vertical distance above sea
level in the standard atmosphere at which a given density is
to be found. The density of air has significant effects on the
aircraft’s performance because as air becomes less dense,
it reduces:
• Power because the engine takes in less air
• Thrust because a propeller is less efficient in thin air
• Lift because the thin air exerts less force on the airfoils

Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard

temperature. As the density of the air increases (lower
density altitude), aircraft performance increases; conversely
as air density decreases (higher density altitude), aircraft
performance decreases. A decrease in air density means
a high density altitude; an increase in air density means a
lower density altitude. Density altitude is used in calculating
aircraft performance because under standard atmospheric
conditions, air at each level in the atmosphere not only has
a specific density, its pressure altitude and density altitude
identify the same level.

The computation of density altitude involves consideration

of pressure (pressure altitude) and temperature. Since aircraft
performance data at any level is based upon air density under
58
standard day conditions, such performance data apply to
air density levels that may not be identical with altimeter
indications. Under conditions higher or lower than standard,
these levels cannot be determined directly from the altimeter.

Density altitude is determined by first finding pressure

altitude, and then correcting this altitude for nonstandard
temperature variations. Since density varies directly with
pressure and inversely with temperature, a given pressure
altitude may exist for a wide range of temperatures by
allowing the density to vary. However, a known density
occurs for any one temperature and pressure altitude. The
density of the air has a pronounced effect on aircraft and
engine performance. Regardless of the actual altitude of the
aircraft, it will perform as though it were operating at an
altitude equal to the existing density altitude.

Air density is affected by changes in altitude, temperature, and humidity. High density
altitude refers to thin air, while low density altitude refers to dense air. The conditions that
result in a high density altitude are high elevations, low atmospheric pressures, high
temperatures, high humidity, or some combination of these factors. Lower elevations, high
atmospheric pressure, low temperatures, and low humidity are more indicative of low density
altitude.

59
AERODYNAMICS
Before a technician can consider performing maintenance on an aircraft, it is necessary to
understand the pieces that make up the aircraft. Names like fuselage, empennage, wing, and
so many others, come into play when describing what an airplane is and how it operates. For
helicopters, names like main rotor, anti-torque rotor, and autorotation come to mind as a
small portion of what needs to be understood about rotorcraft.

The law of conservation of energy states that “Energy may neither be created nor destroyed.”
Motion is the act or process of changing place or position. An object may be in motion with
respect to one object and motionless with respect to another. For example, a person sitting
quietly in an aircraft flying at 200 knots is at rest or motionless with respect to the aircraft;
however, the person and the aircraft are in motion with respect to the air and to the earth.

Air has no force or power, except pressure, unless it is in motion. When it is moving,
however, its force becomes apparent. A moving object in motionless air has a force exerted
on it as a result of its own motion.
It makes no difference in the effect then, whether an object is moving with respect to the air
or the air is moving with respect to the object. The flow of air around an object caused by the
movement of either the air or the object, or both, is called the relative wind.

Airflow Around a Body

The terms which we have just defined help to observe the geometrical characteristics. From a
purely aerodynamic point of view, the terminology which follows reveals the various
principal forces observed on an airfoil.
If you are in a car with the windows pulled down, you might put your arm outside and place
your hand in the air flow. In a simple rotation of the wrist, your hand is suddenly attracted
upwards and backwards by a force.

We need to examine the aerodynamic forces of an aircraft, but before doing so we will
consider the forces of any object moving through the air. We will eventually consider a
specific aerodynamic shape or airfoil and consider how lift and drag are produced. Lift and
drag are both forces, but how are they produced?
If a random shaped object is placed in the path of a uniform airflow as shown, the
airflow will be undisturbed until it meets the object. The presence of the object will
seriously disturb or disrupt the airflow and in doing so create forces in all directions.
How is this force produced?

60
 Figure 1.4 Air flow around random body

Air, like all fluids possesses a property called pressure. This pressure normally exerts a
pushing force on any object it contacts. This force always acts at right angles to the
object. In the diagram the forces are shown as small vector arrows at right angles to the
surface of the object.
Also, since the pressure will create the force that will prevent object from moving, the
force called drag act parallel to the free stream airflow to an object.

Figure 1.5 pushing force on an object

At the moment we do not have one force, but instead a large number of small forces,
represented by the small vector arrows. If we produce a single force by adding all of
these vectors, we can produce a resultant force which we call the total reaction. The
total reaction acts at an angle θ to the direction of the airflow.

This total reaction is shown in the diagram and acts at an angle θ to the direction of the
airflow. We can split the total reaction vector into two separate vectors, one parallel to the
airflow and one perpendicular to it.
61
 1. Drag - which is the component of total reaction force acting parallel to the free stream
airflow
2. Lift - which is the component of total reaction force acting perpendicular to the free
stream airflow

When this random object is an aerofoil,

Figure 4.1

Figure 2-14. Resultant of lift and drag.

These four forces are actually the components that produce a resultant lift force on the wing
called the Total Reaction or Resultant.
Total Reaction or Resultant. - The resultant of all the aerodynamic forces acting on the
aerofoil section.

Center of Pressure - This is the point of application of the aerodynamic resultant. OR

The point on the chord line of an airfoil where all of the aerodynamic forces are considered to
be concentrated.
62
The lift vector acts from the center of pressure in a direction that is perpendicular to the
relative wind, and the drag vector acts from this same point in a direction parallel to the
relative wind.

By convention we define these two forces as:

1. Lift - The aerodynamic force which acts at 90° to the Relative Airflow.
2. Drag - The aerodynamic force which acts parallel to and in the same direction as the
Relative Airflow (or opposite to the aircraft flight path).

Drag And Trust: Always parallel to the relative wind (V), drag will oppose the pulling force
of the propellers engines or the thrust of the turbine engines.

Lift And Weight: Always perpendicular to the direction of the relative wind (V), the lift
opposes the weight of the aircraft.

The free stream airflow is the airflow a long way from the object. This needs to be so because
if an object is placed in the path of airflow, the airflow will begin to be disturbed before it
reaches the object.
The use of the term ‘lift’ can be misleading, for under certain conditions of flight, such as a
dive, it may act horizontally, and in other circumstances vertically downwards.

Free stream airflow is air flowing without obstruction before it engages the aircraft structure.
The velocity of the free stream flow is equal to the speed aircraft. The pressure of the free
stream airflow is static pressure.

Free Stream Airflow (FSA) is airflow that is far enough away from an aircraft that the
aircraft does not disturb it.

Aerodynamic resultant: This force which we find on the airfoil of an aircraft acts in the
same way and is known as aerodynamic resultant.

63
 Figure 1.67 Aerodynamic resultant

The aerodynamic resultant is the sum of the forces of low pressure and high pressure
observed on an airfoil in an air flow.
This resultant which pulls the body upwards acts from a point on the chord line, known as
center of pressure (CP). When the angle of attack increases, the drag increases and the center
of pressure moves to the leading edge of the wing.

There are several important problems to consider when determining the center of pressure for
an airfoil.
On each part of an airfoil or wing surface, a small force is present. This force is of a different
magnitude and direction from any forces acting on other areas forward or rearward from this
point. It is possible to add all of these small forces. That sum is called the “resultant force”
(lift).
This resultant force has magnitude, direction, and location, and can be represented as a
vector, as shown in Figure 2-16. The point of intersection of the resultant force line with the
chord line of the airfoil is called the center of pressure (CP). The CP moves along the airfoil
chord as the AOA changes. Throughout most of the flight range, the CP moves forward
with increasing AOA and rearward as the AOA decreases. The effect of increasing AOA on
the CP is shown in Figure 2-17.

64
 Figure 2-16. Airflow over a wing section.

As we change angle of attack, the pressure at every point on the airfoil changes. And,
therefore, the location of the center of pressure changes as well. The movement of the center
of pressure caused a major problem for early airfoil designers because the amount (and
sometimes the direction) of the movement was different for different designs. In general, the
pressure variation around the airfoil also imparts a torque, or "twisting force", to the
airfoil. If a flying airfoil is not restrained in some way, it will flip as it moves through
the air.

Basics about Airflow

As air flows around an aerofoil the pressure differential set up over the upper and lower
surfaces produces a force. This force acts perpendicular to the relative airflow and is known
as lift. In steady level flight, lift exactly balances the aircraft's weight. For a given airspeed, a
lower weight requires less lift.

To understand fully how the aerodynamic forces of lift and drag act on an aircraft, it is
necessary to study the effect of airflow. In principle it does not matter whether an aircraft is
moving through the air, or whether air is flowing over a stationary aircraft, since the result is
the same. Airflow can be either streamline or turbulent in nature.

When considering airflow velocity, it makes no difference to the pressure pattern if the
aircraft is moving through the air or the air is flowing over the aircraft: it is the relative
velocity which is the important factor. To promote a full understanding, references will be
made to both wind tunnel experiments, where air is flowing over a stationary aircraft, and
aircraft in flight moving through ‘stationary’ air.

65
Streamline flow exists when succeeding molecules follow a steady path, with the molecules
flowing in an orderly pattern along streamlines around an object (Fig. 4.1).

Figure 4.1.

At any given point in the streamline, the molecules experience the same velocities and
pressures as the preceding molecules, but the values may alter from point to point along the
streamline. Widely spaced streamlines indicate a reduction in velocity, whereas a narrow
spacing between the streamlines indicates an increase in velocity. If the streamlines flow
without mixing, the flow is known as laminar. Laminar flow is desirable in most phases of
flight, and produces the ideal flow pattern around an aircraft. (Fig. 4.2).

Figure 4.2.

If a sudden change in the direction of the airflow occurs, the streamline flow breaks down
and becomes turbulent flow.

Turbulent Flow occurs when the succeeding molecules can no longer follow a streamlined
flow pattern and instead travel along a path different than the preceding molecules (Fig. 4.3).

66
 Figure 4.3.
Turbulent flow is also called 'unsteady' or 'eddying' flow and results in wasted energy.
This is undesirable in most phases of flight (Fig. 4.4).

Free Stream Airflow (FSA) is airflow that is far enough away from an aircraft that the
aircraft does not disturb it.

Figure 4.4.

Three-dimensional airflow: Three-dimensional flow is the true airflow over an aircraft and
consists of a hypothetical two-dimensional flow modified by various pressure differentials.
Three-dimensional airflow will be examined later (during explain induced drag).

Two-dimensional airflow: Assumes a wing with the same aerofoil section along the entire
span with no span-wise pressure differential or flow.

Two-Dimensional Airflow
This CONCEPT, Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3, is used to illustrate the basic principles of
aerodynamic force generation.

67
 Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3

As the streamlines approach an aerofoil, a dividing streamline develops, which separates the
flow going over the upper surface from the flow going over the lower surface (Fig. 4.13).

Figure. 4.13.

As the dividing streamline approaches the aerofoil it slows down, and momentarily comes to
rest just below the leading edge, forming a stagnation point. A stagnation point also exists
at the rear of the aerofoil. At these points the velocity of the airflow reduces to zero, and
the static pressure reaches a maximum value (stagnation pressure), which is higher than
atmospheric. At normal angles of attack, the forward stagnation point is situated below the
leading edge, allowing the airflow passing over the upper surface to initially travel forward.

As Airflows towards an aerofoil it will be turned towards the lower pressure at the
upper surface.The pressure differential (negative pressure gradient) associated with the
upper surface also imparts acceleration to the flow, and helps draw the air locally
upward, producing upwash (Fig. 4.14).

68
 Fig. 4.14.

After passing over the aerofoil, the airflow returns to its original position and state. At the
rear of the aerofoil, the faster moving airflow over the upper surface relative to the
lower surface tends to force the lower streamlines downward, producing downwash.
Streamlines and the Stream-tube
A streamline is the path traced by a particle of air in a steady airflow, and streamlines
cannot cross. When streamlines are shown close together it illustrates increased velocity, and
vice versa. Diverging streamlines illustrate a decelerating airflow and resultant increasing
pressure, and converging streamlines illustrate an accelerating airflow, with resultant
decreasing pressure.

Figure 3.4 Streamlines & a stream-tube

A stream-tube is an imaginary tube made of streamlines. There is no flow into or out of the
stream-tube through the “walls”, only a flow along the tube. With this concept it is possible to
visualize the airflow around an aerofoil being within a tube made up of streamlines.

The Venturi Tube

69
A Venturi tube can be used to demonstrate an approximate relationship between pressure and
velocity for low flow speeds. This simple but effective instrument is nothing but a tube which
gradually narrows to a throat, and then expands gradually to the exit.

Figure 1.6 Venturi tube.

When air flows from the region of high pressure to that of lower pressure it is accelerated.
Conversely, flow from a low pressure to a higher region results in a decrease in speed. Figure
1.7 shows in a wind tunnel experiment, how the air flowing over the top of the airfoil shape is
travelling faster than below. This accelerated air is producing the relative lower pressure on
the upper surface.

Figure 1.7 Wind tunnel experiment.

The Principle of Continuity

One of the fundamental laws of the universe is ENERGY and MASS can neither be created
nor destroyed, only changed from one form to another. To demonstrate the effect this basic
Principle of Continuity has on aerodynamic theory, it is instructive to consider a streamline
flow of air through a tube which has a reduced cross-sectional area in the middle.

Equation of Continuity

70
The equation of continuity applies only to streamlined or steady flow. It states that, if a fluid
flows through a pipe its mass flow remains constant, since mass can neither be created nor
destroyed. If air flows through a pipe of varying cross-sectional area (venturi tube), the mass
of air entering the pipe in a given time equals the mass of air leaving the pipe in the same
time (Fig. 4.5).

Figure 4.5.

The air mass flow, or mass per unit time, through the tube will be the product of the cross-
sectional area (A), the airflow velocity (V) and the air density (ρ). Mass flow will remain a
constant value at all points along the tube. The Equation of Continuity is:

A × V × ρ = Constant

Mass Airflow is expressed in kg/s where:

p = kg/m3
A= m2
V = m/s

This equation applies equally to both subsonic and supersonic airflow, provided the flow
remains steady. At velocities less than 0.4 Mach, air is considered to be incompressible and
inviscid (ideal). Density, therefore, remains constant and can be deleted from the equation,
such that:
Mass Airflow α AV

This shows that velocity is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area, with any
reduction in area resulting in an increase in velocity and vice versa. This effect can be
illustrated using streamline flow patterns (stream tube), where converging streamlines
indicate an increase in velocity and vice versa (Fig. 4.6).
71
 Figure.4.6

Because air is a compressible fluid, any pressure change in the flow will affect the air density.
However, at low subsonic speeds (< M 0.4) density changes will be insignificant and can be
disregarded. The equation of continuity can now be simplified to: A × V = constant, or:
Constant
Velocity ( V ) =
Area( A)

Figure 3.1 The principle of continuity

Because the mass flow must remain constant, it can be seen from the equation of continuity
that the reduction in the tube’s cross-sectional area results in an increase in velocity, and vice
versa. The equation of continuity enables the velocity changes of airflow around a given
shape to be predicted mathematically, (< M 0.4).

Bernoulli’s Theorem and Subsonic Flow

Bernoulli’s principle was originally stated to explain the action of a liquid flowing through
the varying cross-sectional areas of tubes. In Figure 1.6 a tube is shown in which the cross-
sectional area gradually decreases to a minimum diameter in its centre section. A tube
72
constructed in this manner is called a “venturi,” or “venturi tube.” Where the cross
sectional area is decreasing, the passageway is referred to as a converging duct. As the
passageway starts to spread out, it is referred to as a diverging duct.

Figure 1.6 Venturi tube.

A direct application of Bernoulli’s principle is the study of air as it flows through either a
converging or a diverging passage, and to relate the findings to some aviation concepts.

Bernoulli's Theorem uses the principle of Conservation of Energy. It states that when a fluid
flows at a steady rate through a pipe, its total energy remains constant, since energy can
neither be created nor destroyed. At any point in a pipe, the total energy is a combination of:
Potential Energy - Energy due to height or position
Pressure Energy - Energy due to pressure
Kinetic Energy - Energy due to movement

Bernoulli’s principle states that

“when a fluid (air) flowing through a tube reaches a constriction, or narrowing, of the tube,
the speed of the fluid flowing through that constriction increases and its pressure decreases.”
OR
“as the velocity of a fluid increases, the static pressure of that fluid will decrease, provided
there is no energy added or energy taken away.”
OR
“In the steady flow of an ideal fluid the sum of the pressure energy and the kinetic energy
remains constant”.

When considering airflow at a given height, changes in potential energy are negligible, and
can be essentially ignored. Total energy therefore equals the sum of the pressure energy and
kinetic energy.
Pressure Energy + Kinetic Energy = Total Energy
73
In aerodynamics, it is the mass airflow per unit volume that is of most interest to us, so the
Conservation of Energy equation is better stated in terms of pressure. At any point in a pipe,
the total pressure is the sum of the static pressure and dynamic pressure measured in Pascals.

Static Pressure (Ps) + Dynamic Pressure (½ pV2) = Total Pressure (PT)

To satisfy Bernoulli's theorem, this value must remain constant at all points along the pipe,
such that any rise in dynamic pressure is accompanied by a reduction in static pressure and
vice versa.

From the Equation of Continuity, if a steady stream of air flows through the restricted section
of a venturi, its velocity increases and vice versa. Any rise in velocity results in an increase in
dynamic pressure and a reduction in static pressure and vice versa, according to Bernoulli's
Theorem (Fig. 4.7).

Figure

Note: Conditions for the Bernoulli's equation to be true /assumptions

1. Incompressible Fluid: The fluid density (ρ\rho) is constant. This assumption works
well for liquids and low-speed gas flows where density changes are negligible.
2. Steady Flow: The velocity, pressure, and other flow properties at any given point do
not change with time. This implies that the conditions at any point are constant over
time.

3. Frictionless Flow (Non-viscous): The fluid has no viscosity, meaning there is no

internal friction between fluid layers. This allows us to neglect the effects of shear
stress.

74
 4. Along a Streamline: Bernoulli's equation applies to fluid motion along a streamline,
which is a path followed by a fluid particle. Different streamlines can have different
energy levels.
5. No Energy Loss: The flow is assumed to be ideal, meaning there are no energy losses
due to heat, work, or other dissipative effects.

These assumptions are essential for simplifying the complex nature of fluid flow and making
the application of Bernoulli's equation feasible. In real-world scenarios, some of these
assumptions may be violated, and corrections or more complex models might be needed.
Would you like to see how these assumptions impact the real-world applications of
Bernoulli's equation?
1 2
P+ ρ V + ρgh=Constant
2
Here:
𝑃 is the static pressure,
𝜌 is the fluid density,
𝑣 is the fluid velocity,
𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity,
ℎ is the height above a reference point.

For our application is similar to the horizontal pipe ,so ρgh term will cancel out .This will be
used to calculate the lift force act on the wing of the aircraft.

This statement can be expressed as: Pressure + Kinetic energy = Constant or:

Where by
P – Fluid static pressure
1 2
ρ V – Dynamic pressure
2
ρgh - Hydrostatic pressure

Consider a mass of air: Static Pressure 101 325 N/m2, Density 1.225 kg/m3 and Velocity 52
m/s, its dynamic pressure will be: 1656 N/m2. [Q = ½ × 1.225 × 52 × 52]
Pressure (101 325 N/m2) + Kinetic energy (1656 N/m2) = Constant (102 981 N/m2)

75
 Figure 3.2 Bernoulli’s Theorem

Because the velocity of air at the throat has doubled, its dynamic pressure has risen by a value
of four, and the static pressure has decreased. The significant point is that:
Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure is a constant. This constant can be referred to either as:
TOTAL PRESSURE, STAGNATION PRESSURE or PITOT PRESSURE.

It can be seen that flow velocity is dependent on the shape of the object over which it flows.
And from Bernoulli’s theorem, it is evident that an increase in velocity will cause a decrease
in static pressure, and vice versa.
The tubes illustrated above are used only to demonstrate the principle of continuity and
Bernoulli’s theorem and are of no practical use in making an aeroplane fly
But an aerodynamic force to oppose the weight of an aircraft can be generated by using a
specially shaped body called an aerofoil.

Figure 3.3 Typical aerofoil section

The airflow velocity over the top surface of a lifting aerofoil will be greater than that beneath,
so the pressure differential that results will produce a force per unit area acting upwards. The
larger the surface area, the bigger the force that can be generated.

76
In the next section we see that the flow over the top of the aerofoil looks very like the tube on
the opposite page and the principle of continuity and Bernoulli’s theorem still apply.

The airflow around an aerofoil section also resembles the flow through a venturi (Fig. 4.8).

Figure 4.8

The flow over the upper surface is representative of a convergent section (1), whilst the flow
over the lower surface is representative of a divergent section (2). The static pressure likewise
varies and the resulting pressure differential produces lift.
By harnessing the principle of continuity and Bernoulli’s theorem an aerodynamic force can
be generated.

Boundary Layer and Friction Effects

We studied the air when it is at rest and when it is moving. From the results, some
assumptions were made in order to obtain measurements for the altitude and speed. We will
have a closer look at the behaviour of the flow now.
In the study of physics and fluid mechanics, a boundary layer is that layer of fluid in the
immediate area of a bounding surface. In relation to an aircraft, the boundary layer is the
part of the airflow closest to the surface of the aircraft. In designing high-performance
aircraft, considerable attention is paid to controlling the behaviour of the boundary
layer to minimize pressure drag and skin friction drag.

The friction of the air on the walls of a body around which it circulates slows down the
flow within a thin layer adhering to the walls. This layer is known as "boundary layer “

Boundary Layer - The thin layer of air adjacent to a surface, in which the viscous forces are
dominant. OR
The Boundary Layer is a very thin layer of air lying over the surface of the wing and, for
that matter, all other surfaces of the airplane.

77
Formation of the boundary layer
The boundary layer starts from the stagnation point to the trailing edge with a variation
in thickness of about a few millimetres to a few centimetres. In this thin layer, very
significant forces of viscosity are present as well as large speed variations when moving
away perpendicularly from the skin. Same as type of flow also the boundary layer can be
Lamina Boundary Layer or Turbulent Boundary Layer.

Figure 1.11 Formation of the boundary layer

Conventionally the boundary layer thickness is defined by the distance on the wall from
which the rate of flow is equal to V = 0.99 V0 (V0 being the infinite speed at the normal of the
skin).

The boundary layer is a very thin layer of air lying over the surface of the wing and, for that
matter, all other surfaces of the airplane. Because air has viscosity, this layer of air tends to
adhere to the wing. As the wing moves forward through the air, the boundary layer at
first flows smoothly over the streamlined shape of the airfoil. Here the flow is called the
laminar layer.

Because air has viscosity (internal resistance to flow), air encounters resistance to flow over a
surface. The viscous nature of airflow reduces the local velocities on a surface and accounts
for the drag of skin friction. The retardation of air particles due to viscosity is greatest
immediately adjacent to the surface. At the very surface of an object, the air particles are
slowed to a relative velocity of near zero. Above this area other particles experience
successively smaller retardation until finally, at some distance above surface, the local
velocity reaches the full value of the airstream above the surface.

This layer of air over the surface which shows local retardation of airflow from viscosity is
the boundary layer. The characteristics of this boundary layer are illustrated in Figure 2-4
with the flow of air over a smooth flat plate.

78
 Figure 2-4. Boundary Layer Characteristics.

NOTE: Then you should know the difference between the Lamina Boundary Layer or Profile
to the Turbulent Boundary Layer or Profile

The beginning flow on a smooth surface gives evidence of a very thin boundary layer with
the flow occurring in smooth laminations, the boundary layer flow near the leading edge is
similar to layers or laminations of air sliding smoothly over one another and the obvious term
for this type of flow is the “laminar” boundary layer as mentioned previously.

Laminar Flow
The initial flow of the boundary layer is laminar it is located between the stagnation point and
the transition point. Within the boundary layer the airflows are parallel and slide over one
another. If we look at the flight path vectors of a laminar layer we see that they go from a
value equal to zero to a value close to the rate of flow. All these vectors are parallel to one
another.
This smooth laminar flow exists without the air particles moving from a given elevation
above the surface.

As the flow continues back from the leading edge, friction forces in the boundary layer
continue to dissipate energy of the airstream and the laminar boundary layer increases in
thickness with distance from the leading edge. After some distance back from the leading

79
edge, the laminar boundary layer begins an oscillatory disturbance which is unstable. A
waviness occurs in the laminar boundary layer which ultimately grows larger and more
severe and destroys the smooth laminar flow.

Figure 1.12 Laminar flow

Transition Flow
Thus, a transition takes place in which the laminar boundary layer decays into a “turbulent”
boundary layer. OR The point at which the boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent
is called the transition point.
The same sort of transition can be noticed in the smoke from a cigarette in still air. At, first,
the smoke ribbon is smooth and laminar, then it develops a definite waviness and decays into
a random turbulent smoke pattern.
As the boundary layer approaches the center of the wing, it begins to lose speed due to skin
friction and it becomes thicker and turbulent. Here it is called the turbulent layer.

Turbulent Flow
As from the transition point the flow undergoes changes; the airflows are not parallel any
more, and flow in a disordered manner. This change corresponds to a small increase in
thickness of the boundary layer. Turbulent flow thus starts from the transition point to the
separation point.

Figure 1.13 Turbulent flow

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At the separation point the boundary starts to detach, the particles close to the skin have their
movement reversed thus causing the formation of vortices (resulting in a significant increase
in drag).

Where the boundary layer becomes turbulent, drag due to skin friction is relatively high. As
speed increases, the transition point tends to move forward. As the angle of attack increases,
the transition point also tends to move forward. With higher angles of attack and further
thickening of the boundary layer, the turbulence becomes so great the air breaks away from
the surface of the wing.

At this point, the lift of the wing is destroyed and a condition known as a stall has occurred.
In Figure 5-58, view “A” shows a normal angle of attack and the airflow staying in contact
with the wing. View “B” shows an extreme angle of attack and the airflow separating and
becoming turbulent on the top of the wing. In view B, the wing is in a stall.

Figure 5-58. Wing boundary layer separation.

As soon as the transition to the turbulent boundary layer takes place, the boundary layer
thickens and grows at a more rapid rate. (The small scale, turbulent flow within the boundary
layer should not be confused with the large scale turbulence associated with airflow
separation.) The flow in the turbulent boundary layer allows the air particles to travel from
one layer to another producing an energy exchange. However, some small laminar flow
continues to exist in the very lower levels of the turbulent boundary layer and is referred to as
the “laminar sub-layer.”

The turbulence which exists in the turbulent boundary layer allows determination of the point
of transition by several means. Since the turbulent boundary layer transfers heat more easily
than the laminar layer, frost, water, and oil films will be removed more rapidly from the area
aft of the transition point. Also, a-small probe may be attached to a stethoscope and
positioned at various points along a surface.

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When the probe is in the laminar area, a low “hiss” will be heard; when the probe is in the
turbulent area, a sharp “crackling” will be audible. In order to compare the characteristics of
the laminar and turbulent boundary layers, the velocity profiles (the variation of boundary
layer velocity with height above the surface) should be compared under conditions which
could produce either laminar or turbulent flow. The typical laminar and turbulent profiles are
shown in Figure 2-4. The velocity profile of the turbulent boundary layer shows a much
sharper initial change of velocity but a greater height (or boundary layer thickness) required
to reach the free stream velocity.

As a result of these differences, a comparison shows:

1. The turbulent boundary layer has a fuller velocity profile and has higher local
velocities immediately adjacent to the surface. The turbulent boundary layer has
higher kinetic energy in the airflow next to the surface.
2. At the surface, the laminar boundary layer has the less rapid change of velocity with
distance above the surface. Since the shearing stress is proportional to the velocity
gradient, the lower velocity gradient of the laminar boundary layer is evidence of a
lower friction drag on the surface. In conditions of flow where a turbulent and a
laminar boundary layer can exist, the laminar skin friction is about one-third that for
turbulent flow. And while the low friction drag of the laminar boundary layer is
desirable, the transition to turbulent boundary layer flow is natural and largely
inevitable.

Boundary layer points

Figure

The stagnation point

The boundary layer exists as soon as there is a flow. It begins at the stagnation point "S" on
the upper surface as well as on the lower surface and the flow is initially laminar. In the

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stagnation point the total pressure is exerted. It is a high pressure area. The stagnation point
on an aerofoil is the point where the airflow is brought completely to rest (airstream have
zero velocity).
The greatest positive pressure occurs at the leading edge stagnation point, where the relative
flow velocity is zero.

The transition point

As the boundary layer approaches the centre of the wing, it begins to lose speed due to skin
friction and it becomes thicker and turbulent. Here it is called the turbulent layer. The point at
which the boundary layer changes from laminar to turbulent is called the transition point (T).
Where the boundary layer becomes turbulent, drag due to skin friction is relatively high.

The separation point

As from the transition point T the flow undergoes changes; the airflows are not parallel any
more, and flow in a disordered manner. This change corresponds to a small increase in
thickness of the boundary layer. Turbulent flow thus starts from the transition point to the
separation point “D”. From this point the airflow starts to separate from the boundary layer of
aerofoil.
The existence of the boundary layer was discovered by noting that fine dust which was on the
wings of a plane did not disappear in flight or rain drops move slowly on the walls of the
airframe.

Boundary Layer Control

One way of keeping the boundary layer air under control, or reducing its negative
effect, is to make the wing’s surface as smooth as possible and to keep it free of dirt and
debris.

As the friction between the air and the surface of the wing increases, the boundary layer
thickens and becomes more turbulent and eventually a wing stall occurs. With a smooth
and clean wing surface, the onset of a stall is delayed and the wing can operate at a
higher angle of attack. One of the reasons ice forming on a wing can be such a serious
problem is because of its effect on boundary layer air. On a high-speed airplane, even a few
bugs splattered on the wing’s leading edge can negatively affect boundary layer air.

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Other methods of controlling boundary layer air include wing leading edge slots, air
suction through small holes on the wing’s upper surface, and the use of devices called
vortex generators.

A wing leading edge slot is a duct that allows air to flow from the bottom of the wing,
through the duct, to the top of the wing. As the air flows to the top of the wing, it is
directed along the wing’s surface at a high velocity and helps keep the boundary layer
from becoming turbulent and separating from the wing’s surface.

Another way of controlling boundary layer air is to create suction on the top of the wing
through a large number of small holes. The suction on the top of the wing draws away
the slow-moving turbulent air, and helps keep the remainder of the airflow in contact
with the wing.

Vortex generators are used on airplanes that fly at high subsonic speed, where the
velocity of the air on the top of the wing can reach Mach 1. As the air reaches Mach 1
velocity, a shock wave forms on the top of the wing, and the subsequent shock wave
causes the air to separate from the wing’s upper surface. Vortex generators are short
airfoils, arranged in pairs, located on the wing’s upper surface. They are positioned
such that they pull high-energy air down into the boundary layer region and prevent
airflow separation.

Summary for The Methods Used to Control Boundary Layer

1. One way of keeping the boundary layer air under control, or reducing its negative
effect, is to make the wing’s surface as smooth as possible and to keep it free of dirt
and debris.
2. Control the formation of ice on an aircraft wing (by anti-ice or de-ice system) or any
things that could cause wing contamination and to streamlining the body surface.
3. Other methods of controlling boundary layer air include wing leading edge slots.
4. Another way of controlling boundary layer air is to create suction on the top of the
wing through a large number of small holes.
5. The use of devices called vortex generators.

Free Stream Flow

A flow is considered to be steady if its properties in each point do not change with time.

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Let us consider an ideal fluid; if the molecules of the fluid do not exert any friction between
them or the skin of the body, i.e there is a complete absence of friction and that the volume of
the fluid, independent of its size, is not affected in its movement, the flow is considered to be
steady. Change in the flow with respect to time:
The pressure P and speed v at the same point vary continuously in a disorderly manner. The
flow is "unsteady ".
These types of flow in aerodynamics will be avoided. They give rise to energy dissipations
(vortices). Generally, a particle can have 3 types of movement; rotation, translation and
deformation
When there is no rotational movement of the particles, it is said that the flow is laminar.
When there is rotation of the fluid particles, it is said that there is a vortex.

Fluid Classifications
Reynolds number, Laminar & Turbulent Flow, Free Stream Flow Boundary Layer,
Reynolds number (Re)
Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces within a fluid which is
subjected to relative internal movement due to different fluid velocities.

The Reynolds number is used to determine whether a fluid is in laminar or turbulent flow. It
is assumed that a Reynolds number less than or equal to 2100 indicates laminar flow, and a
Reynolds number greater than 2100 indicates turbulent flow.
Re ≤2100 – Fluid flow is lamina
Re ≥ 2100 – Fluid flow is turbulent

The Reynolds number is a dimensionless number used to categorize the fluids systems in
which the effect of viscosity is important in controlling the velocities or the flow pattern of a
fluid.

OR

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where:
ρ is the density of the fluid (SI units is kg/m3)
u is the flow speed (m/s)
L / D is a characteristic linear dimension (m) its diameter of the pipe
μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pa·s or N·s/m2 or kg/(m·s))
ν is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid (m2/s).

A region where these forces change behavior is known as a boundary layer, such as the
bounding surface in the interior of a pipe. A similar effect is created by the introduction of a
stream of high-velocity fluid into a low-velocity fluid, such as the hot gases emitted from a
flame in air. This relative movement generates fluid friction, which is a factor in developing
turbulent flow. Counteracting this effect is the viscosity of the fluid, which tends to inhibit
turbulence. The Reynolds number quantifies the relative importance of these two types of
forces for given flow conditions, and is a guide to when turbulent flow will occur in a
particular situation.

Classifications of Fluid Flows

There are many ways to classify fluid flow problems, and here we present some general
categories
1. Laminar & Turbulent Flow
The highly ordered fluid motion characterized by smooth layers of fluid is called ‘Laminar
Flow’, e.g. flow of highly viscous fluids at low velocities.
Laminar Flow - Flow in which there is no mixing between adjacent layers OR When there is
no rotational movement of the particles,

Laminar flow, also known as streamline flow, is a type of fluid motion where the fluid travels
in smooth, parallel layers without mixing or turbulence. In laminar flow, the particles of the
fluid move in orderly paths, and the velocity at each point remains constant over time.

The fluid motion that typically occurs at high velocities is characterized by velocity
fluctuations are called as ‘turbulent.’ The flow of low-viscosity fluids such as air at high
velocities is typically turbulent.
Turbulent Flow - Flow in which irregular fluctuations with time are superimposed on a mean
flow OR When there is rotation of the fluid particles.

The flow that alternates between being laminar & turbulent is called ‘transitional’.

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The dimensionless number i.e. Reynolds number is the key parameter that determines
whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.

Streamline flow exists when succeeding molecules follow a steady path, with the
molecules flowing in an orderly pattern along streamlines around an object
Turbulent Flow occurs when the succeeding molecules can no longer follow a
streamlined flow pattern and instead travel along a path different than the preceding
molecules. Turbulent flow is also called 'unsteady' or 'eddying' flow and results in
wasted energy.

2. Viscous and Inviscid flow

The fluid flow in which frictional effects become signification, are treated as viscous flow.
When two fluid layers move relatively to each other, frictional force develops between them
which is quantified by the fluid property ‘viscosity’. Boundary layer flows are the example
viscous flow.
Neglecting the viscous terms in the governing equation, the flow can be treated as inviscid
flow.
The development of viscous and inviscid regions of flow as a result of inserting a flat plate
parallel into a fluid stream of uniform velocity is shown in Figure.
The fluid sticks to the plate on both sides because of the no-slip condition, and the thin
boundary layer in which the viscous effects are significant near the plate surface is the
viscous flow region.
The region of flow on both sides away from the plate and largely unaffected by the presence
of the plate is the inviscid flow region.

3. Internal and External flow

A fluid flow is classified as being internal or external, depending on whether the fluid flows
in a confined space or over a surface.
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The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface is treated as ‘external flow’ and if the fluid is
completely bounded by the surface, then it is called as ‘internal flow’.
For example, flow over a flat plate is considered as external flow and flow through a
pipe/duct is internal flow.
However, in special cases, if the duct is partially filled and there is free surface, then it is
called as open channel flow. The flows of water in rivers and irrigation ditches are examples
of such flows.
Internal flows are dominated by viscosity whereas the viscous effects are limited to boundary
layers in the solid surface for external flows.

4. Compressible and Incompressible flow

The flow is said to be ‘incompressible’ if the density remains nearly constant throughout.
When the density variation during a flow is more than 5% then it is treated as ‘compressible’.
This corresponds to a flow Mach number of 0.3 /0.4 at room temperature.

5. Steady and Unsteady flow

When there is no change in fluid property ie velocity, temperature, etc., at a point with time.
The opposite of steady is unsteady., then it implies as steady flow. However, the fluid
property at a point can also vary with time which means the flow is unsteady/transient. The
term ‘periodic’ refers to the kind of unsteady flows in which the flow oscillates about a
steady mean. When there is no change in fluid property at point with time, then it implies as
steady flow.

6. One/Two/Three-dimensional flow
A flow field is best characterized by the velocity distribution, and thus can be treated as
one/two/three-dimensional flow if velocity varies in the respective directions.
A typical fluid flow involves a three-dimensional geometry, and the velocity may vary in all
three dimensions, rendering the flow three-dimensional [𝑽 (x, y, z) in rectangular or V(r, θ,
z) in cylindrical coordinates].
However, the variation of velocity in certain directions can be small relative to the variation
in other directions and can be ignored with negligible error.
In such cases, the flow can be modeled conveniently as being one- or two-dimensional, which
is easier to analyze.

Three-dimensional airflow: Three-dimensional flow is the true airflow over an aircraft and
consists of a hypothetical two-dimensional flow modified by various pressure differentials.

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Two-dimensional airflow: Assumes a wing with the same aerofoil section along the entire
span with no span-wise pressure differential or flow.

So far we have considered only two dimensional airflow. This has been a foundation for an
appreciation of the actual pattern of airflow over an aircraft. Even minute pressure differences
will modify airflow direction by inducing air to flow towards any region of lower pressure.
Three dimensional airflow modifies the effective angle of attack, increases drag, alters
stalling characteristics and can influence the control and stability of the aircraft. From now
on, instead of just an aerofoil section, the entire wing will be considered.

7. Natural and Forced flow

A fluid flow is said to be natural or unforced, depending on how the fluid motion is initiated.
In forced flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by external means such as
a pump or a fan.
In a forced flow, the fluid is forced to flow over a surface by external means such as a pump
or a fan.
In other case (natural flow), density difference is the driving factor of the fluid flow. Here,
the buoyancy plays an important role. For example, a warmer fluid rises in a container due to
density difference.

Aerodynamic Terms
It is from a section of a wing that we will be able to define most of the terminology relating to
the aerodynamic operation of an aircraft. Before continuing the discussion on aerodynamics,
some terms are defined and illustrations considered. From Figure 2-9

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 Figure 2-9. Chord and camber of a wing
1. Airfoils /Aerofoil
A shape capable of producing lift with relatively high efficiency.

Since an airfoil is a surface designed to obtain lift from the air through which it moves, it can
be stated that any part of the aircraft that converts air resistance into lift is an airfoil.

From a detailed point of view, these various airfoil sections can be imagined perfectly as
being the various ribs which, once assembled, will constitute the wing of the aircraft.
The four main areas of an airfoil are:
1. The forward part called leading edge,
2. The rear part called trailing edge,
3. The upper surface, and
4. The lower surface.

Figure 1.20 Four main areas of an airfoil.

An airfoil is any device that creates a force, based on Bernoulli’s principles or Newton’s
laws, when air is caused to flow over the surface of the device. An airfoil can be the wing of

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an airplane, the blade of a propeller, the rotor blade of a helicopter, or the fan blade of a
turbofan engine.
The wing of an airplane moves through the air because the airplane is in motion, and
generates lift by the process previously described. The profile of a conventional wing is an
excellent example of an airfoil. (Figure 2-10) Notice that the top surface of the wing
profile has greater curvature than the lower surface.

Figure 2-10. Airflow over a wing section.

By comparison, a propeller blade, helicopter rotor blade, or turbofan engine fan blade rotates
through the air. These rotating blades could be referred to as rotating wings, as is common
with helicopters when they are called rotary wing aircraft. The rotating wing can be viewed
as a device that creates lift, or just as correctly, it can be viewed as a device that creates
thrust.

The difference in curvature of the upper and lower surfaces of the wing creates the lifting
force. Air flowing over the top surface of the wing must reach the trailing edge of the wing in
the same amount of time as the air flowing under the wing.
To do this, the air passing over the top surface moves at a greater velocity than the air passing
below the wing because of the greater distance it must travel along the top surface. This
increased velocity, according to Bernoulli’s Principle, means a corresponding decrease in
pressure on the upper surface. Thus, a pressure differential is created between the upper and
lower surfaces of the wing, forcing the wing upward in the direction of the lower pressure.

Shape of The Airfoil

Individual airfoil section properties differ from those properties of the entire wing or aircraft
as a whole because of the effect of the wing planform. A wing may have various airfoil
sections from root to tip, with taper, twist, and sweepback. The resulting aerodynamic
properties of the wing are determined by the action of each section along the span.
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The shape of the airfoil determines the amount of turbulence or skin friction that it
produces, consequently, affecting the efficiency of the wing. Turbulence and skin friction
are controlled mainly by the Fineness ratio, which is defined as the ratio of the chord of
the airfoil to its maximum thickness.

Chord Length
Fineness Ratio=
Maximum thickness

If the wing has a high fineness ratio, it is a very thin wing. A thick wing has a low
fineness ratio. A wing with a high fineness ratio produces a large amount of skin
friction. A wing with a low fineness ratio produces a large amount of turbulence. The
best wing is a compromise between these two extremes to hold both turbulence and skin
friction to a minimum. Figure 2-11 illustrates a wide variety of airfoil shapes.

Figure 2-11. Airfoil designs.

High-lift wings and high-lift devices for wings have been developed by shaping the airfoils to
produce the desired effect. The amount of lift produced by an airfoil increases with an
increase in wing camber.
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High-lift wings and high-lift devices for wings have been developed by shaping the airfoils to
produce the desired effect. The amount of lift produced by an airfoil increases with an
increase in wing camber.
As stated, camber refers to the curvature of an airfoil surface above and below the chord line.

As stated, camber refers to the curvature of an airfoil surface above and below the chord line.
Upper camber refers to the upper surface, lower camber to the lower surface, and mean
camber to the mean line of the section. Camber is positive when departure from the chord
line is outward and negative when it is inward. Thus, high-lift wings have a large
positive camber on the upper surface and a slightly negative camber on the lower
surface. Wing flaps cause an ordinary wing to approximate this same condition by increasing
the upper camber and by creating a negative lower camber.

It is also known that the larger the wingspan, as compared to the chord, the greater the lift
obtained. This comparison is called aspect ratio. The higher the aspect ratio, the greater the
lift. In spite of the benefits from an increase in aspect ratio, there are definite limitations
defined by structural and drag considerations.
On the other hand, an airfoil that is perfectly streamlined and offers little wind resistance
sometimes does not have enough lifting power to take the aircraft off the ground. Thus,
modern
aircraft have airfoils which strike a medium between extremes, the shape depending on the
purposes of the aircraft for which it is designed.

Other Types of Airfoils

Symmetrical biconvex airfoil - The convex lower surface and upper surface are symmetrical
/equal compared to their twist shape. The camber line and the chord line coincide.

Asymmetrical biconvex airfoil - The curve of the upper surface is more accentuated than
that of the lower surface.

Hollow shape - The upper surface is convex and the lower surface is concave.

S-curve airfoil - Mean camber line cuts the chord line.

Thin airfoil - Thin airfoil, symmetrical biconvex, sharp leading edge.

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 Figure 1.22 types of airfoil

A thick, well-cambered wing produces high lift at slow speeds, whereas a thin wing with the
same camber produces good high-speed characteristics (Fig. 3.11).

The above are both examples of asymmetrical aerofoils. When the mean camber line
coincides with the chord line, the wing camber is reduced to zero and the aerofoil is
symmetrical. (Fig. 3.12).

The fineness ratio is the ratio of the length of a body to its maximum width. Shapes that
are short and wide have a low fineness ratio, those that are long and narrow have high
fineness ratios. Aircraft that spend time at supersonic speeds, e.g. the Concorde, generally
have high fineness ratios.

Figure

Wing Plan Form

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The wings of an aircraft can be attached to the fuselage at the top, mid-fuselage, or at the
bottom. This are called Wing plan forms. In other ward it Is wings shape as viewed from
directly above or bellow. It has a pronounced effect on the stall progression.
The two most important characteristics of wing plan form are Aspect ratio, the ratio of the
length, or span, of a wing to its width, or chord , and Taperness , a measure of how long and
slender the wing appears when seen from above or below.
With all else equal, an increase in aspect ratio decreases the drag, Most of the wing platforms
in use (or have been used) fall under one of these categories.
Elliptical, Rectangular and High Tapered Wing which almost all used in subsonic
aircraft and Delta and Swept Back wings, which are used in subsonic aircrafts.

Elliptical Wing: It is the most efficient plan form, tapered leading & trailing edge and It
produces the minimum amount of induced drag for a given aspect ratio. However it is
Difficult and expensive to construct and Stall progression is inferior to that of a rectangular
wing.

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 Figure 1.21 Elliptical wing

Rectangular wing: It has the most desirable stall progression and straight, un-tapered
wing. The stall begins at the wing root and progresses outward. However, it is
aerodynamically inefficient.
Figure 1.22 Rectangular Wing

High Tapered Wing - It has many of the advantages of an elliptical wing. It is a

modification of the rectangular wing and constructed less costly than elliptical wing. Its stall
characteristics are similar to elliptical wing. Its Chord is varied across the span

Delta Wing -It is Very low aspect ratio wing and efficient in all the flight regimes
(subsonic, transonic and supersonic). Quite simple to build and maintain delta wing. It has
high induced drag due to low aspect ratio.

Swept Back wings- The leading edges of these wings are swept back. This reduces drag in
transonic speeds. It is used in almost all high speed commercial airliners. Boeing 787
Dreamliner aircraft can be taken as a typical example.

Wing Configurations
The wings may extend perpendicular to the horizontal plain of the fuselage or can angle up or
down slightly. This angle is known as the wing dihedral. The dihedral angle affects the lateral
stability of the aircraft. Following diagram shows some common wing attachment points and
dihedral angle. These are called wing configurations.

Figure 1.25 Wing Attachment Points and Wing Dihedrals (WING CONFIGURATION)

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Airfoil Contamination
All discussion of aerodynamic behavior of airfoils assumes that the aircraft airfoils are free of
contamination. Some of the most common forms of contamination are ice, snow and frost.
Each of these, if accumulated on the aircraft, will reduce its capacity to develop lift. Ice
commonly changes the shape of the airfoil which disrupts airflow and make it less efficient.
Snow, ice, and especially frost, alter the smooth even surface that normally promotes laminar
airflow. Laminar airflow is required to set up the pressure differential between the lower and
upper wing surfaces that creates lift. All snow and ice must be completely removed from any
aircraft before flight. Frost must also be removed. While it appears insignificant, the
disruption to airflow caused by frost is possibly the most dangerous.

If ice is allowed to accumulate on the aircraft during flight (Figure 2-12), the weight of the
aircraft is increased while the ability to generate lift is decreased. As little as 0.8 millimeter of
ice on the upper wing surface increases drag and reduces aircraft lift by 25 percent. (Also
affects the controllability and manoeuvrability)

Figure 2-12. In-flight ice formation adds weight, increases drag and reduces lift.

2. Chord or Chord Length and Chord Line

Chord Line
Is a line depicting/showing the chord which extends forward of the leading edge. OR
A straight line joining the centres of curvature of the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil.
OR
As stated, the chord line of an airfoil or wing section is an imaginary straight line that passes
through the section from the leading edge to the trailing edge.

Chord line is used for angular reference to the chord. The average chord is the area of the
wing divided by the wing span. (Figure 2-9)

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Average Chord (c) – Is the Mean geometric chord, simply is the ratio of wing area (S) to
wing span (b)
Wing Area
AverageChord =
Wing Span

Average Chord (CAv) -The Mean chord (Fig. 3.5). The product of the span and average
chord gives the gross wing area (i.e. B x CAv = S).

Average Thickness (Lm):

Since the thickness of an airfoil is larger at the root than at the tip, we determine the average
thickness of a wing by carrying out the ratio of its surface area to its wing span.

Chord OR Chord Length

The distance between the leading and trailing edges measured along the chord line.
OR
Chord of a wing is the width of the wing from the leading edge apex to the trailing edge.
OR
The chord of a wing is the width of the wing from the leading edge tip to the trailing edge.

NOTE: Chord of the wing is available in every cross-section of the wing aerofoil, but in
places can be used to provide usefully information. The chord at the root called root chord
and chord at the tip called tip chord. These two chords can show you by what degree the wing
is tapered called Taper Ratio (CT / CR).
i. Root Chord (CR): The chord length at the wing centre line.
ii. Tip Chord (CT): The chord length at the wing tip.

3. Taper Ratio (CT / CR)

Taper Ratio (CT / CR): The ratio of the tip chord to the root chord. The taper ratio affects the
lift distribution and the structural weight of the wing. A rectangular wing has a taper ratio of
1.0 while the pointed tip delta wing has a taper ratio of 0.0

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 4. Thickness
This is the distance on the cross-section of an airfoil perpendicular to the chord line, ranging
between A and B. When consider thickness always mean the maximum thickness of the
aerofoil section.

Thickness:
Is the maximum distance form lower surface to upper surface of an aerofoil which is
perpendicular to chord line. OR That point where the upper and lower surfaces of an aerofoil
section are furthest apart. OR The maximum distance between the upper and lower surfaces.

This is the distance on the cross-section of an airfoil perpendicular to the chord line, also is
called The Point of Maximum Thickness.
The maximum thickness (E) is about 12% of the chord length and is located about 30% of the
chord length behind the leading edge.

The position of the mean camber line compared to the chord line characterises the shape of
this airfoil. It is in terms of curvature that we will observe the principle types of airfoil.

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Curvature, which is also known as camber, defines the shape of an airfoil. It will be of great
importance to the aerodynamic performance of the aircraft.

5. Wing root, Wing tip, Leading Edge and Trailing Edge

Leading edge
This is the leading part of the aerofoil which first meets the airflow - its section is normally
curved.
Trailing edge
This is the trailing part of the aerofoil where the upper and lower airflow's meet - its section
is normally knife-edged.

Wing Area (S) - The plan surface area of the wing. Although a portion of the area may be
covered by fuselage or engine nacelles, the pressure carryover on these surfaces allows real
consideration of the entire plan area.
The product of the span and the average chord is the wing area (b × c = S).
i. Gross Wing Area – The plain view area of the wing including the portion of the wing
normally cut to accommodate the fuselage.
ii. Net Wing Area – The area of the wing excluding the fuselage portion.

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 6. Fineness Ratio
Fineness Ratio - which is defined as the ratio of the chord of the airfoil to its maximum
thickness.
Chord Length
Fineness Ratio=
Maximum thickness
This ration originated from this definition “the fineness ratio is the ratio of the length of a
body to its maximum width.”

The shape of the airfoil determines the amount of turbulence or skin friction that it
produces, consequently, affecting the efficiency of the wing. Turbulence and skin friction
are controlled mainly by the Fineness ratio, which is defined as the ratio of the chord of
the airfoil to its maximum thickness.

Chord Length
Fineness Ratio=
Maximum thickness

If the wing has a high fineness ratio, it is a very thin wing. A thick wing has a low
fineness ratio. A wing with a high fineness ratio produces a large amount of skin
friction. A wing with a low fineness ratio produces a large amount of turbulence. The
best wing is a compromise between these two extremes to hold both turbulence and skin
friction to a minimum.

7. Wing Terminology

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Wing Span (B): The distance from wing tip to tip. OR This is the length from the wing tip to
the other wing tip. It is expressed in metres. The straight-line distance between wing tips.

Figure Fig. 3.5).

Wings are attached to an aircraft's fuselage in either a low, high, or mid position

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 Figure: 3.1

The following design parameters determine actual wing position:

1. Engine Positioning/Propeller Blade Length
2. Undercarriage Positioning
3. Short Take-Off and Landing Capability

The wings may be inclined above or below the horizontal. Dihedral is the term for wing
inclination above the horizontal, and anhedral is the term for inclination below the horizontal

Surface area (S): Also called wing surface area and expressed in square metres, this is the
surface projected on a horizontal plane of the two wings and part of the fuselage ranging
between these two wings. It is this surface S which will form part of the flight equations of
the aircraft.

The Mean chord (Fig. 3.5). The product of the span and average chord gives the gross wing
area (i.e. B x CAv = S).

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 Figure 1.25 Wing Surface.

As we can observe, the surface area S defines a geometrical figure known as wing form or
planform. According to the type of aircraft, there are various planforms.

Figure 1.26 Different planform.

Camber
Camber - is the curve of the upper wing surface. The lower surface of the wing also has
camber. A term used to describe the measure of curvature of an aerofoil. An aerofoil has
positive camber when the Mean Camber Line lies above the Chord Line.

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The camber of a wing is the curvature which is present on top and bottom surfaces. The
camber on the top is much more pronounced, unless the wing is a symmetrical airfoil, which
has the same camber top and bottom. The bottom of the wing, more often than not, is
relatively flat. The increased camber on top is what causes the velocity of the air to increase
and the static pressure to decrease. The bottom of the wing has less velocity and more static
pressure, which is why the wing generates lift.

NOTE: Notice that the top surface of the wing profile has greater curvature than the lower
surface. (For most wings)

When the camber line lies above the chord line the aerofoil is said to have positive
camber, and if the camber line is below the chord line, it is said to have negative
camber. A symmetrical aerofoil has no camber (zero camber) because the chord line and
camber line are coincidental.
Upper camber refers to the upper surface, lower camber to the lower surface, and mean
camber to the mean line of the section. Camber is positive when departure from the chord
line is outward and negative when it is inward. Thus, high-lift wings have a large positive
camber on the upper surface and a slightly negative camber on the lower surface. Wing flaps
cause an ordinary wing to approximate this same condition by increasing the upper camber
and by creating a negative lower camber.

105
 Figure 5.10 Wing terminology

Mean Camber Line / Mean Line or Camber Line

A line joining the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil, equidistant from the upper and
lower surfaces. OR
Located inside the airfoil between the leading edge and the trailing edge, it passes through all
the equidistant points between the upper surface and the lower surface. OR
The line drawn equidistant between the upper and lower surfaces of an aerofoil.

Mean Camber is a line drawn midway between the upper and lower cambers, and its
curvature is one of the most important factors in determining the aerodynamic characteristics
of the airfoil.

106
The line located inside the airfoil between the leading edge and the trailing edge, it passes
through all the equidistant points between the upper surface and the lower surface. Also is
called Mean Aerodynamic Chord (or Camber Line):
The mean camber line lies within the wing half way between the upper camber and the lower
camber. OR
The curved line joining the leading and trailing edges of an aerofoil, which is equidistant
from the upper and lower surfaces.

Figure

Maximum Camber - Is the maximum distance formed between the chord line and the mean
camber line OR
The maximum distance between the mean camber line and the chord line. This is one of the
variables determining the aerodynamic characteristics of a wing.

The maximum camber (F) of a typical low-speed airfoil is about 4% of the length of the
chord line, and is located about 40% of the chord length behind the leadingedge.

Maximum camber is located where the mean camber line is the greatest distance from the
chord line.
The maximum distance of the mean line from the chord line. Maximum camber is expressed
as a percentage of the chord, with its location as a percentage of the chord aft of the leading
edge.

107
 Figure 4-5. Typical airfoil section.

Maximum Thickness Chord Ratio

The ratio of maximum thickness to chord expressed as a percentage. For subsonic wings the
ratio is normally 12 - 14%.

Aspect Ratio (AR) - The ratio of the wing span to its average chord (AR = b/c) OR It is the
ratio of the square of the wing span (S) to the surface area of the wing.
This is the dimensionless ratio plays a significant role in the aerodynamic study of the wing.
Figure 3.6 CATRA

Figure 3.6

If the planform has curvature and the average chord is not easily determined, an alternative
expression is b2/S (the square of the wing span to wing area). It is the ratio of the square of
the wing span (b2) to the surface area of the wing (S).

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If a wing has a long span and a very narrow chord, it is said to have a high aspect ratio. A
higher aspect ratio produces less drag for a given flight speed, and is typically found on glider
type aircraft.

The aspect ratio of the wing determines the aerodynamic characteristics and structural
weight. Typical aspect ratios vary from 35 for a high performance sailplane to 3 for a jet
fighter. The aspect ratio of a modern high speed jet transport is about 12.

Aspect ratio and planform are powerful indicators of the general performance of a wing,
although the aspect ratio as such is only a secondary indicator. The interaction between
undisturbed air outside the cylindrical tube of air, and the downward-moving cylindrical tube
of air occurs at the wing's tips, and can be seen as wingtip vortices.
There are several reasons why all aircraft do not have high aspect wings:
i. Structural: A long wing has higher bending stress for a given load than a short one,
which requires stronger structure to withstand.
Also, longer wings have greater deflection for a given load, and in some applications
this deflection is undesirable (e.g. if the deflected wing interferes with aileron
movement).

ii. Maneuverability: a high aspect ratio wing will have a lower roll rate than one of low
aspect ratio, because in a high aspect ratio wing, an equal amount of wing movement
due to aileron deflection (at the aileron) will result in less rolling action on the
fuselage due to the greater length between the aileron and the fuselage.
A higher aspect ratio wing will also have a higher moment of inertia to overcome.
Due to the lower roll rates, high aspect ratio wings are usually not used on fighter
aircraft.

iii. Practicality: low aspect ratios have a greater useful internal volume, since the
maximum thickness is greater, which can be used to house the fuel tanks, retractable
landing gear and other systems.

Aspect ratio, taper ratio, and sweepback are some of the main factors that determine the
aerodynamic characteristics of a wing.

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Center of Pressure.
The point on the chord line of an airfoil where all of the aerodynamic forces are considered to
be concentrated.
The lift vector acts from the center of pressure in a direction that is perpendicular to the
relative wind, and the drag vector acts from this same point in a direction parallel to the
relative wind.

Figure 1-11. The center of pressure of an airfoil is that point on the chord line at which
the aerodynamic forces are considered to be concentrated.

Centre of Pressure (Cp): The center of pressure is point where all aerodynamic force (lift
and drag) are considered to act. OR The point on the chord line through which lift is
considered to act.
The centre of pressure is the point of application of weight of the aircraft, the thrust of
engines and the aerodynamic resultant.

Centre of Pressure (Cp): The point on the chord line through which lift is considered to act.
Located on the chord line, the position of the centre of pressure changes according to the
variations of the angle of attack. This phenomenon plays a determining role in the stability of
the wing and the aircraft.
The centre of pressure of an aerofoil is located at 30% 40% of the chord line back from the
leading edge. On an asymmetrical airfoil, the center of pressure moves forward as the angle
of
attack increases, and backward as it decreases. On a symmetrical airfoil, the center of
pressure does not move, but remains in essentially the same location as the angle of attack
changes.

110
 Figure 1.27 Center of pressure.

The whole surface of the aerofoil contributes to lift, but the point along the chord where the
distributed lift is effectively concentrated is termed the Centre of Pressure (Figure 4.8). The
location of the CP is a function of camber and section lift coefficient, i.e. angle of attack.

Figure 4.8

Movement of the Centre of Pressure

As the angle of attack increases from 0° to 16° the upper ‘suction’ peak moves forward
(Figure 4.7), so the point at which the lift is effectively concentrated, the CP, will move
forward. The CP moves forward and the magnitude of the lift force increases with increase in
angle of attack until the stall is reached when the lift force decreases abruptly and the CP
generally moves back along the chord (Figure 4.9). Note that the CP is at its most forward
location just before the stall (CL MAX).

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 Figure 4.9 CP movement with angle of attack

Aerodynamic Force Coefficient (Lift and Drag Coefficients)

Aerodynamicists calculate a lift coefficient (Cl) to model all of the complex variables
that contribute to the generation of lift. It incorporates the shape and area of the airfoil, the
angle of attack, and various flow conditions such as air density and velocity.

In short, CL is known as the lift coefficient and the lift coefficient may be thought of as being
a measure of the lifting effectiveness of an airfoil, the lift coefficient is a ratio between lift
pressure and dynamic pressure and is a function of the shape of the wing, planform and
angle of attack. A drag coefficient (Cd) can also be calculated. Similarly, the drag
coefficient incorporates the complex variables that contribute to the
formation of drag. It is the ratio of drag pressure to dynamic
pressure.
CL can be obtained by measuring the area between the upper and lower surfaces on a pressure
distribution curve.

Remembering that lift and drag are proportional to ½ρV²S an equation may be formed by
including the factor CL and CD which takes into account changes in angle of attack:

From the lift and drag equation CL and CD takes into account the angle of attack in the equation
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CL is known as the lift coefficient
CD is known as the drag coefficient

The coefficient of lift (CL) is the ratio between lift per unit wing area and dynamic pressure
AND The coefficient of drag (CD) is the ratio between drag per unit wing area and dynamic
pressure.

NOTE: The drag coefficient increases with the angle of attack and
includes all types of drag.

Figure 5.6

We know that on an airfoil an aerodynamic load exists called resultant (R), which is able to
raise an aircraft of a considerable mass. If we break up this aerodynamic resultant from a
reference mark having its origin as the centre of pressure, we note that it characterises two
essential forces called:
1. Lift L, and
2. Drag D

A coefficient is a dimensionless number expressing degree of magnitude. An aerodynamic

force coefficient is a common denominator for all A/C of whatever weight, size and speed.
An aerodynamic force coefficient is a dimensionless ratio between the average aerodynamic
pressure and the airstream dynamic pressure.

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By this definition a lift coefficient (C L) is the ratio between lift divided by the wing planform
area and dynamic pressure and a drag coefficient (C D) is the ratio between drag divided by
the wing planform area and dynamic pressure.

The lift (L) and the weight (W): Always perpendicular to the direction of the relative wind
(V), the lift opposes the weight of the aircraft. The lift depends directly on the density of air
(ρ Z), the speed of the aircraft (velocity of the relative wind) and of its surface area (S).

The lift depends on another parameter called coefficient of lift noted CL which characterises
the angle of attack, the shape and the surface quality of the wing.

Mathematically, lift (in N) is written:

1 2
L= . ρ .C L . S . V
2

At equilibrium (horizontal trajectory)

Figure 1.28 Lift and weight.

1 2
Wg=L= . ρ . C L . S . V
2

The drag (D) and the thrust (T): Always parallel to the relative wind (V), drag will oppose the
pulling force of the propeller’s engines or the thrust of the turbine engines. The drag will
depend on the same parameters that we defined previously for lift except that only the last
parameter evoked in the formula will bear the name of coefficient of drag and will be denoted
(CD).

Mathematically, the drag is written:

1 2
D= . ρ . C D . S . V
2
At equilibrium (horizontal flight and constant velocity):
114
 Figure 1.29 Horizontal flight and constant velocity.

1 2
T =D= . ρ . C D . S . V
2
The use of the coefficient of an aerodynamic force is necessary since the force coefficient is:
1. An index of the aerodynamic force independent of area, density and velocity. It is
derived from the relative pressure and velocity distribution.
2. Influenced only by the shape of the surface and angle of attack since these factors
determine the pressure distribution.

Development of Aerodynamic Pitching Moments

The distribution of pressure over a surface is the source of aerodynamic moments as well as
forces. There are two ways to consider the effects of changing angle of attack on the pitching
moment of an aerofoil.
1. Changes in the magnitude of lift acting through a moving CP, or more simply:
2. Changes in the magnitude of lift always acting through an Aerodynamic Centre,
which is fixed.

Centre of Gravity (CG) - The point through which the weight of an aircraft acts.
1. An aircraft in flight rotates around its CG.
2. The CG of an aircraft must remain within certain forward and aft limits, for reasons of
both stability and control.

Aerodynamic Centre (AC)

The AC is a ‘fixed’ point on the chord line and is defined as: ‘The point where all changes in
the magnitude of the lift force effectively take place’, AND: ‘The point about which the
pitching moment will remain constant at ‘normal’ angles of attack’.

Aerodynamic Centre - Is the point in aerofoil in which there is no changing in the pitch
moment as the angle of attack increases.

115
If about the leading edge there is a steady increase, and about the trailing edge a steady
decrease in the nose down pitching moment. There must be some point along the chord about
which there is no change in the pitching moment as the angle of attack is increased. This
point is known as the aerodynamic centre.
So there are now two possible ways of thinking about the effects of increased angle of attack
on the pitching moment:
1. One way is to think of lift changing and the point of application (centre of pressure)
Changing
2. The other is to think of the point of application (aerodynamic centre) being fixed and
only the lift changing

A nose-down pitching moment exists about the AC which is the product of a force (lift at the
CP) and an arm (distance from the CP to the AC). Since an increase in angle of attack will
increase the lift force, but also move the CP towards the AC (shortening the lever arm), the
moment about the AC remains the same at any angle of attack within the “normal” range.
Figure 4.10

Figure 4.10

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When considering subsonic airflows of less than M 0.4, the AC is located at the 25% chord
point for any aerofoil regardless of camber, thickness and angle of attack.
The aerodynamic centre (AC) is an aerodynamic reference point, the most direct application
being to the longitudinal stability of an aircraft, which will be discussed in Chapter 10.
At subsonic speeds the aerodynamic centre is about ¼ of the chord from the leading edge.
WHILE,
At supersonic speeds the aerodynamic centre is about ½ of the chord from the leading edge.

Pitching Moment for a Symmetrical Aerofoil

Note the change in pressure distribution with angle of attack for the symmetrical aerofoil in
Figure 4.11. When at zero angle of attack, the upper and lower surface forces are equal and
located at the same point.

Figure 4.11

With an increase in angle of attack, the upper surface force increases while the lower surface
force decreases. A change in the magnitude of lift has taken place with no change in the CP
position - a characteristic of symmetrical aerofoils.
Thus, the pitching moment about the AC for a symmetrical aerofoil will be zero at ‘normal’
angles of attack - one of the big advantages of symmetrical aerofoils.

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NOTE: The centre of pressure (CP) of a cambered aerofoil moves forward as the angle of
attack increases. The CP of a symmetrical aerofoil does not move under the influence of
angle of attack (within the confines of ‘normal range’).

Thickness/Chord Ratio - The ratio of the maximum thickness to the chord length of an
aerofoil, usually expressed as a percentage.
The maximum thickness or depth of an aerofoil section expressed as a percentage of the
chord, with its location as a percentage of the chord aft of the leading edge. The thickness and
thickness distribution of the aerofoil section have a great influence on its airflow
characteristics.

Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) - is the average distance from the leading edge to the
trailing edge of the wing.
Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) - The chord drawn through the centroid (centre of area)
of the half span area. Note that the MAC and CAv are not the same (Fig. 3.9).

118
 Figure
A rectangular wing of this chord and the same span would have broadly similar pitching
moment characteristics. The MAC is located on the reference axis of the aircraft and is a
primary reference for longitudinal stability considerations. Aspect ratio, taper ratio, and
sweepback are some of the main factors that determine the aerodynamic characteristics of a
wing.

Due to the many wing planform designs, the mean aerodynamic chord is not necessarily half
way from the fuselage to the wing tip as it is on a perfectly rectangular wing. However, the
mean aerodynamic chord has half of the surface area of the wing on each side of it. (Figure 2-
7) The mean aerodynamic chord is used by aerodynamicists when calculating stability and
other design factors.

Figure 2-7. Mean aerodynamic chord (MAC).

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Angle of Attack (α or alpha) (can also be referred to as Aerodynamic Incidence). The angle
between the chord line and the Relative Airflow.
It is the angle formed between the chord line and the direction of the relative wind denoted by
V. It is indicated by the letter σ.
The angle between the chord line and the effective airflow is referred to as the EFFECTIVE
ANGLE OF ATTACK.

Figure 1.23 Angle of Attack.

The angle of attack (a) is the angle between the free stream relative airflow and the chord line
of an aerofoil section (Fig. 4.9).
In Figure 1.23, the black lines represent the flow of the wind. The angle α is the angle of
attack.

The chord line

provides one side of an angle
that ultimately forms the angle of attack. The other
side of the angle is formed by a line indicating the
direction of the relative airstream. Thus, the angle
of attack or AOA is defined as the angle between
the chord line of the wing and the direction of the
relative wind. This is not to be confused with the
angle of incidence that was illustrated in Figure 2-8,

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which is the angle between the chord line of the
wing and the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.

Angle of attack, α, (Greek letter alpha) is a term used in aerodynamics to describe the angle
between the chord line of an airfoil and the vector representing the relative motion between
the airfoil and the air. It can be described as the angle between where the chord line of the
airfoil is pointing and where the airfoil is going.
Angle of attack is used to describe the angle between the chord line of the wing of a fixed-
wing aircraft and the vector representing the relative motion between the aircraft and the
atmosphere.

As the angle of attack increases, the lift on the wing increases. If the angle of attack becomes
too great, the airflow can separate from the wing and the lift will be destroyed. When this
occurs, a condition known as a stall takes place.
There are a number of different shapes, known as planforms that a wing can have. A wing in
the shape of a rectangle is very common on small general aviation airplanes. An elliptical
shape or tapered wing can also be used, but these do not have as desirable a stall
characteristic. For airplanes that operate at high subsonic speeds, sweptback wings are
common, and for supersonic flight, a delta shape might be used.

The angle of attack is often confused with the pitch angle or body angle of an aircraft.
Pitch angle and body angle are measured with respect to the horizon; whereas the angle
of attack is measured with respect to the relative motion between the wing and the
atmosphere.
Changes in the angle of attack cause the velocity and pressure of the flow to vary as the air
passes over the upper and lower surfaces. This in turn affects the pressure differential that
exists and hence the amount of lift developed.
Do not confuse 'Angle of Attack' with 'Angle of Incidence'. The 'Angle of Incidence' is the
angle at which the wing is fixed to the fuselage, relative to the aircraft's longitudinal axis
(Fig. 4.10).

121
The angle of incidence is fixed, but the angle of attack changes in flight. Likewise, do not
confuse the 'Pitch Angle' or 'Pitch Attitude' of the aircraft with the angle of attack. For
any given angle of attack, the pitch angle can vary (Fig. 4.11).

Fig. 4.11.

Similarly, for any given pitch angle, the angle of attack can also vary (Fig. 4.12).

Fig. 4.12

The AOA changes as the aircraft’s attitude changes. Since the AOA has a great deal to do
with determining lift, it is given primary consideration when designing airfoils. In a properly
designed airfoil, the lift increases as the AOA is increased.

When the AOA is increased gradually toward a positive AOA, the lift component increases
rapidly up to a certain point and then suddenly begins to drop off. During this action the drag
component increases slowly at first, then rapidly as lift begins to drop off. When the AOA

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increases to the angle of maximum lift, the burble point is reached. This is known as the
critical angle.
When the airplane reaches the maximum angle of attack, lift begins to diminish rapidly. This
is the stalling angle of attack, or burble point.

Critical Angle of Attack

Also called Stalling Angle Of Attack (AOA) , or Burble Point or Maximum Angle Of
Attack
Is the angle at which an airfoil produces its maximum lift coefficient just beyond it the wing
will stall. It's an aerodynamic constant for a given airfoil configuration, and the airfoil will
stall when the critical AOA is reached.

Stall
A stall is an aerodynamic condition that occurs when smooth airflow over the airplane's
wings is disrupted, resulting in loss of lift. Stalls occur when the AOA reaches the critical
point which can vary between 16 and 20.

When the critical angle is reached, the air ceases to flow smoothly over the topsurface of the
airfoil and begins to burble or eddy.
This means that air breaks away from the upper
camber line of the wing. What was formerly the area
of decreased pressure is now filled by this burbling
air. When this occurs, the amount of lift drops and
drag becomes excessive. The force of gravity exerts
itself, and the nose of the aircraft drops. This is a
stall. Thus, the burble point is the stalling angle.

Angle of Incidence - The angle between the wing root chord line and the longitudinal axis of
the aircraft. OR The acute angle the wing chord makes with the longitudinal axis of the
aircraft is called the angle of incidence, or the angle of wing setting. (Figure 2-8) (This angle
is fixed for the wing, but may be variable for the tail plane).

The angle of incidence (angle of setting): Denoted by β, It is generally about two to three
degrees. It can vary all along the wing if the wing is twisted during construction.

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 Figure 1.24 Angle of incidence

When the leading edge of the wing is higher than the trailing edge, the angle of incidence is
said to be positive. The angle of incidence is negative when the leading edge is lower than
the trailing edge of the wing.

Figure 2-8. Angle of incidence.

Other unique features of wings include wash in and wash out. A wing does not have to be
constructed flat in a single plain. A wing may be twisted from root to tip in order to provide
better aerodynamic characteristics especially stall characteristics.
When a wing is twisted down at the tip so that the angle of incidence is less at the wingtip
than it is at the wing root, it is called washout.
If the wing is twisted in the opposite direction so that the wing tip angle of incidence is
greater than at the wing root, it called wash in.
Wash-out - Decrease in angle of incidence towards the tip of a wing or other aerofoil
Wash Out - A decrease in wing angle of incidence from root to tip, caused by an intentional
twist in the wing. It is usually incorporated to improve stability.

Wash In: An increase in angle of incidence from root to tip, caused by an intentional twist in
the wing. It is rarely incorporated because it decreases the stability of the wing.

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Wash Out: A decrease in wing angle of incidence from root to tip, caused by an intentional
twist in the wing. It is usually incorporated to improve stability.

Many airplanes are designed with a greater angle of incidence at the root of the wing
than at the tip, and this is referred to as washout. This feature causes the inboard part
of the wing to stall before the outboard part, which helps maintain aileron control
during the initial stages of a wing stall.

'Pitch Angle' or 'Pitch Attitude' or body angle of an aircraft.

Stall
Is the condition of lost lift f0rce occurs on the wing of an aircraft caused by increase the AOA
beyond critical AOA.

Angle of Sweepback – The angle between the line of 25% chord and perpendicular to the
root chord. OR
Sweep Angle - The angle between the lateral axis and the 25% chord line (may be referred to
as the leading edge).

Relative Wind / Airflow

Is the flow of air opposite to the direction of aircraft OR
The flow of air around an object caused by the movement of either the air or the object, or
both that is parallel and opposite to the flight path of the aircraft. This airflow must be
unaffected by the passage of the aircraft.
Relative airflow is a term used to describe the direction of the airflow with respect to the
wing. In other texts, it is sometimes called relative wind. If a wing is moving forward and

125
downward, the relative airflow is upward and backward. If the wing is moving forward
horizontally, the relative airflow moves backward horizontally.

Relative airflow is created by the motion of the airplane through the air. It is also created by
the motion of air past a stationary body or by a combination of both. Therefore, on a take-off
roll, an airplane is subject to the relative airflow created by its motion along the ground and
also by the moving mass of air (wind). In flight, however, only the motion of the airplane
produces a relative airflow. The direction and speed of the wind have no effect on relative
airflow.

Relative Airflow has three qualities.

1. DIRECTION - air parallel to and in the opposite direction to the flight path of the
aircraft, in fact the path of the CG; the direction in which the aircraft is pointing is
irrelevant.
i. If the flight path is forward, then the relative wind is backward.
ii. If the flight path is forward and upward, then the relative wind is backward
and downward.
iii. I the flight path is forward and downward, then the relative wind is backward
and upward.
2. CONDITION - air close to, but unaffected by the presence of, the aircraft; its
pressure, temperature and velocity are not affected by the passage of the aircraft
through it.
3. MAGNITUDE - The magnitude of the Relative Airflow is the TAS.

If Airflow does not possess all three of these qualities, it is referred to as EFFECTIVE
AIRFLOW.

Leading Edge Radius - The radius of curvature of the leading edge. The size of the leading
edge radius can significantly affect the initial airflow characteristics of the aerofoil section.

Wing Loading – The total weight supported per unit area of the wing.
The total aircraft weight supported per unit area of the wing; measured in Newtons per square
metre (N/m2).
Wing Loading = AUW/wing area

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Load Factor – The ratio of the lift of an aircraft to its weight. The correct symbol for load
factor is (n), but it is colloquially known as (g).

This show the the maximum load an aircraft can sustain to the gross weight of the aircraft.
LOAD FACTROR indicates stress ("load") to which the structure of the aircraft is subjected,
is the weight. Since the load factor is the ratio of two forces, it is dimensionless.

Dihedral and Anhedral (or Cathedral)

The wings may be inclined above or below the horizontal. Dihedral is the term for wing
inclination above the horizontal, and Anhedral (or Cathedral)is the term for inclination
below the horizontal.
OR
Dihedral is the upward inclination of the wing to the plane through the lateral axis.
Anhedral (or Cathedral): The downward inclination of the wing to the plane through the
lateral axis.

Dihedral angle is the upward angle from horizontal of the wings or tailplane of a fixed-wing
aircraft.
Anhedral angle (or Cathedral) is the name given to negative dihedral angle, that is, when
there is a downward angle from horizontal of the wings or tail plane of a fixed-wing aircraft.

Vortex generators - are short airfoils, arranged in pairs, located on the wing’s upper surface.
They are positioned such that they pull high-energy air down into the boundary layer region
and prevent airflow separation.

Dutch roll - A Dutch roll is a small amount of oscillation around both the longitudinal and
vertical axes. Although this condition is not considered dangerous, it can produce an

127
uncomfortable feeling for passengers. Commercial airliners typically have yaw dampers that
sense a Dutch roll condition and cancel it out.

Forces Acting on the Aircraft

Thrust, drag, lift, and weight are forces that act upon all aircraft in flight. Understanding
how these forces work and knowing how to control them with the use of power and flight
controls are essential to flight.
This chapter discusses the aerodynamics of flight - how design, weight, load factors, and
gravity affect an aircraft during flight maneuvers.

Thrust
The forward force that moves the aircraft forward, the force produced by the power-plant/
propeller or rotor. It opposes or overcomes the force of drag. As a general rule, it acts parallel
to the longitudinal axis. However, this is not always the case, as explained later.

Drag
A rearward, retarding force that exerts a braking action to hold the aircraft back .Caused by
disruption of airflow by the wing, rotor, fuselage, and other protruding objects. As a general
rule, drag opposes thrust and acts rearward parallel to the relative wind.

Lift
Is a force that is produced by the dynamic effect of the air acting on the airfoil, and acts
perpendicular to the flight path through the center of lift (CL) and perpendicular to the lateral
axis. In level flight, lift opposes the downward force of weight. OR
Lift is the force that pushes the aircraft upward.

Weight
The combined load of the aircraft itself, the crew, the fuel, and the cargo or baggage. Weight
is a force that pulls the aircraft downward toward the earth, because of the force of gravity. It
opposes lift and acts vertically downward through the aircraft’s center of gravity (CG).

Figure 2-13/5-1 illustrates the vectors of these four forces. They are in perfect balance only
when the aircraft is in straight-and-level un-accelerated flight.

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 Figure 5-1. Relationship of forces acting on an aircraft.

In steady flight, the sum of these opposing forces is always zero. There can be no
unbalanced forces in steady, straight flight based upon Newton’s Third Law, which states that
for every action or force there is an equal, but opposite, reaction or force. This is true whether
flying level or when climbing or descending.
It does not mean the four forces are equal. It means the opposing forces are equal to, and
thereby cancel, the effects of each other. In Figure 5-1, the force vectors of thrust, drag, lift,
and weight appear to be equal in value. The usual explanation states (without stipulating that
thrust and drag do not equal weight and lift) that thrust equals drag and lift equals weight.

Although true, this statement can be misleading. It should be understood that in straight,
level, un-accelerated flight, it is true that the opposing lift/weight forces are equal. They are
also greater than the opposing forces of thrust/drag that are equal only to each other.
Therefore, in steady flight:
1. The sum of all upward components of forces (not just lift) equals the sum of all
downward components of forces (not just weight)
2. The sum of all forward components of forces (not just thrust) equals the sum of all
backward components of forces (not just drag)

This refinement of the old “thrust equals drag; lift equals weight” formula explains that a
portion of thrust is directed upward in climbs and slow flight and acts as if it were lift while a
portion of weight is directed backward opposite to the direction of flight and acts as if it were

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drag. In slow flight, thrust has an upward component. But because the aircraft is in level
flight, weight does not contribute to drag. [Figure 5-2]

Figure 5-2. Force vectors during a stabilized climb.

In glides, a portion of the weight vector is directed along

the forward flight path and, therefore, acts as thrust. In other
words, any time the flight path of the aircraft is not horizontal,
lift, weight, thrust, and drag vectors must each be broken down
into two components.

Another important concept to understand is angle of attack

(AOA). Since the early days of flight, AOA is fundamental to
understanding many aspects of airplane performance, stability,
and control. The AOA is defined as the acute angle between the
chord line of the airfoil and the direction of the relative wind.
Discussions of the preceding concepts are frequently omitted
in aeronautical texts/handbooks/manuals. The reason is
not that they are inconsequential, but because the main
ideas with respect to the aerodynamic forces acting upon
an aircraft in flight can be presented in their most essential
elements without being involved in the technicalities of the
aerodynamicist. In point of fact, considering only level flight,
and normal climbs and glides in a steady state, it is still true
that lift provided by the wing or rotor is the primary upward
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force, and weight is the primary downward force.

By using the aerodynamic forces of thrust, drag, lift, and

weight, pilots can fly a controlled, safe flight. A more detailed
discussion of these forces follows.

The Working OF Forces On Aeroplane

Before an aeroplane can leave the ground and fly, the force of weight must be balanced by a
force which acts upwards. This force is called LIFT. The lift force must be increased until it
is the same as the aeroplane’s weight.

Figure 1.3 The forces of weight & lift.

To generate a lift force, the aeroplane must be propelled forward through the air by a force
called THRUST, provided by the engine(s).

Figure 1.4 The forces of weight, lift & thrust

From the very moment the aeroplane begins to move, air resists its forward motion with a
force called DRAG.

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 Figure 1.5 The forces of weight, lift, thrust & drag

When an aeroplane is moving there are four main forces acting upon it: WEIGHT, LIFT,
THRUST and DRAG.
These are all closely interrelated, i.e.:
1. The greater the weight - the greater the lift requirement.
2. The greater the lift - the greater the drag.
3. The greater the drag - the greater the thrust required, and so on ...

Air has properties which change with altitude. Knowledge of these variables, together with
their effect on an aeroplane, is a prerequisite for a full understanding of the principles of
flight.
The structural and aerodynamic design of an aeroplane is a masterpiece of compromise. An
improvement in one area frequently leads to a loss of efficiency in another. An aeroplane
does not ‘grip’ the air as a car does the road. An aeroplane is often not pointing in the same
direction in which it is moving.

Aerodynamic Resultant
An aircraft in flight is continuously affected by
thrust, weight, lift and drag. The directions in
which the forces act is known. The magnitude of the
forces can be calculated. When the forces are not in
balance, a resultant or resulting force will exist. This
is the combined force of all of the forces acting on
the aircraft. In all types of flying, flight calculations
are based on the magnitude and direction of the
four forces.

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The forces of lift and drag, for example, are the
direct result of the relationship between the relative
wind and the aircraft. The force of lift always acts
perpendicular to the relative wind, and the force of
drag always acts parallel to and in the same direction
as the relative wind. These forces are actually the
components that produce a resultant lift force on the
wing. (Figure 2-14)

Figure 2-14. Resultant of lift and drag.

GENERATION OF LIFT
The Beginnings of Flight
People have dreamed of taking to the air since the earliest observers watched the graceful
flight of birds. It was only natural the first thoughts of flight assumed a need for flapping
wings. In Greek mythology, Daedalus and his son Icarus escaped from Crete by making
wings of feathers held together with wax. Icarus was so enamored of flight, he flew too close
to the sun. Thewax melted, and he plunged into the sea and drowned.

The earliest experimental flying machines emulated the bird, using flapping wings for
propulsion. These machines, or "ornithopters," were unsuccessful. The first successful
heavier-than-air flying machines were built and flown by the Chinese centuries before Christ,
kites held in the air by the same aerodynamic forces that sustain modern airplanes and
helicopters.

Ornithopter. A heavie r-thall-air flying machine that produces lift by fl aping its wings. No
practi cal ornitho pte r has been built.

In order to achieve flight in a machine that is heavier than air,

there are several obstacles we must overcome. One of those
obstacles, discussed previously, is the resistance to movement
133
called drag. The most challenging obstacle to overcome in
aviation, however, is the force of gravity. A wing moving
through air generates the force called lift, also previously
discussed. Lift from the wing that is greater than the force of
gravity, directed opposite to the direction of gravity, enables
an aircraft to fly. Generating this force called lift is based on
some important principles, Newton's basic laws of motion,
and Bernoulli's principle of differential pressure.

Two Types of Lift

Two types of lift raise aircraft against the force of gravity: aerostatic and aerodynamic.
Aerostatic lift is produced when the weight of air displaced by the aircraft is greater than the
weight of the aircraft. Results of Buoyance Force of air on an object.
Aerodynamic lift is produced when movement of the aircraft through the air forces down a
weight of air greater than the weight of the aircraft. Results of Aerodynamic Reaction of air
on an object.

Aerostatic Lift
While the Chinese were flying kites and raising objects with the kites' aerodynamic lift, most
experiments in Europe were of an aerostatic nature. In November of 1783, the Montgolfier
brothers launched a manned hot-air balloon from Paris, France. Between the two world wars
of the twentieth century, huge lighter-than-air flying machines carried aloft thousands of
persons and transported tons of cargo, and in 1929 the German Craf Zeppelin made a round-
the-world flight of more than 21 ,000 miles.

During the 1920s and 1930s, the U.S. Navy experimented with several huge lighter-than-air
flying machines, using two of them, the USS Akron and the USS Macon , as flying aircraft
carriers. Interest in lighter-than-air craft was dealt a serious blow on May 6, 1937, when the
German airship Hindenburg burned as she docked at the U.S. Naval Air Station in Lakehurst,
New Jersey. Strained diplomatic relations between the ruling parties in Germany and the
United States meant the Germans did not have access to helium gas (only found in
commercial quantities in the United States). Theyused the extremely flammable hydrogen gas
to lift the Hindenburg.

Zeppelin. The name or large rigid lighter than-air ships built by the Zeppelin Company in
Germany prior to and during World War 1.

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Experimental work with large lighter-than-air machines continues today, and gas-filled
blimps frequently advertise above our cities. The most common lighter-than-air aircraft,
though, are hot-air balloons. Made of modern high strength synthetic fabrics, these aircraft
use propane burners to heat the air.

Blimp. A cigar-shaped non-rigid lighter than air flying machine.

Figure 1-1. The modern hot- air balloon uses the same type of aerostatic lift that carried two
aeronauts a loft in France more than two countries ago.

Aerodynamic Lift
Most modern aircraft employ aerodynamic lift, which requires relative movement between
the air and the aircraft.
To create aerodynamic lift, a specially shaped surface, called an airfoil, is moved through the
air. A low pressure is produced above its surface, and a relatively high pressure is produced
below it. This pressure differential deflects the air downward, and the mass of the air forced
down is balancedby an equal force that pushes upward on the airfoil. This upward force is the
aerodynamic lift.

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Aerodynamic Lift. The force produced by air moving over a specially shaped surface called
an airfoil. Aerodynamic lift acts in a direction perpendicular to the direction the air is
moving.

Airfoil. Any surface designed to obtain a useful reaction, or lift, from air passing over it.

Theories in the Production of Lift

In order to achieve flight in a machine that is heavier than air, there are several obstacles we
must overcome. One of those obstacles, discussed previously, is the resistance to movement
called drag. The most challenging obstacle to overcome in aviation, however, is the force of
gravity.
A wing moving through air generates the force called lift, also previously discussed. Lift
from the wing that is greater than the force of gravity, directed opposite to the direction of
gravity, enables an aircraft to fly.

Generating this force called lift is based on some important principles, Newton's basic laws of
motion, and Bernoulli's principle of differential pressure mainly also other called The Coanda
effect.

There are many theories on how lift is achieved including (Aerodynamic Lift)
1. Bernoulli's principle.
2. Newton's third law.
3. The Coanda effect.

1. Bernoulli’s Principle and Subsonic Flow

Bernoulli’s principle states that “when a fluid (air) flowing through a tube reaches a
constriction, or narrowing, of the tube, the speed of the fluid flowing through that constriction
increases and its pressure decreases.”
“as the velocity of a fluid increases, the static pressure of that fluid will decrease, provided
there is no energy added or energy taken away.” A direct application of Bernoulli’s principle
is the study of air as it flows through either a converging or a diverging passage, and to relate
the findings to some aviation concepts.
1 2
P+ ρ V + ρgh=Constant
2
Where by

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P – Fluid static pressure
1 2
ρ V – Dynamic pressure
2
ρgh - Hydrostatic pressure

Note: An ideal fluid is both incompressible and has no viscosity

Bernoulli’s principle was originally stated to explain the action of a liquid flowing through
the varying cross-sectional areas of tubes. In Figure 5-46 a tube is shown in which the cross-
sectional area gradually decreases to a minimum diameter in its center section. A tube
constructed in this manner is called a “venturi,” or “venturi tube.” Where the cross-sectional
area is decreasing, the passageway is referred to as a converging duct. As the passageway
starts to spread out, it is referred to as a diverging duct.

Figure 5-46. Bernoulli’s principle and a venturi.

As a liquid, or fluid, flows through the venturi tube, the gauges at points “A,” “B,” and “C”
are positioned to register the velocity and the static pressure of the liquid. The venturi in
Figure 5-46 can be used to illustrate Bernoulli’s principle, which states that: The static
pressure of a fluid, liquid or gas, decreases at points where the velocity of the fluid increases,
provided no energy is added to nor taken away from the fluid. The velocity of the air is
kinetic energy and the static pressure of the air is potential energy.

In the wide section of the venturi (points A and C of Figure 5-46), the liquid moves at low
velocity, producing a high static pressure, as indicated by the pressure gauge. As the tube
narrows in the center, it must contain the same volume of fluid as the two end areas. As
indicated by the velocity gauge reading high and the pressure gauge reading low, in this
narrow section, the liquid moves at a higher velocity, producing a lower pressure than that at

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points A and C. A good application for the use of the venturi principle is in a float-type
carburetor. As the air flows through the carburetor on its way to the engine, it goes through a
venturi, where the static pressure is reduced. The fuel in the carburetor, which is under a
higher pressure, flows into the lower pressure venturi area and mixes with the air.

Bernoulli’s principle is extremely important in understanding how some of the systems used
in aviation work, including how the wing of an airplane generates lift or why the inlet duct of
a turbine engine on a subsonic airplane is diverging in shape. The wing on a slow-moving
airplane has a curved top surcface and a relatively flat bottom surface. The curved top surface
acts like half of the converging shaped middle of a venturi. As the air flow over the top of the
wing, the air speeds up, and its static pressure decreases. The static pressure on the bottom of
the wing is now greater than the pressure on the top, and this pressure difference creates the
lift on the wing. Bernoulli’s principle and the concept of lift on a wing are covered in greater
depth in “Aircraft Theory of Flight” located in this chapter.

In the discussion of Bernoulli’s principle earlier in this chapter, a venturi was shown in
Figure 5-46. In Figure 5-56, a venturi is shown again, only this time a wing is shown tucked
up into the recess where the venturi’s converging shape is. There are two arrows showing
airflow. The large arrow shows airflow within the venturi, and the small arrow shows airflow
on the outside heading toward the leading edge of the wing.

Figure 5-56. Venturi with a superimposed wing.

In the converging part of the venturi, velocity would increase and static pressure would
decrease. The same thing would happen to the air flowing around the wing, with the velocity
over the top increasing and static pressure decreasing.

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In Figure 5-56, the air reaching the leading edge of the wing separates into two separate
flows. Some of the air goes over the top of the wing and some travels along the bottom. The
air going over the top, because of the curvature, has farther to travel. With a greater distance
to travel, the air going over the top must move at a greater velocity. The higher velocity on
the top causes the static pressure on the top to be less than it is on the bottom, and this
difference in static pressures is what creates lift.

The cambered (curved) surface of an airfoil (wing) affects the airflow exactly as a
constriction in a tube affects airflow. (Figure 2-2)

Figure 2-2. Velocity distribution of airflow over a symmetrical airfoil (top); and the resulting
pressure (bottom)

Stagnation Point - A point where streamlines are divided by a body and where the fluid
speed
is zero, relative to the surface.

Diagram A of Figure 2-1 illustrates the effect of air passing through a constriction in a tube.
In B, air is flowing past a cambered surface, such as an airfoil, and the effect is similar to that
of air passing through a restriction.

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 Figure 2-1. Bernoulli’s Principle.

An airfoil is a surface designed to obtain lift from the air through which it moves. As the air
flows over the curved upper surface of an airfoil, its velocity increases and its pressure
decreases; an area of low pressure is formed. There is an area of greater pressure on the lower
surface of the airfoil, and this greater pressure tends to move the wing upward. The difference
in pressure between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing is called lift. Three-fourths of
the total lift of an airfoil is the result of the decrease in pressure over the upper surface.
The impact of air on the lower surface of an airfoil produces the other one-fourth of the
total lift.

Note that in order to fit the model of Bernoulli's Principle, the airflow over the wing surfaces
must be laminar. Laminar air flow refers to airflow that is flowing in a consistent smooth
stream. Turbulent flow is also possible. This is where the air flowing over the surface no
longer so closely adheres to it.
The flow is thicker and faster however some lift is produced. When the airflow actually
separates from the surface of a wing, a different type of turbulence occurs. This type of
turbulence does not produce lift and Bernoulli's Principle does not apply. More discussion of
these phenomena occur below in the section entitled Boundary Layer.

Free stream airflow is air flowing without obstruction before it engages the aircraft structure.
The velocity of the free stream flow is equal to the speed aircraft. The pressure of the free
stream airflow is static pressure. When the free stream flow arrives at the aircraft structure,
such as the wing, it must flow around the surface areas. As it does so, the pressure and

140
velocity of the air change depending on the shape of the wing. There is a point in front of the
structure,
however, where the velocity of the air is zero. This is known as the point of stagnation.
Typical airflow patterns show the relationship between static pressure and velocity defined by
Bernoulli. In aerodynamics, when positive pressure is mentioned, it refers to pressures above
atmospheric pressure. Negative pressure or suction pressure is lower than atmospheric
pressure. Any object placed in an airstream will have the air impact or stagnate at some point
near the leading edge. The pressure at this point of stagnation will be an absolute static
pressure equal to the total pressure of the airstream. In other words, the static pressure at
the stagnation point will be greater than the atmospheric pressure by the amount of the
dynamic pressure of the airstream. As the flow divides and proceeds around the object, the
increases in local velocity produce decreases in static pressure. This procedure of flow is best
illustrated by the flow patterns and pressure distributions of Figure 2-2. Note that the
"streamlines" in the diagram show the velocity of the airflow. When they are close together,
high velocity exists at that point and when they are far apart, low velocity exists at that point.
The vector arrows in the diagram show the magnitude and direction of the low pressure
caused by the increased velocity of the airflow.

Because the object in Figure 2-2 is a symmetrical airfoil, the relative airflow striking it flows
above and below the airfoil in the same manner. The pressures are the same and no lift is
produced. By reshaping the airfoil or by tilting it in relation to the relative airflow, uneven
flow over the upper and lower surfaces occurs. This causes uneven pressure above and below
the airfoil which results in the creation of lift.
Simply by tilting the same symmetrical airfoil, an increase in upper surface suction occurs
and the decreased in velocity on the lower surface causes a decrease in lower surface suction.
Also, upwash is generated ahead of the airfoil, the forward stagnation point moves under the
leading edge, and a downwash is evident aft of the airfoil. (Upwash and downwash are the
deflection directions of the air as it negotiates its path around the airfoil.) The pressure
distribution on the airfoil now provides a net force perpendicular to the airstream in the
upward direct. This is lift. (Figure 2-3) The creation of lift is discussed in greater detail
below.

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 Figure 2-3. Uneven airflow, uneven pressure, up-wash and down-wash are all caused by
tilting the airfoil in relation to the free stream airflow.

For the horizontal pipe it can be stated as

“In the steady flow of an ideal fluid the sum of the pressure energy and the kinetic energy
remains constant”.
Note: An ideal fluid is both incompressible and has no viscosity.

This statement can be expressed as: Pressure + Kinetic energy = Constant or:

Figure 3.2 Bernoulli’s Theorem

Because the velocity of air at the throat has doubled, its dynamic pressure has risen by a value
142
of four, and the static pressure has decreased. The significant point is that:
Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure is a constant. This constant can be referred to either as:
TOTAL PRESSURE, STAGNATION PRESSURE or PITOT PRESSURE.

It can be seen that flow velocity is dependent on the shape of the object over which it flows.
And from Bernoulli’s theorem, it is evident that an increase in velocity will cause a decrease
in static pressure, and vice versa.
The tubes illustrated above are used only to demonstrate the principle of continuity and
Bernoulli’s theorem and are of no practical use in making an aeroplane fly
But an aerodynamic force to oppose the weight of an aircraft can be generated by using a
specially shaped body called an aerofoil.

Figure 3.3 Typical aerofoil section

The airflow velocity over the top surface of a lifting aerofoil will be greater than that beneath,
so the pressure differential that results will produce a force per unit area acting upwards. The
larger the surface area, the bigger the force that can be generated.
In the next section we see that the flow over the top of the aerofoil looks very like the tube on
the opposite page and the principle of continuity and Bernoulli’s theorem still apply

2. Lift and Newton’s Third Law

Newton’s third law identifies that for every force there is an equal and opposite reacting
force. In addition to Bernoulli’s principle, Newton’s third law can also be used to explain the
lift being created by a wing. As the air travels around a wing and leaves the trailing edge, the
air is forced to move in a downward direction.
Since a force is required to make something change direction, there must be an equal and
opposite reacting force. In this case, the reacting force is what we call lift. In order to
calculate lift based on Newton’s third law,
Newton’s second law and the formula “Force = Mass × Acceleration” would be used. The
mass would be the weight of air flowing over the wing every second, and the acceleration
would be the change in velocity the wing imparts to the air.

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The lift on the wing as described by Bernoulli’s principle, and lift on the wing as described
by Newton’s third law, is not separate or independent of each other. They are just two
different ways to describe the same thing, namely the lift on a wing.

Figure 1.34 Newton’s third low

3. The Coanda Effect

This phenomenon is named after the Romanian Scientist Henri Coanda. A fluid jet tends to
attach itself to a downstream surface roughly parallel to the jet axis. If the downstream
surface curves down, this jet will follow it downward flow direction, which this is the action
and the reaction to this jet will be an upward force in the opposite direction.
The opposite reaction to this downward jet flow will impart an upward force to the wing, in a
similar manner to Newton’s Third Law of Motion.

The airflow being diverted down by the curved surface causes an upward force of the wing.

Axes of an Aircraft
An aircraft in flight is free to rotate about three axes: the longitudinal, or roll axis; the
lateral, or pitch axis; and the vertical/normal, or yaw axis. See Figure 1-5.

144
 Figure 1-5. An airplane in flight is free to rotate about its longitudinal, lateral, and vertical
axes. These three axes are mutually perpendicular, and all pass through the aircraft's center of
gravity.

Planform and Vortices

The previous discussion of aerodynamic forces concerned the properties of airfoil sections in
two dimensional flow with no consideration given to the influence of the planform.

The planform is the shape or outline of an aircraft wing as projected onto a horizontal plane.
(Figure 2-5) When the effects of wing planform are introduced, attention must be directed to
the existence of flow components in the span-wise direction. In other words, the airfoil
section properties considered thus far deal with flow in two dimensions. Planform properties
consider
flow in three dimensions.

145
 Figure 2-5. Various wing planforms.

Upwash and downwash refer to the effect an airfoil has on the free airstream.
Upwash is the deflection of the oncoming airstream, causing it to flow up and over the wing.
Downwash is the downward deflection of the airstream after it has passed over the wing and
is leaving the trailing edge. This downward deflection is what creates the action and reaction
described under lift and Newton’s third law.

Downwash. Air forced down by aerodynamic action below and behind the wing of an
airplane or the rotor of a helicopter.
Aerodynamic lift is produced when the air is deflected downward. The upward force on the
aircraft is the same as the downward force on the air.
The pressure above the wing is less than atmospheric pressure, and the pressure below the
wing is equal to or greater than atmospheric pressure. Since fluids always move from high
pressure toward low pressure, in addition to the movement of air over the wing from front to
rear, there is also a span-wise movement of air from the bottom of the wing outward from the
fuselage and upward around the wing tip.
This flow of air results in spillage over the wing tip, thereby setting up a whirlpool of air
called a “vortex.” [Figure 2-6] The plural of vortex is vortices.

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 Figure 2-6. Wingtip vortices.

As the difference in the pressure between the air on the bottom and top of the wing increases,
more lift is generated. This increased pressure differential also causes more violent vortices.
Small aircraft pilots must be especially vigilant when flying behind large aircraft. The
vortices coming off the wingtips of a transport category aircraft could cause loss of control if
encountered before they have had time to dissipate into the atmosphere.

Note that the air on the upper surface of the wing planform has a tendency to move in toward
the fuselage and off the trailing edge as shown by the blue arrows in Figure 2-6.
This air current forms a similar vortex to a wingtip vortex but at the inner portion of the
trailing edge of the wing. All vortices increase drag because of the turbulence produced, and
constitute induced drag. Vortices increase as lift (and drag) increase. Drag will be discussed
in further detail later in this module.
Just as lift increases by increasing of the angle of the airfoil into the wind, drag also increases
as the angle becomes greater. This occurs because, within limits, as the angle is increased, the
pressure difference between the top and bottom of the wing becomes greater. This causes
more violent vortices to be set up, resulting in more turbulence and more induced drag.

4. Four Forces of Flight

During flight, there are four forces acting on an airplane. These forces are lift, weight, thrust,
and drag. [Figure 5-53] Lift is the upward force created by the wing, weight is the pull of
gravity on the mass, thrust is the force created by the airplane’s propeller or turbine engine,
and drag is the friction caused by the air flowing around the airplane.

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For straight and level flight the four forces present lift, weight, thrust and drag are said to be
in equilibrium, and from the diagram we can deduce that L = W and T = D.
To simplify as much as possible; all four forces are shown to act through the same point, and
no other forces (i.e. tail-plane forces) are considered. If the equilibrium of the forces is upset,
e.g. thrust (T) is increased; the aircraft will accelerate until the increase in drag (D) balances
the increase in thrust. If the lift (L) is increased, the aircraft will change direction or altitude.

All four of these forces are measured in pounds. Any time the forces are not in balance,
something about the airplane’s condition is changing. The possibilities are as follows:

1. When an airplane is accelerating, it has more thrust than drag.

2. When an airplane is decelerating, it has less thrust than drag.
3. When an airplane is at a constant velocity, thrust and drag are equal.
4. When an airplane is climbing, it has more lift than weight.
5. When an airplane is descending, it has more weight than lift.
6. When an airplane is at a constant altitude, lift and weight are equal.

Figure 5-53. Four forces acting on an airplane.

Aerodynamic Force Coefficient

The aerodynamic forces of both lift and drag depend on the combined effect of many
variables. The important factors are:

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Dynamic Pressure, Q
The dynamic pressure (½ ρ V2) of the airflow is a common denominator of aerodynamic
forces and is a major factor since the magnitude of a pressure distribution depends on the
energy given to the airflow (KE = ½ m V2).

Pressure Distribution (CL or CD).

Another major factor is the relative pressure distribution existing on the surface. The
distribution of velocities, with resulting pressure distribution, is determined by the shape or
profile of the surface and the angle of attack (CL or CD).

Surface Area, S
Since aerodynamic forces are the result of various pressures distributed on a surface, the
surface area (S) is the remaining major factor - the larger the surface area for a given pressure
differential, the greater the force generated.

Thus, any aerodynamic force can be represented as the product of three major factors:
1. The dynamic pressure of the airflow, Q (½ρ V2)
2. The coefficient of force determined by the relative pressure distribution (CL or CD),
and
3. The surface area of the object (S)

The relationship of these three factors is expressed by the following equation:

F = Q CF S
Where
F = aerodynamic force (Lift or Drag)
Q = dynamic pressure (½ρ V2)
149
CF = coefficient of aerodynamic force (CL or CD)
S = surface area

These four forces are,

Weight
Gravity or weight—the force that pulls the aircraft toward the earth. Weight is the force of
gravity acting downward upon everything that goes into the aircraft, such as the aircraft itself,
crew, fuel, and cargo.
The weight of an airplane is the total pull of gravity. Weight acts through the center of gravity
directly toward the center of the earth. Weight is the greatest part of the downward force on
airplanes, but there are also other downward forces.

The weight is variable on the ground and during flight. On the ground the weight depends on
the number of passengers, baggage, cargo and the fuel load. In flight the weight reduces as
the fuel is consumed, with larger passenger aircraft burning as much as 3½ kilograms per
second. At this rate a 10-hour flight will reduce an aircraft’s weight by 126 tonnes.

For the airplane to remain at the same altitude, the total upward force must equal the total
downward force. When the airplane is turning, centrifugal force causes a horizontal
movement away from the center of the turn. This centrifugal force adds vectorially to the
aircraft's weight to produce a resultant weight that is greater than the lift. If the lift is not
increased as the airplane turns, the upward force will not equal the downward force, and the
airplane will descend in the turn.

Thrust
Thrust—the force that moves the aircraft forward. Thrust is the forward force produced by
the power-plant that overcomes the force of drag.
Thrust is defined as the forward directed pushing or pulling force produced by the aircraft’s
engine. The Thrust Line is an imaginary line, which depends upon the type of engine being
used. For propeller driven aircraft it passes through the centre of the propeller hub,
perpendicular to the plane of propeller rotation. For gas turbine engines it is parallel to the
path of the ejected gases.

Thrust can be varied to any value from maximum at take-off to idle at landing. It must be
remembered that, if the aircraft is at a steady speed, the thrust equals the drag. When the

150
aircraft is accelerating, the thrust is greater than the drag and vice versa. The thrust of any
engine, either jet or propeller is normally through its axis of rotation and is fixed.
When the thrust line is above the center of gravity, an increase in thrust rotates the airplane
nose-down about its lateral axis. A decrease in thrust lets the airplane rotate nose-upward.

For an aircraft to start moving, thrust must be exerted and be greater than drag. The aircraft
continues to move and gain speed until thrust and drag are equal.
In order to maintain a constant airspeed, thrust and drag must remain equal, just as lift and
weight must be equal to maintain a constant altitude.

If in level flight, the engine power is reduced, the thrust is lessened, and the aircraft slows
down. As long as the thrust is less than the drag, the aircraft continues to decelerate. To a
point, as the aircraft slows down, the drag force will also decrease. The aircraft will continue
to slow down until thrust again equals drag at which point the airspeed will stabilize.

Likewise, if the engine power is increased, thrust becomes greater than drag and the airspeed
increases. As long as the thrust continues to be greater than the drag, the aircraft continues to
accelerate. When drag equals thrust, the aircraft flies at a constant airspeed.
Straight-and-level flight may be sustained at a wide range of speeds. The pilot coordinates
AOA and thrust in all speed regimes if the aircraft is to be held in level flight. An important
fact related to the principal of lift (for a given airfoil shape) is that lift varies with the AOA
and airspeed.
Therefore, a large AOA at low airspeeds produces an equal amount of lift at high airspeeds
with a low AOA. The speed regimes of flight can be grouped in three categories: low speed
flight, cruising flight, and high-speed flight.

When the airspeed is low, the AOA must be relatively high if the balance between lift and
weight is to be maintained. [Figure 5-3] If thrust decreases and airspeed decreases, lift will
become less than weight and the aircraft will start to descend. To maintain level flight, the
pilot can increase the AOA an amount that generates a lift force again equal to the weight of
the aircraft.
While the aircraft will be flying more slowly, it will still maintain level flight. The AOA is
adjusted to maintain lift equal weight. The airspeed will naturally adjust until drag equals
thrust and then maintain that airspeed (assumes the pilot is not trying to hold an exact speed).

151
 Figure 5-3. Angle of attack at various speeds.

Straight-and-level flight in the slow-speed regime provides some interesting conditions

relative to the equilibrium of forces. With the aircraft in a nose-high attitude, there is a
vertical component of thrust that helps support it. For one thing, wing loading tends to be less
than would be expected.

In level flight, when thrust is increased, the aircraft speeds up and the lift increases. The
aircraft will start to climb unless the AOA is decreased just enough to maintain the
relationship between lift and weight. The timing of this decrease in AOA needs to be
coordinated with the increase
in thrust and airspeed. Otherwise, if the AOA is decreased too fast, the aircraft will descend,
and if the AOA is decreased too slowly, the aircraft will climb.

As the airspeed varies due to thrust, the AOA must also vary to maintain level flight. At very
high speeds and level flight, it is even possible to have a slightly negative AOA. As thrust is
reduced and airspeed decreases, the AOA must increase in order to maintain altitude. If speed
decreases enough, the required AOA will increase to the critical AOA. Any further increase
in the AOA will result in the wing stalling.
Therefore, extra vigilance is required at reduced thrust settings and low speeds so as not to
exceed the critical angle of attack. If the airplane is equipped with an AOA indicator, it
should be referenced to help monitor the proximity to the critical AOA.

Some aircraft have the ability to change the direction of the thrust rather than changing the
AOA. This is accomplished either by pivoting the engines or by vectoring the exhaust gases.
[Figure 5-4]

152
 Figure 5-4. Some aircraft have the ability to change the direction of thrust.

Lift
Lift—the force that pushes the aircraft upward produced by air flowing over the air foil-
shaped surfaces of the aircraft. Lift acts vertically and counteracts the effects of weight.
OR
Lift is defined as the net force generated normal (at 90°) to the relative airflow or flight path
of the aircraft.
The aerodynamic force of lift results from the pressure differential between the top and
bottom surfaces of the wing. This lift force can be defined by the following equation:

The lift force may be varied the amounts of lift produced by each wing panel. Lowering the
left aileron while raising the right aileron changes the shape of the wing airfoil, increasing the
lift on the left side of the airplane and decreasing the lift on the right side. The airplane rolls
to the right and the lift tilts.
Lift now has two components during turning the aircraft: one vertical and one horizontal. See
Figure 1-8. It is this horizontal component of lift that causes an airplane to turn.

153
 Figure 1-8. Lift acts ill a direction that is perpendicular to the lateral axis and lI1ay be tilted
by rolling the airplane about its Longitudinal axis. When the lift is tilted from its true vertical,
it produces both a vertical and a horizontal component.

The Basic Lift Equation

Lift is defined as the net force generated normal (at 90°) to the relative airflow or flight path
of the aircraft.
The aerodynamic force of lift results from the pressure differential between the top and
bottom
surfaces of the wing. This lift force can be defined by the following equation:

Correct interpretation of the lift formula is a key element in the complete understanding of
Principles of Flight.

Figure 5.1

154
Note: For the sake of clarity; during this initial examination of the lift formula it is stated
that CL is determined by angle of attack. This is true, but CL is also influenced by the shape or
profile of the surface and other factors which will be amplified in later sections.

1. An aircraft spends most of its time in straight and level flight.

2. How much lift is required? The same as the weight.
3. Consider that at any moment in time weight is constant, so lift must be constant.
4. While generating the required lift force, the less drag the better because drag has to be
balanced by thrust, and thrust costs money.
5. The value of lift divided by drag is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency. This has a
maximum value at one particular angle of attack. For a modern wing this is about 4°.
If this “optimum” angle of attack is maintained, maximum aerodynamic efficiency
will be achieved. Note: Maximum CL and minimum CD are not obtained at best L/D.
6. Air gets thinner as altitude increases. If the speed of the aircraft through the air is kept
constant as altitude is increased, the amount of air flowing over the wing in a given
time
would decrease - and lift would decrease.
7. For a constant lift force as altitude is increased, a constant mass flow must be
maintained. As air density decreases with altitude, the speed of the wing through the
air (the true airspeed (TAS) must be increased.

If you refer to the ICAO Standard Atmosphere chart on page 27, the air density at 40000 ft is
only one quarter of the sea level value. We can use this as an example to illustrate the
relationship between the changes in TAS that are required as air density changes with
altitude.

155
 Figure 5.2

For this example, we will assume the optimum angle of attack of 4° is maintained for
aerodynamic efficiency and that the wing area is constant.
At 40000 ft the air density is 1/4 of the sea level value, so the speed of the aircraft through the
air must be doubled to maintain dynamic pressure (hence lift) constant. TAS is squared
because essentially we are considering the kinetic energy of the airflow (KE = ½ m V 2).

The lift formula can also be used to consider the relationship between speed and angle of
attack at a constant altitude (air density).
As speed is changed, angle of attack must be adjusted to keep lift constant.
As an example: if IAS is doubled, TAS will double, and the square function would increase
dynamic pressure (hence lift) by a factor of four. As the aircraft is accelerated, the angle of
attack must be decreased so that the C L reduces to one quarter of its previous value to
maintain
a constant lift force.

NOTE:
The lift formula can also be used to consider the relationship between speed and angle of
attack at a constant altitude (air density).

An increase in dynamic pressure (IAS) will increase the lift force, and vice versa.

156
An increase in angle of attack will increase the lift force, and vice versa, (0° to 16°)
An increase in dynamic pressure (IAS) will increase form drag, and vice versa.

Figure 5.3

As speed is changed, angle of attack must be adjusted to keep lift constant.

As an example: if IAS is doubled, TAS will double, and the square function would increase
dynamic pressure (hence lift) by a factor of four. As the aircraft is accelerated, the angle of
attack must be decreased so that the CL reduces to one quarter of its previous value to
maintain a constant lift force.

It is stated on page 27 that IAS will vary approximately as the square root of the dynamic
pressure. The proportionality between IAS and dynamic pressure is:

For the sake of simplicity and to promote a general understanding of this basic principle
(though no longer true when considering speeds above M 0.4), it can be said that TAS will
change in proportion to IAS, at constant altitude, (double one, double the other, etc).

The lift formula can be transposed to calculate many variables which are of interest to a
professional pilot. For example: if speed is increased in level flight by 30% from the
minimum level flight speed, we can calculate the new CL as a percentage of CLMAX:

157
Review:
Lift must balance weight in straight and level flight, so at any moment in time, weight and the
lift required is constant.
• To maintain constant lift if density varies because of altitude change, the TAS must be
changed.
• If altitude is increased, density decreases, so TAS must be increased.
• If altitude is decreased, density increases, so TAS must be decreased.
Maintaining a constant IAS will compensate for density changes.
• To maintain constant lift if speed is changed at a constant altitude (density), the angle of
attack must be adjusted.
• If speed is increased, angle of attack must be decreased, (if speed is doubled, angle of
attack must be decreased to make C
L one quarter of its previous value).
• If speed is decreased, angle of attack must be increased, (if speed is halved, angle of
attack must be increased to make C
L four times its previous value).
• Generally, a cruise speed is chosen so the aircraft operates at its optimum angle of attack
(L/D MAX - approximately 4°).

The Lift Curve

Figure 5.4 shows the lift curve of an aerofoil section, with lift coefficient (CL) plotted against
angle of attack. It is evident that the section is symmetrical because no lift is produced at zero
angle of attack.
The lift curve is a convenient way to illustrate the properties of various configurations and
will
be used extensively throughout these notes.

158
Lift coefficient increases with angle of attack up to a maximum (C L MAX), which corresponds
to the “Critical” angle of attack. Continuing to increase the angle of attack beyond this point
makes it impossible for the airflow to maintain its previous smooth flow over the contour of
the upper surface, and lift will reduce. This phenomena, stall, will be discussed in detail later.

Figure 5.27

Interpretation of the Lift Curve

1. To generate a constant lift force, any adjustment in dynamic pressure must be
accompanied by a change in angle of attack. (At CL less than CLMAX).
2. For a constant lift force, each dynamic pressure (Value) requires a specific angle of
attack (Value).
3. Minimum dynamic pressure is determined by the maximum lift coefficient (CLMAX),
which occurs at a specific angle of attack (approximately 16°).
4. The angle of attack for CLMAX is constant. (This is true for a given configuration).
5. If more lift is required due to greater operating weight, a greater dynamic pressure is
required to maintain a given angle of attack.
6. The greater the operating weight required to lifted by the lift force, the higher the
minimum dynamic pressure.

Please answer the following questions:

159
 Figure 5.4 Typical lift curve

To use the lift formula with specific values, it is necessary to convert each item to SI units.
The mass of the aircraft is 60 000 kg. To convert to a weight, the mass must be multiplied by
the acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2). The wing area is 105 m2. Density is the ICAO
Standard Atmosphere sea level value of 1.225 kg/m3.
The speed resulting from the calculation will be in m/s. There are 6 080 ft in one nautical
mile and 3.28 ft in one metre.

The lift formula:

when transposed to calculate speed becomes:

Questions and Answers

160
 Figure 5.27

1. How many newtons of lift are required for straight and level flight?
588600 N.
2. Calculate the airspeed in knots for each highlighted coefficient of lift. As above.
3. What is the lowest speed at which the aircraft can be flown in level flight? 150 kt.
4. What coefficient of lift must be used to fly as slowly as possible in level flight? CLMAX
5. Does each angle of attack require a particular speed? Yes.
6. As speed is increased, what must be done to the angle of attack to maintain level
flight? Angle of attack must be decreased.
7. At higher altitude air density will be lower; what must be done to maintain the
required lift force if the angle of attack is kept constant? Increase the True Airspeed
(TAS).
8. At a constant altitude, if speed is halved, what must be done to the angle of attack to
maintain level flight? Increased so that CL is four times greater.

161
 Figure 5.5
Symmetrical Airfoil– no lift at zero angle of attack
Asymmetrical or Cambered Airfoil – lift created even at small angle of attack

Using the above graph, please answer the following questions:

1. Why does the cambered aerofoil section have a significantly higher CLMAX?
When compared to a symmetrical section of the same thickness: at
approximately
the same stall angle, the cross-sectional area of the streamtube over the top
surface
is smaller with a more gradual section change. This allows greater acceleration
of
the air over the top surface, and a bigger pressure differential.

2. For the same angle of attack, why do the symmetrical aerofoil sections generate less
lift than the cambered aerofoil section?
Angle of attack is the angle between the chord line and the relative airflow. At
the same angle of attack, the cross-sectional area of the symmetrical section
upper surface streamtube is larger.
162
 3. Why does the cambered aerofoil section of 12% thickness generate a small amount of
lift at slightly negative angles of attack?
At small negative angles of attack, a cambered aerofoil is still providing a
reduced cross-sectional area streamtube over the top surface, generating a small
pressure differential.

4. For a given angle of attack, the symmetrical aerofoil section of 6% thickness

generates the smallest amount of lift. In what way can this be a favourable
characteristic?
At the high speeds at which modern high speed jet transport aircraft operate, a
thin wing can generate the required lift force with minimum drag caused by the
formation of shock waves.

5. What are the disadvantages of the symmetrical aerofoil section of 6% thickness?

It will give a high minimum speed, requiring complex high lift devices to enable
the aircraft to use existing runways.

The increase in CLMAX come from camber and thickness of an aerofoil, the great the C LMAX the
lower minimum flight speed, Vs. The thickness of camber required for this law V S will also
produce the form drag and large twisting moments at high speed.

A high CLMAX is the one of the requirement of the aerofoil section but gives the low minimum
flight speed, but with the low VS come with the penalty of low efficient cruise speed because
of the excesses drag generated.

Is better to use aerofoil with high efficiency cruise speed aerofoil with the ability to increase
camber temporary when it is necessary to fly at low speed such as an approach this could be
achieved by hinged surface on the leading and trailing edge of the wing commonly known as
Flaps.

Aerofoil Section Lift Characteristics

Figure 5.5 shows aerofoil sections with different thickness and camber combinations
producing specific CL against α plots.
An increase in the thickness of a symmetrical aerofoil gives a higher CLMAX.
The introduction of camber also has a beneficial effect on C LMAX.

163
The importance of maximum lift coefficient is obvious: The greater the C LMAX, the lower the
minimum flight speed (stall speed). However, thickness and camber necessary for a high
CLMAX will produce increased form drag and large twisting moments at high speed. So a high
CLMAX is just one of the requirements for an aerofoil section. The major point is that a high
CLMAX will give a low minimum flight speed (IAS).

If an aerofoil section of greater camber is used to give a lower minimum flight speed, the
efficient cruise speed will be lower due to o the generation of excessive drag. It is better to
use an aerofoil section that is efficient at high cruise speed, with the ability to temporarily
increase the camber of the wing when it is necessary to fly slowly. This can be achieved by
the use of adjustable hinged sections of the wing leading and trailing edges (Flaps).

Velocity - Dynamic Pressure Relationship

It is very important to understand the relationship between the velocity used in the force
equations and dynamic pressure. The velocity in the force equation is the speed of the aircraft
relative to the air through which it is moving - the True Airspeed (TAS).

At a given angle of attack: “For a constant lift force a constant dynamic pressure must be
maintained”. When an aircraft is flying at an altitude where the air density is other than sea
level ISA, the TAS must be varied in proportion to the air density change. With increasing
altitude, the TAS must be increased to maintain the same dynamic pressure (Q = ½ρ V2).

Density Altitude
Air density at the time of take-off and landing can significantly affect aircraft performance. If
air density is low, a longer take-off run will be needed. Air density is a product of pressure,
temperature and humidity. Humidity reduces air density because the density of water vapour
is about 5/8 that of dry air.

On an airfield at sea level with standard pressure, 1013 hPa set in the window will cause the
altimeter to read zero. This is the “Pressure Altitude”, which can be very misleading because
dynamic pressure depends on the TAS and air density, not just air pressure. If the temperature
is above standard, the density of the air will be less, perhaps a lot less, with no direct
indication of this fact visible to the pilot. If the temperature is 25°C, it would be 10°C above
standard (25 - 15 = 10). The air density would be that which would exist at a higher altitude
and is given the name, “high density altitude”.

164
In practical terms, this means that the aircraft will need a higher TAS for a given dynamic
pressure, and, hence, a longer take-off run to achieve the required IAS.
To remember what “high density altitude” means, think of it as “HIGH density ALTITUDE”.

Aerofoil Section Lift Characteristics

Figure 5.5 shows aerofoil sections with different thickness and camber combinations
producing specific CL against α plots.
1. An increase in the thickness of a symmetrical aerofoil gives a higher CLMAX.
2. The introduction of camber also has a beneficial effect on CLMAX.

The importance of maximum lift coefficient is obvious: The greater the CL MAX, the lower the
minimum flight speed (stall speed). However, thickness and camber necessary for a high
CLMAX will produce increased form drag and large twisting moments at high speed. So a high
CLMAX is just one of the requirements for an aerofoil section. The major point is that a high
CLMAX will give a low minimum flight speed (IAS).

If an aerofoil section of greater camber is used to give a lower minimum flight speed, the
efficient cruise speed will be lower due to o the generation of excessive drag. It is better to
use
an aerofoil section that is efficient at high cruise speed, with the ability to temporarily
increase
the camber of the wing when it is necessary to fly slowly. This can be achieved by the use of
adjustable hinged sections of the wing leading and trailing edges (Flaps).

Introduction to Drag Characteristics

Drag is the aerodynamic force parallel to the relative airflow and opposite in direction to the
flight path. (Drag, as a complete subject, will be discussed in detail later). As with other
aerodynamic forces, drag forces may be expressed in the form of a coefficient which is
independent of dynamic pressure and surface area.

Drag is the product of dynamic pressure, drag coefficient and surface area. CD is the ratio of
drag per unit wing area to dynamic pressure. An increase in dynamic pressure (IAS) will
increase form drag, and vice versa. If the CD of a representative wing were plotted against
angle of attack, the result typically would be a graph similar to that shown in Figure 5.6.

165
 Figure 5.6

NOTE: The drag coefficient increases with the angle of attack and
includes all types of drag.

At low angles of attack CD is low and small changes in angle of attack create only small
changes in C D. But at higher angles of attack, the rate of change in CD per degree of angle
of attack increases; CD change with angle of attack is exponential. Beyond the stalling angle
of attack (CLMAX), a further large increase in CD takes place.

Pressure Distribution
The pressure distribution can be determined by experimentation, where pressures acting at
several points on the airfoil can be measured using manometers. A manometer will indicate
the difference in static pressure (P) acting at a particular point and the free-stream static (ρ0).

166
 Figure 1.39 Pressure distribution of a particular airfoil

The difference (P – ρ0) / q0 is known as the pressure coefficient Cp. The pressure distribution
of a particular airfoil can be plotted in terms of Cp against % of chord:

The pressure coefficient is an important quantity; for example, the distribution of Cp over the
airfoil surface leads directly to the value of CL (which will be discussed later on in the
chapter).
Different distributions will result from different airfoil shapes; velocities and angle of attack.

Pressure Gradient
This is a change in air pressure over distance. The greater the difference in pressure between
two points, the steeper the gradient. A favourable gradient is when air pressure is falling in
the direction of airflow.

An adverse pressure gradient is when air pressure is rising in the direction of airflow, such as
between the point of minimum pressure on the top surface and the trailing edge. The higher
the angle of attack, the steeper the pressure gradient.
At angles of attack higher than approximately 16°, the extremely steep adverse pressure
gradient prevents air that is flowing over the top surface from following the aerofoil contour,
and the previously smooth streamline flow will separate from the surface, causing the low
pressure area on the top of the section to suddenly collapse.
Any pressure differential remaining is due to the pressure increase on the lower surface only.

Centre of Pressure Distribution

Experiment also shows that as angle of attack is altered pressure distribution over an airfoil
changes. Consequently, there will be movement of the centre of pressure.
As the angle of attack is increased up to about 12º the centre of pressure gradually moves
forward until it is less than 1/3 of the chord from the leading edge. Above this angle the
centre of pressure begins to move backwards again.
So now it can be understood that both lift and drag forces and centre of pressure vary as angle
of attack varies.

167
Lift/Drag Ratio
The efficiency of a wing is measured in terms of the lift to drag ratio (L/D). This ratio varies
with the AOA but reaches a definite maximum value for a particular AOA. At this angle, the
wing has reached its maximum efficiency. The shape of the airfoil is the factor that
determines the AOA at which the wing is most efficient; it also determines the degree of
efficiency. Research has shown that the most efficient airfoils for general use have the
maximum thickness occurring about one-third of the way back from the leading edge of the
wing.

An appreciation of the efficiency of lift production is gained from studying the ratio between
lift and drag, a high L/D ratio being more efficient. Drag is the price paid to obtain lift. The
lift to drag ratio (L/D) is the amount of lift generated by a wing or airfoil compared to its
drag.
A ratio of L/D indicates airfoil efficiency. Aircraft with higher L/D ratios are more efficient
than those with lower L/D ratios.
In un-accelerated flight with the lift and drag data steady, the proportions of the coefficient of
lift (Cl) and coefficient of drag (Cd) can be calculated for specific AOA. (Figure 2-15)

168
 Figure 2-15

Note: The plot of lift, the plot of drag and the plot of L/D ratio shown in Figure 5.7 / Figure
2-15 are all at different scales and no conclusions should be drawn from the intersection of
plots.

The L/D ratio is determined by dividing the Cl by the Cd, which is the same as dividing the
lift equation by the drag equation. All terms except coefficients cancel out.
L = Lift in pounds
D = Drag

Where L is the lift force in pounds, Cl is the lift coefficient, ǂ is density expressed in slugs per
cubic feet, V is velocity in feet per second, q is dynamic pressure per square feet, and S is the
wing area in square feet.
Cd = Ratio of drag pressure to dynamic pressure.

Typically, at low angles of attack, the drag coefficient is low and small changes in angle of
attack create only slight changes in the drag coefficient. At high angles of attack, small
changes in the angle of attack cause significant changes in drag.

The above formulas represent the coefficient of lift (Cl) and the coefficient of drag (Cd)
respectively. The shape of an airfoil and other lift producing devices (e.g., flaps) effect the
production of lift and alter with changes in the AOA. The lift/drag ratio is used to express the
relation between lift and drag and is determined by dividing the lift coefficient by the drag
coefficient, Cl/Cd.
169
Notice in Figure 2-15 that the lift curve (red) reaches its maximum for this particular wing
section at 20° AOA, and then rapidly decreases. 15° AOA is therefore the stalling angle.

The drag curve (yellow) increases very rapidly from 14° AOA and completely overcomes the
lift curve at 21° AOA.

The lift/drag ratio (green) reaches its maximum at 6° AOA, meaning that at this angle, the
most lift is obtained for the least amount of drag.
The proportions of CL and CD can be calculated for each angle of attack. Figure 5.7/ Figure
2-15 shows that the L/D ratio increases with angle of attack up to a maximum at about 4°;
this is called the “optimum” angle of attack. The L/D ratio then decreases with increasing
angle of attack until C LMAX is reached.

Figure 5.7

The maximum lift/drag ratio (L/D MAX) of a given aerofoil section will occur at one specific
angle of attack. If the aircraft is operated in steady level flight at the optimum angle of attack,
drag will be least while generating the required lift force. Any angle of attack lower or higher
than that for L/D MAX reduces the L/D ratio and consequently increases drag for the required
170
lift.

Assume the L/D MAX of Figure 5.7 is 12.5. In steady flight at a weight of 588600 N and IAS to
give the required lift at 4° angle of attack, the drag would be 47088 N (588600 ÷ 12·5). Any
higher or lower speed would require a different angle of attack to generate the required lift
force. Any angle of attack other than 4° will generate more drag than 47088 N. Of course,
this same ‘aircraft’ could be operated at a different weight and the same L/D MAX of 12.5
could
be obtained at the same angle of attack. But a change in weight requires a change in IAS to
support the new weight at the same angle of attack. The lower the weight, the lower IAS
required to stay at the L/D MAX angle of attack, and vice versa.
For a given configuration (flaps, gear, spoilers and airframe contamination) and at speeds less
than M 0.4, changes in weight will not change L/D MAX.

Note that the maximum lift/drag ratio (L/D max) occurs at one specific Cl and AOA. If the
aircraft is operated in steady flight at L/D max, the total drag is at a minimum. Any AOA
lower or higher than that for L/D max reduces the L/D and consequently increases the total
drag for a given aircraft’s lift.

The design of an aircraft has a great effect on the L/D ratio. Typical values are listed below
for
various types.
Aircraft Type L/D MAX
High performance sailplane from 25 to 60
Modern jet transport from 12 to 20
Propeller powered trainer from 10 to 15

Influence of Dynamic Pressure

Figure 4.4 shows an aerofoil section at a representative angle of attack subject to a given
dynamic pressure (IAS). “If the static pressure on one side of a body is reduced more than on
the other side, a pressure differential will exist”.

Figure 4.5 shows the same aerofoil section at the same angle of attack, but subject to a higher
dynamic pressure (IAS). “If the dynamic pressure (IAS) is increased, the pressure differential
will increase”.

171
 Figure 4.4 and Figure 4.5

The pressure differential acting on the surface area will produce an upward acting force. “If
the dynamic pressure (IAS) is increased, the upward force will increase”.

Angle of Attack (AOA)

At a constant dynamic pressure (IAS), increasing the angle of attack (up to about 16°) will
likewise increase the pressure differential, but it will also change the pattern of pressure
distribution.
The aerofoil profile presented to the airflow will determine the distribution of velocity and
hence the distribution of pressure on the surface. This profile is determined by the aerofoil
geometry, i.e. thickness and distribution (fixed), camber and distribution (assumed to be fixed
for now,) and by the angle of attack (variable).

Before beginning the discussion on AOA and its effect on airfoils, first consider the terms
chord and center of pressure (CP) as illustrated in Figure 2-16.

Figure 2-16. Airflow over a wing section.

172
As stated, the chord of an airfoil or wing section is an imaginary straight line that passes
through the section from the leading edge to the trailing edge,

Thus, the angle of attack or AOA is defined as the angle between the chord line of the wing
and the direction of the relative wind. This is not to be confused with the angle of incidence
that was illustrated in Figure 2-8, which is the angle between the chord line of the wing and
the longitudinal axis of the aircraft.

On each part of an airfoil or wing surface, a small force is present. This force is of a different
magnitude and direction from any forces acting on other areas forward or rearward from this
point. It is possible to add all of these small forces. That sum is called the “resultant force”
(lift). This resultant force has magnitude, direction, and location, and can be represented as a
vector, as shown in Figure 2-16.
The point of intersection of the resultant force line with the chord line of the airfoil is called
the center of pressure (CP). The CP moves along the airfoil chord as the AOA changes.
Throughout most of the flight range, the CP moves forward with increasing AOA and
rearward as the AOA decreases. The effect of increasing AOA on the CP is shown in Figure
2-17.

173
 Figure 2-17. Effect on increasing angle of attack

The AOA changes as the aircraft’s attitude changes. Since the AOA has a great deal to do
with determining lift, it is given primary consideration when designing airfoils. In a properly
designed airfoil, the lift increases as the AOA is increased.

The greatest positive pressure occurs at the stagnation point where the relative flow velocity
is

174
zero. This stagnation point is located somewhere near the leading edge. As the angle of attack
increases from -4°, the leading edge stagnation point moves from the upper surface around
the leading edge to the lower surface. It is at the front stagnation point where the flow divides
to pass over and under the section. The pressure at the stagnation point (stagnation pressure)
is Static + Dynamic.

The flow over the top of the section accelerates rapidly around the nose and over the leading
portion of the surface - inducing a substantial decrease in static pressure in those areas. The
rate of acceleration increases with increase in angle of attack, up to about 16°. (Anything
which changes the accurately manufactured profile of the leading portion of the surface can
seriously disrupt airflow acceleration in this critical area e.g. ice, snow, frost, dirt or dents).
The pressure reduces continuously from the stagnation value through the free stream value to
a position on the top surface where a peak negative value is reached. From there onwards the
flow continuously slows down again and the pressure increases back to the free stream value
in the region of the trailing edge.

At angles of attack less than 8° the flow under the section is accelerated much less, reducing
the pressure to a small negative value, also with subsequent deceleration and increase in
pressure back to the free stream value in the region of the trailing edge.

The pressure differential between the leading edge stagnation point and the lower pressure at
the trailing edge creates a force acting backward which is called ‘form (pressure) drag’. (This
will be discussed in more detail later).

In detail for each eagle

Angle of Attack (-4°)
The decrease in pressure above and below the section are equal and no differential exists.
There will, thus, be no lift force. (Figure 4.6). This can be called the “zero lift angle of
attack”.

175
 Figure 4.6

Angles of Attack (0° to 8°)

Compared to free stream static pressure, there is a pressure decrease over the upper surface
and a lesser decrease over most of the lower surface. For a cambered aerofoil there will be a
small amount of lift even at small negative angles (-4° to 0°).

Angles of attack (0° to 16°)

Increasing the angle of attack increases the lift force because the acceleration of the airflow
over the top surface is increased by the reduction in effective cross-sectional area of the local
stream-tube.

NOTE: The reduced pressure ‘peak’ moves forward as the angle of attack increases. The
greatest contribution to overall lift comes from the upper surface.

Figure 4.7

When the AOA is increased gradually toward a positive AOA, the lift component increases
rapidly up to a certain point and then suddenly begins to drop off. During this action the drag
component increases slowly at first, then rapidly as lift begins to drop off. When the AOA
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increases to the angle of maximum lift, the burble point is reached. This is known as the
critical angle. When the critical angle is reached, the air ceases to flow smoothly over the top
surface of the airfoil and begins to burble or eddy.

This means that air breaks away from the upper camber line of the wing. What was formerly
the area of decreased pressure is now filled by this burbling air. When this occurs, the amount
of lift drops and drag becomes excessive. The force of gravity exerts itself, and the nose of
the aircraft drops. This is a stall. Thus, the burble point is the stalling angle.

As previously seen, the distribution of the pressure forces over the airfoil varies with the
AOA. The application of the resultant force, or CP, varies correspondingly. As this angle
increases, the CP moves forward; as the angle decreases, the CP moves back. The unstable
travel of the CP is characteristic of almost all airfoils.

The efficiency of a wing is measured in terms of the lift to drag ratio (L/D). This ratio varies
with the AOA but reaches a definite maximum value for a particular AOA. At this angle, the
wing has reached its maximum efficiency. The shape of the airfoil is the factor that
determines the AOA at which the wing is most efficient; it also determines the degree of
efficiency. Research has shown that the most efficient airfoils for general use have the
maximum thickness occurring about one-third of the way back from the leading edge of the
wing.

Pressure Gradient
This is a change in air pressure over distance. The greater the difference in pressure
between two points, the steeper the gradient.
A favourable gradient is when air pressure is falling in the direction of airflow. An
adverse pressure gradient is when air pressure is rising in the direction of airflow, such
as between the point of minimum pressure on the top surface and the trailing edge.

The higher the angle of attack, the steeper the pressure gradient. At angles of attack higher
than
approximately 16°, the extremely steep adverse pressure gradient prevents air that is flowing
over the top surface from following the aerofoil contour, and the previously smooth
streamline flow will separate from the surface (turbulent flow) , causing the low pressure area
on the top of the section to suddenly collapse.

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Any pressure differential remaining is due to the pressure increase on the lower surface only.
This condition is known as the stall and will be described in detail in Chapter 7.

Effect of Aircraft Weight on Minimum Flight Speed

A given aerofoil section will always stall at the same angle of attack, but aircraft weight will
influence the IAS at which this occurs. Modern large jet transport aircraft may have just over
half their maximum gross take-off weight made up of fuel. So stall speed can vary
considerably throughout the flight.

Condition of the Surface

Surface irregularities, especially near the leading edge, have a considerable effect on the
characteristics of aerofoil sections. CLMAX, in particular, is sensitive to leading edge
roughness.
Figure 5.8 illustrates the effect of a rough leading edge compared to a smooth surface. In
general, CLMAX decreases progressively with increasing roughness of the leading edge.

Roughness further downstream than about 20 percent of the chord from the leading edge has
little effect on C LMAX or the lift curve slope. Frost, snow and even rainwater can significantly
increase surface roughness.
Dirt or slush picked up from contaminated parking areas, taxiways and runways can also
have a serious effect. In-flight icing usually accumulates at the leading edge of aerofoils and
will severely increase surface roughness causing a significant decrease in CLMAX.

Figure 5.8

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Flight at High Lift Conditions
The aerodynamic lift characteristics of an aircraft are shown by the curve of lift coefficient
versus angle of attack in Figure 5.9, for a specific aircraft in the clean and flap down
configurations.
A given aerodynamic configuration experiences increases in lift coefficient with increases in
angle of attack until the maximum lift coefficient is obtained. A further increase in angle of
attack produces stall and the lift coefficient then decreases.

Figure 5.9
Effect of High Lift Devices
The primary purpose of high lift devices (flaps, slots, slats, etc) is to reduce take-off and
landing distance by increasing the CLMAX of the aerofoil section and so reduce the minimum
speed.

The effect of a “typical” high lift device is shown by the lift curves of Figure 5.9. The
principal effect of the extension of flaps is to increase CL MAX and reduce the angle of attack
for any given lift coefficient. The increase in CL MAX afforded by flap deflection reduces the
stall speed by a certain proportion. (High lift devices will be fully covered later).

Wing Shape and Its Effect On Lift

The actual amount of lift generated by a wing depends on the degree of induced downwash
caused by wing tip vortices, and its chord wise pressure distribution. The actual lift developed
by a wing therefore depends. among other things, on its planform shape.

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Since the wings on an aircraft are symmetrical about its centre line, It Is appropriate to
consider the local coefficient of lift about only one wing, referred to as a semi-span.

Fig. 4 30 shows the local coefficient of lift varies over the semi-spans of tapered, elliptical
and rectangular wings. The lifting ability of a wing therefore depends on the effective angle
of attack for a given cross-sectional camber.

Fig 4.30
Fig 4.30 shows us that the local coefficient of lift (and effective angel of attack), is greatest at
the root for a rectangular wing, toward the tip for a tapered and swept wing, and constant (a
rectangular distribution) for an elliptical wing.
This means that as the angle of attack increases. the wing stalls first at the root for a
rectangular wing, toward (near /in the direction of) the tip for tapered and swept wings, and
simultaneously along the whole wing span for an elliptical wing.

Drag
Drag is the force which resists the forward motion of the aircraft. Drag acts parallel to and in
the same direction as the relative airflow (in the opposite direction to the flight path). OR
Drag is the force that exerts a braking action to hold the aircraft back. Drag is a backward
deterrent force and is caused by the disruption of the airflow by the wings, fuselage, and
protruding objects.

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 Fig. 5-1
Low drag is therefore beneficial since it leads to reduced fuel consumption and lower
operating costs. There are many different types of drag. The most common are parasite drag,
induced drag and wave drag. Additionally, there are three types of parasite drag:

Parasite drag is further sub-divided into:

1. Skin Friction Drag
2. Form (Pressure) Drag, and
3. Interference Drag

NOTE: Skin Friction and Form Drag are together known as PROFILE DRAG. Also there is
another type of drag differ from those above “Wave Drag”

Figure 6.1

1. PARASITE DRAG - independent of lift generation, and

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 2. INDUCED DRAG - the result of lift generation (depend on lift generation).

Every part of an aeroplane exposed to the airflow produces different types of resistance to
forward motion which contribute to the Total Drag which is the sum of parasite drag and
induced drag.

Figure 6.2

Profile Drag the combination of skin friction and form drag is known as profile drag. It can
be considered that these drags result from the “profile” (or cross-sectional area) of the aircraft
presented to the relative airflow.
1. Form drag which results from the aerodynamic resistance to motion due to the shape
of the aircraft.
2. Skin friction drag which is related to the smoothness (or roughness) of the aircraft
surfaces.
3. Interference drag which occurs where surfaces with different flow characteristics
meet (e.g. wing and fuselage). Briefly, induced drag is a secondary effect of the
production of lift and wave drag comes into play when shock waves develop close to
the surface of the aircraft during transonic or supersonic flight. In the following
paragraphs, each of these types of drag will be explained in more detail.

1. Parasite Drag
Parasite (parasitic) drag (DP) is defined as all drag that is not associated with the production
of a lift. OR Parasite drag. A form of aerodynamic drag caused by friction between the air
and the surface over which it is flowing.
Parasite drag is caused by moving a solid object through a fluid medium. In aerodynamics,
the fluid medium concerned is the atmosphere.

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If an aircraft were flying at zero lift angle of attack, the only drag present would be parasite
drag. Parasite drag is made-up of ‘Skin Friction’, ‘Form’ and ‘Interference’ drag.

i. Skin Friction Drag

Skin friction drag is the aerodynamic resistance due to the contact of moving air with the
surface of an aircraft. Every surface, no matter how apparently smooth, has a rough, ragged
surface when viewed under a microscope.

Friction drag, also known as skin friction drag, is caused by the friction of a fluid against the
surface of an object that is moving through it. It is directly proportional to the area of the
surface in contact with the fluid and increases with the square of the velocity. In
aerodynamics, the fluid concerned is the atmosphere.

The air molecules, which come in direct contact with the surface of the wing, are virtually
motionless. Each layer of molecules above the surface moves slightly faster until the
molecules
are moving at the velocity of the air moving around the aircraft. This speed is called the free-
stream velocity.
The area between the wing and the free-stream velocity level is about as wide as a playing
card and is called the boundary layer. At the top of the boundary layer, the molecules increase
velocity and move at the same speed as the molecules outside the boundary layer. The actual
speed at which the molecules move depends upon the shape of the wing, the viscosity
(stickiness) of the air through which the wing or airfoil is moving, and its compressibility
(how much it can be compacted).

Skin Friction drag, also known as friction drag, is caused by the friction of a fluid against the
surface of an object that is moving through it. It is directly proportional to the area of the
surface in contact with the fluid and increases with the square of the velocity. In
aerodynamics, the fluid concerned is the atmosphere (atmospheric air).
Friction Drag is created in the boundary layer due to the viscosity of the air and the resulting
friction against the surface of the aircraft. The air molecules in direct contact with the aircraft
surface are most affected.

As the molecules flow past the surface and past each other, the viscous resistance to that flow
becomes a force which retards forward motion. The amount of friction drag that is created per
square meter of surface area is relatively small. However, as the boundary layer covers much

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of the surface of the aircraft, friction drag can become quite significant in larger aircraft
(large aircraft which means have large surface covered by friction of air).
Turbulent flow creates more friction drag than laminar flow due to its greater interaction with
the surface of the airplane. Rough surfaces accelerate the transition of boundary layer airflow
from laminar to turbulent.
This increases boundary layer thickness and the airflow disruption within the boundary layer.
These increases result in more air molecules being affected by the movement of the aircraft
and a corresponding increase in friction drag.

Friction drag can be reduced by delaying the point at which laminar flow becomes turbulent.
This can be accomplished by smoothing the exposed surfaces of the aircraft by using flush
rivets on the leading edges and through painting, cleaning, waxing, polishing or the
application of surface coatings.

Particles of air in direct contact with the surface are accelerated to the speed of the aircraft
and are carried along with it. Adjacent particles will be accelerated by contact with the lower
particles, but their velocity will be slightly less than the aircraft because the viscosity of air is
low. As distance from the surface increases, less and less acceleration of the layers of air
takes place. Therefore, over the entire surface there will exist a layer of air whose relative
velocity ranges from zero at the surface to a maximum at the boundary of the air affected by
the presence of the aircraft.

The layer of air extending from the surface to the point where no viscous effect is detectable
is known as the boundary layer. In flight, the nature of the boundary layer will determine the
maximum lift coefficient, the stalling characteristics, the value of form drag, and to some
extent the high speed characteristics of an aircraft.

Figure 6.3

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Consider the flow of air across a flat surface, as in Figure 6.3. The boundary layer will exist
in two forms, either laminar or turbulent but also transition which contain both lamina and
turbulent. In general, the flow at the front will be laminar and become turbulent some
distance back, known as the transition point. The increased rate of change in velocity at the
surface in the turbulent flow will give more skin friction than the laminar flow. A turbulent
boundary layer also has a higher level of kinetic energy than a laminar layer.

Skin Friction and Boundary Layer

As air flows over a solid surface, the air will try to drag the surface along with it due to
friction between the air and the solid surface. The presence of friction creates a drag force
known as skin friction. The layers of air near the surface retard the layers farther away owing
to shearing action between them.

Figure 1.44 Skin friction

As can be seen in the diagram (Figure 1.44) there is a gradual increase in velocity as the
distance from the surface increases. The layer or layers of air in which the shearing action
takes place, i.e. between the surface and roughly 99% of free stream velocity of the airflow, is
called the boundary layer.
The distance above the surface in which velocity regains a value close to that of the free
stream velocity may be no more than a few millimetres over an airfoil.
Surface friction drag depends on the rate at which air adjacent to the surface is trying to slide
relative to it.

Transition Point
The boundary layer exists in two forms: as laminar flow and turbulent flow. Near the leading
edge of the airfoil the air is laminar and flows in a smooth streamlined manner. At a point on
the airfoil there is a change or transition, where instability in flow develops, and the flow in
the layer becomes turbulent.
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 Figure 1.45 Transition point

In the turbulent layer, eddies form that are relatively large compared to molecules, and a
rapid mixing of fast and slow moving masses of air occurs. The turbulent eddies extend the
influence outwards from the surface, so the boundary layer effectively becomes
thicker.
Note the velocity gradients of the two layers being different leads to greater friction effect
occurring in the turbulent layer.
The main variable which dictate the change from the laminar state to turbulent are:
1. Surface condition
2. The surface area
3. The viscosity of the fluid
4. The rate of change of velocity

Forward movement of the transition point will increase skin friction because there will be a
greater area of turbulent flow. The position of the transition point is dependent upon:
i. Surface condition - The thin laminar layer is extremely sensitive to surface
irregularities. Any roughness on the skin of a leading portion of an aircraft will cause
transition to turbulence at that point and the thickening, turbulent boundary layer will
spread out fanwise downstream causing a marked increase in skin friction drag.

ii. Adverse pressure gradient (Figure 6.4) - A laminar layer cannot exist when pressure
is rising in the direction of flow. On a curved surface, such as an aerofoil, the
transition point is usually at, or near to, the point of maximum thickness. Because of

186
 the adverse pressure gradient existing on a curved surface, the transition point will be
further forward than if the surface was flat.

Figure 6.4

NOTE: The vertical scale of the boundary layer in the above sketch is greatly exaggerated.
Typically, boundary layer thickness is from 2 millimetres at the leading edge, increasing to
about 20 millimetres at the trailing edge.

Adverse Pressure Gradient

On a typical low speed airfoil at a normal angle of attack, pressure reaches its minimum value
at a point somewhere around the position of maximum thickness on the upper surface. After
this the pressure gradually rises until it returns to a value close to the original free stream
pressure at the trailing edge.

This means that over the rear part of the upper surface, the air has to travel from low to high
pressure. A pressure gradient now exists that is not assisting, but impeding flow – it is known
as an adverse pressure gradient.

Figure 1.46 Adverse pressure gradient

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Separation
If the rate of pressure increase is gradual, then the process of turbulent mixing allows the
outer layers to pull the inner ones along (the boundary layer merely thickens). If the rate of
pressure increase is rapid, the mixing process is too slow to keep the layer moving. The
boundary layer stops following the direction of the surface and starts to separate.

Figure 1. 47 Separations

Re-circulating flow tends to move towards the lower pressure in the reverse direction to the
main flow. This mechanism is the primary cause of stalling. As an airfoil’s angle of attack is
increased, pressure differences between the front and rear of the airfoil increases, and the
separation position moves forwards.

ii. Form/Pressure Drag

Form drag, also known as pressure drag or profile drag, is caused by the separation of the
boundary layer from a surface and the wake created by that separation. It is primarily
dependent upon the shape of the object.
Form drag is the portion of parasite drag generated by the aircraft due to its shape and
airflow around it. Examples include the engine cowlings, antennas, and the aerodynamic
shape of other components.

Form drag which results from the aerodynamic resistance to motion due to the shape of the
aircraft. Without the influence of viscosity, streamlines would close up behind all parts of an
object and there would be no wake. For a symmetrical shape the streamline pattern and
pressure distribution would also be symmetrical.

188
 Figure 1.48 Form drag

Form drag, also known as pressure drag or profile drag, is caused by the separation of the
boundary layer from a surface and the wake created by that separation. It is primarily
dependent upon the shape of the object.
Form (pressure) drag results from the pressure at the leading edge of a body being greater
than the pressure at the trailing edge. The pressure on the forward facing part of an object is
on average higher than that on the rearward facing part. This results in a net drag force, which
is known as form (pressure) drag.
Form (pressure) drag is the result of the pressure differential between the leading edge and
trailing edge of the aerofoil.

When the air has to separate to move around a moving aircraft and its components, it
eventually re-joins after passing the body. How quickly and smoothly it re-joins is
representative of the resistance that it creates, which requires additional force to overcome.
[Figure 5-7]

189
 Figure 5-7. Form drag.

Notice how the flat plate in Figure 5-7 causes the air to swirl around the edges until it
eventually re-joins downstream. Form drag is the easiest to reduce when designing an
aircraft. The solution is to streamline as many of the parts as possible.

Without the influence of viscosity, streamlines would close up behind all parts of an object
and there would be no wake. For a symmetrical shape the streamline pattern and pressure
distribution would also be symmetrical.

In reality viscous flow past a body will produce a resistance. Some shapes produce
considerable turbulence; others minimise it. Some recognisable shapes are shown below, and
a comparison made of the resulting resistance.

190
The upper example in Figure 2-18 shows the relative wind across a flat plate results in a
leading edge stagnation point at the front of the plate that contains very high static pressure.
191
The airflow attempts to maintain contact with the surface of the plate, but the streamlines are
unable to follow the sharp angles which would be required to allow them to fill in behind the
plate.

As a result, they separate at the trailing edge of the plate leaving a low pressure wake area
behind it. The pressure differential between the leading and trailing edges of the plate causes
the plate to be pushed in the direction of the relative wind and retards forward motion. This is
form drag.

Figure 2-18. Form Drag.

To reduce form drag, aircraft surfaces which are exposed to the airflow of the relative wind
are streamlined. The remaining examples in Figure 2-18 show how, as streamlining is
increased, form drag is decreased.

On the non-symmetrical shapes like wing, the air pressure reaches its minimum value at
about the position of maximum section depth.
Over the rear portion there is an adverse pressure gradient, which promotes rapid degradation
of available energy in the boundary layer, resulting in a reduction in pressure over the rear.

The pressure on the forward facing part of an object is on average higher than that on the
rearward facing part. This results in a net drag force, which is known as form (pressure) drag.
It is essential that form drag is reduced to a minimum in those parts of an aircraft that are
exposed to the air.

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Also the Form (pressure) drag results from the pressure at the leading edge of a body being
greater than the pressure at the trailing edge. Overall, skin friction causes a continual
reduction of boundary layer kinetic energy as flow continues back along the surface.

The adverse pressure gradient behind the transition point will cause an additional reduction in
kinetic energy of the boundary layer. If the boundary layer does not have sufficient kinetic
energy in the presence of the adverse pressure gradient, the lower levels of the boundary layer
stop moving (stagnate). The upper levels of the boundary layer will overrun at this point
(separation point) and the boundary layer will separate from the surface at the separation
point. See Figure 6.4.

Also, surface flow aft of the separation point will be forward, toward the separation point - a
flow reversal. Because of separation, there will be a lower pressure at the trailing edge than
the
leading edge. An aerodynamic force will act in the direction of the lower pressure - form
drag.

Separation will occur when the boundary layer does not have sufficient kinetic energy in the
presence of a given adverse pressure gradient.

Loss of kinetic energy in the boundary layer can be caused by various factors.
1. As angle of attack increases, the transition point moves closer to the leading edge and
the adverse pressure gradient becomes stronger. This causes the separation point to
move forward. Eventually, boundary layer separation will occur so close to the
leading edge that there will be insufficient wing area to provide the required lift force,
CL will decrease and stall occurs.
2. When a shock wave forms on the upper surface, the increase of static pressure
through the shock wave will create an extreme adverse pressure gradient. If the shock
wave is sufficiently strong, separation will occur immediately behind the shock wave.
This will be explained fully in Chapter 13 - High Speed Flight.

Adverse Pressure Gradient

The condition occurs when the static pressure increases in the direction of the fluid flow
along the airfoil of the wing.
On a typical low speed airfoil at a normal angle of attack, pressure reaches its minimum value
at a point somewhere around the position of maximum thickness on the upper surface.

193
After this the pressure gradually rises until it returns to a value close to the original free
stream pressure at the trailing edge.
This means that over the rear part of the upper surface, the air has to travel from low to high
pressure.
As this pressure continues to rise cause the air flow to slow and detaches from the surface of
an airfoil and also cause the flow to turbulent and reverse flow which at the end creates loss
of air kinetic energy due to friction from turbulent flow and separation of the boundary
layers.
A pressure gradient now exists that is not assisting, but impeding flow – it is known as an
adverse pressure gradient.

Figure 1.46 Adverse pressure gradient

Separation
If the rate of pressure increase is gradual, then the process of turbulent mixing allows the
outer layers to pull the inner ones along (the boundary layer merely thickens).
If the rate of pressure increase is rapid, the mixing process is too slow to keep the layer
moving. The boundary layer stops following the direction of the surface and starts to
separate.

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 Figure 1. 47 Separations

Re-circulating flow tends to move towards the lower pressure in the reverse direction to the
main flow. This mechanism is the primary cause of stalling. As an airfoil’s angle of attack is
increased, pressure differences between the front and rear of the airfoil increases, and the
separation position moves forwards.

Loss of kinetic energy in the boundary layer can be caused by various factors.
i. As angle of attack increases, the transition point moves closer to the leading edge and
the adverse pressure gradient becomes stronger. This causes the separation point to
move forward. Eventually, boundary layer separation will occur so close to the
leading edge that there will be insufficient wing area to provide the required lift force,
CL will decrease and stall occurs.
ii. When a shock wave forms on the upper surface, the increase of static pressure
through
the shock wave will create an extreme adverse pressure gradient. If the shock wave is
sufficiently strong, separation will occur immediately behind the shock wave. This
will be explained fully in Chapter 13 - High Speed Flight.

Laminar and Turbulent Separation

Separation has been shown to be caused by the airflow meeting an adverse pressure gradient,
but it is found that a turbulent boundary layer is more resistant to separation than a laminar
one when meeting the same pressure gradient. In this respect the turbulent boundary layer is
preferable to the laminar one, but from the point of view of drag the laminar flow is
preferable.

Streamlining
Each part of an aircraft will be subject to form (pressure) drag. To reduce form drag it is
necessary to delay separation to a point as close to the trailing edge as possible. Streamlining
increases the ratio between the length (chord length) and depth (maximum thickness) of a
body (aerofoil), reducing the curvature of the surfaces and thus the adverse pressure gradient.
Fineness ratio is the measure of streamlining.
It has been found that the ideal fineness ratio is 3:1, as illustrated in Figure 6.5.

NOTE: The addition of fairings and fillets (see Glossary, Page 10) at the junction of
components exposed to the airflow is also referred to as “Streamlining”.

195
 Figure 6.4
Fineness Ratio
In order to reduce form drag it is important to ensure that the pressure gradient is not strongly
adverse. This means the tail of the body should be reduced in depth or cross sectional area
gradually, which is known as streamlining.
Streamline shapes which give the least resistance at subsonic speeds have a ratio of maximum
length to overall width of between 3 and 4.

This ratio is known as the fineness ratio, (a/b).

The maximum value of b should be about 1/3 of the way back from the nose (b=1/3a).
Although this gives the ideal shape for any separate body, it does not follow that that two
streamlined bodies (e.g. wing and fuselage) will when joined together give the least
resistance.

iii. Interference Drag

Interference drag is generated by the mixing of airflow streamlines between airframe
components such as the wing and the fuselage, the engine pylon and the wing or, in the case
of a military or other special purpose aircraft, between the airframe and attached external
stores such as fuel tanks, weapons or sensor pods. (Figure 2-19).

Interference drag is generated when the airflow across one component of an aircraft is forced
to mix with the airflow across an adjacent or proximal component. If one considers two parts
of the aircraft that intersect at a particular point, such as the vertical and horizontal
components of the empennage, it is obvious where the point of intersection occurs. Each of
these two components generate high velocity (potentially transonic or even supersonic)
airflow across their respective surfaces.

196
 Figure 2-19. A wing root can cause interference drag.

Interference drag comes from the intersection of airstreams that creates eddy currents,
turbulence, or restricts smooth airflow. For example, the intersection of the wing and the
fuselage at the wing root has significant interference drag.
Air flowing around the fuselage collides with air flowing over the wing, merging into a
current of air different from the two original currents. The most interference drag is
observed when two surfaces meet at perpendicular angles.

At the intersection of the two surfaces, there is less physical space for the airflow to occupy
resulting in the turbulent mixing of the two airflows and the production of a localized shock
wave.
Due to this shock wave, the resulting total drag from the empennage is greater than the sum
of the drag produced individually by the vertical tail and the horizontal tail surfaces. Other
significant locations which generate interference drag include the wing/ fuselage junction and
the wing/engine pylon or fuselage/engine pylon convergence.

Interference drag can be reduced by the addition of fairings and fillets in the areas
concerned.
As seen in Figure 2-19, interference drag can be minimized by the appropriate use of fairings
and fillets to ease the transition between components.
Fairings and fillets use curved surfaces to soften the transition at the junction of two aircraft
components. This, in turn, allows the airflow streamlines to meet gradually rather than
abruptly and reduces the amount of interference drag that is generated.

197
 When considering a complete aircraft, parasite drag will be greater than the sum of the parts.
Additional drag results from boundary layer ‘interference’ at wing/fuselage, wing/engine
nacelle and other such junctions. Filleting is necessary to minimize interference drag.

Profile Drag
The combination of skin friction and form drag is known as profile drag. It can be considered
that these drags result from the “profile” (or cross-sectional area) of the aircraft presented to
the relative airflow.

Profile Drag Curve

In conclusion, the combined drag to due to skin friction, form drag and interference is known
as profile drag. Profile drag is directly proportional to the square of the air speed.

Figure 1.51 Profile drag

The curve above (figure 1.51) shows how profile drag increases with increasing air speed.

Factors Affecting Parasite Drag

1. Indicated Airspeed
Parasite Drag varies directly with the square of the Indicated Airspeed (IAS). If IAS is
doubled, the Parasite Drag will be four times greater - if IAS is halved, the Parasite Drag will
be one quarter of its previous value.

2. Configuration
Parasite Drag varies directly in proportion to the frontal area presented to the airflow; this is
known as ‘Parasite Area’. If flaps are deployed, the undercarriage lowered, speed brakes
selected or roll control spoilers operated, ‘Parasite Area’ is increased and Parasite Drag will
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increase.

3. Airframe Contamination
Contamination by ice, frost, snow, mud or slush will increase the Parasite Drag Coefficient,
and in the case of severe airframe icing, the Parasite Area.

The Parasite Drag Formula

where,
DP = Parasite Drag
½ ρ V2 = Dynamic Pressure (Q)
C Dp = Parasite Drag Coefficient
S = Area (Parasite Area)

Designers can minimise Parasite drag by

i. Streamlining
ii. Incorporating fillets and fairings
iii. Using lamina flow wing sections
iv. Minimising frontal area
v. Flight crews must ensure that the airframe and particularly the wing is not contaminated
by ice, snow, frost, slush, insects or mud.

Effect of Lift on Parasite Drag

The sum of drag due to form, friction and interference is termed “parasite” drag because it is
not directly associated with the development of lift. While parasite drag is not directly
associated with the production of lift, in reality it does vary with lift. The variation of parasite
drag coefficient, CDp , with lift coefficient, C L , is shown for a typical aeroplane in Figure
6.14.

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 Figure 6.14 and Figure 6.15

However, the part of parasite drag above the minimum at zero lift is included with the
induced drag coefficient. Figure 6.15.

Effect of Configuration
Parasite drag, Dp , is unaffected by lift, but is variable with dynamic pressure and area. If all
other factors are held constant; parasite drag varies significantly with frontal area. As an
example, lowering the landing gear and flaps might increase the parasite area by as much as
80%. At any given IAS this aeroplane would experience an 80% increase in parasite drag.
Effect of Altitude
In most phases of flight, the aircraft will be flown at a constant IAS, the dynamic pressure
and,
thus, parasite drag will not vary. The TAS would be higher at altitude to provide the same
IAS.

Effect of Speed
The effect of speed alone on parasite drag is the most important. If all other factors are held
constant, doubling the speed will give four times the dynamic pressure and, hence, four times
the parasite drag, (or one quarter as much parasite drag at half the original speed).

This variation of parasite drag with speed points out that parasite drag will be of greatest
importance at high IAS and of much lower significance at low dynamic pressures. To
illustrate
this fact, an aeroplane in flight just above the stall speed could have a parasite drag which is
only 25% of the total drag. However, this same aeroplane at maximum level flight speed

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would have a parasite drag which is very nearly 100% of the total drag. The predominance of
parasite drag at high flight speeds emphasizes the necessity for great aerodynamic cleanliness
(streamlining) to obtain high speed performance.

2. Induced Drag
Three Dimensional Airflow
So far we have considered only two dimensional airflow. This has been a foundation for an
appreciation of the actual pattern of airflow over an aircraft. Even minute pressure differences
will modify airflow direction by inducing air to flow towards any region of lower pressure.
Three dimensional airflow modifies the effective angle of attack, increases drag, alters
stalling characteristics and can influence the control and stability of the aircraft. From now
on, instead of just an aerofoil section, the entire wing will be considered.

Induced drag is an undesirable by-product of lift. OR Induced drag is the Aerodynamic drag
produced by an airfoil when it is producing lift.
Induced Drag is an inevitable consequence of lift and is produced by the passage of an airfoil
(e.g. wing or tailplane) through the air.

NOTE:
1. The lower the IAS, the higher the angle of attack - the stronger the vortices.
2. The stronger the vortices - the greater the induced drag.

The second basic type of drag is induced drag. It is an established physical fact that no system
that does work in the mechanical sense can be 100 percent efficient. This means that
whatever the nature of the system, the required work is obtained at the expense of certain
additional work that is dissipated or lost in the system. The more efficient the system, the
smaller this loss.

In level flight, the aerodynamic properties of a wing or rotor produce a required lift, but this
can be obtained only at the expense of a certain penalty. The name given to this penalty is
induced drag. Induced drag is inherent whenever an airfoil is producing lift and, in fact, this
type of drag is inseparable from the production of lift. Consequently, it is always present if
lift is produced.

Wing tip vortices modify upwash and downwash in the vicinity (area) of the wing which
produces a rearward component to the lift vector known as induced drag.

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The lower the IAS, the higher the angle of attack will have decreased the chord-wise Vector
(flow) will increase the resultant span-wise flow, making - the stronger the vortices. The
stronger the vortices - the greater the induced drag.

Facts on Induced Drag

1. The lower the IAS, The higher CL, the higher the angle of attack - the stronger the
vortices. The stronger the vortices - the greater the induced drag.
2. Span wise airflow generates wingtip vortices. Wingtip vortices strengthen downwash
inclines wing lift rearwards.
The greater the rearward inclination of the wing lift, the greater will be the induced
drag.
3. Induced drag varies inversely as the square of the IAS, if speed is halved the C DI will
increase by 16 times and the induced drag by 4. If the speed is doubled the induced
drag coefficient will reduce to one sixteenth of its previous value and the induced drag
to a quarter of its previously value.

Wing Tip Vortices Formation

The action of the airfoil that gives an aircraft lift also causes induced drag. An airfoil (wing or
rotor blade) produces the lift force by making use of the energy of the free airstream. Induced
Drag is an inevitable consequence of lift and is produced by the passage of an airfoil (e.g.
wing or tail plane) through the air.

Whenever an airfoil is producing lift When an airfoil is flown at a positive AOA, a pressure
differential exists between the upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil, the pressure on the
lower surface of it is greater than that on the upper surface (Bernoulli’s Principle). The
pressure above the wing is less than atmospheric pressure and the pressure below the wing is
equal to or greater than atmospheric pressure.

Since air always moves from high pressure toward low pressure, and the path of least
resistance is toward the airfoil’s tips, there is a span-wise movement of air from the bottom of
the airfoil outward from the fuselage around the tips. From the bottom of the wing from root
to tip and at the top of the wing from tip to root.
As a result, the air tends to flow from the high pressure area below the tip upward to the low
pressure area on the upper surface.

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Airflow over the top surface of a wing is at a lower pressure than that beneath. The trailing
edge and the wing tips are where the airflows interact, Figure 6.6. The pressure
differential modifies the directions of flow, inducing a span-wise vector towards the root on
the upper surface and towards the tip on the lower surface.
In the vicinity (area) of the tips, there is a tendency for these pressures to equalize, resulting
in a lateral flow outward from the underside to the upper surface.
This lateral flow imparts a rotational velocity to the air at the tips, creating vortices that trail
behind the airfoil.

“Conventionally”, an aircraft is viewed from the rear. An anti-clockwise vortex will be

induced at the right wing tip and a clock-wise vortex at the left wing tip, Figure 6.7.

Figure 6.6 and 6.7

Air flowing over the top of a wing tends to flow inwards because the decreased pressure over
the top surface is less than the pressure outside the wing tip. Below the wing, the air flows
outwards because the pressure below the wing is greater than that outside the wing tip. A
direct consequence of this is that there is a continual spilling of air upwards around the wing
tip phenomenon called ‘tip effect’ or ‘end effect’.

Simply the wing tips vortices formed due to pressure difference on the upper and lower wing
surfaces.
The presence of regions of different pressure (as happens when lift is generated) will cause a
flow to develop from high to low pressure. This results in a span wise component forming in
addition to the chord wise component.
This span wise flow moves root to tip on the lower surface and vice-versa on the upper
surface. When the two airflows, from the top and bottom surfaces, meet at the trailing edge
they are flowing at an angle to each other and cause rotating vortices. All the vortices on one
side tend to join up and form one large vortex which is shed from each wing tip. These are
called wing tip vortices.

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One way to appreciate why a high aspect ratio for a wing is better than a low one is that
with a high aspect ratio, the proportion of air which moves in this way is reduced and
therefore more of it generates lift.

For the wing more generally, since the streams of air from above and below the wing
which meet along the trailing edge are flowing at an angle to each other as they meet,
they combine to form vortices, which, when viewed from the rear, rotate clockwise from
the left wing and counter clockwise from the right. The tendency is for these vortices to
move outwards towards the wing tip joining up as they do so. Eventually, by the time
the wing tip is reached, one large wig tip vortex has formed and is shed.

Most of the air flowing off the top of a wing (downwash) continues more or less
horizontally towards the empennage because it is balanced by a corresponding upwash
in front of the wing leading edge. In contrast, the upwards air movement which leads to
vortex consolidation at the tip is just outside the tip whereas the corresponding
downward movement is just at the extremity of the wingspan so that the net direction of
airflow past the wing is downwards. The lift created by the wing, which is by definition
at right angles to the airflow, is therefore inclined slightly backwards and thus
contributes drag - induced drag.

Although there must always be at least some induced drag because wings have a finite
thickness, design attempts wherever possible to reduce this flow. A required wing area
can be achieved using different wing span-to-chord ratios (aspect ratios). The larger the
wing aspect ratio, the less air disturbance is created at the tip. However, for most
aircraft, there are both practical limits to maximum wing span for ground maneuvering
and structural issues which mean that eventually, the weight penalty to adequately
strengthen a long thin wing becomes excessive. The fact that aircraft carry most of their
fuel in the wings is also a factor in wing design. Typical transport aircraft aspect ratios
range between 6:1 and 10:1.

Other ways to reduce induced drag and tip vortex strength in a wing design are also
based upon
reducing the quantity air movement upwards at the wing tip by aiming to generate
relatively more of the lift away from tips. Wing taper towards the tip assists this as does
wing twist. The Boeing 767 is a example of a twisted wing. The inner wing is set at a
higher angle of attack than the outer wing and thus generates proportionately more lift

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whereas the tip, at a very small angle of attack generates very little. Winglets have also
become popular, both the usual up-turned versions and the Airbus 320 series two way
‘wingtip fence’ versions. Well-designed winglets can prevent about 20% of the airflow
spillage at the tip - and therefore 20% of the induced drag. (Figure 2-20).

So, induced drag and its wing tip vortices are a direct consequence of the creation of lift
by the wing. Since the coefficient of lift is large when the angle of attack is large,
induced drag is inversely proportional to the square of the speed whereas all other drag
is directly proportional to the square of the speed. The effect of this is that induced drag
is relatively unimportant at high speed in the cruise and descent where it probably
represents less than 10% of total drag. In a climb, it is more important representing at
least 20% of total drag. At slow speeds just after take-off and in the initial climb, it is of
maximum importance and may produce as much as 70% of total drag. Finally, when
looking at the potential strength of wing tip vortices, theory on induced drag must be
moderated by the effect of aircraft weight. Induced drag always increases with aircraft
weight.

Figure 2-20. Winglets help reduce induced drag.

When the aircraft is viewed from the tail, these vortices circulate counter-clockwise about the
right tip and clockwise about the left tip (simply when viewed from the tail all rotates
outward from the wing or when viewed from the front they all flow inward). [Figure 5-9] As
the air (and vortices) roll off the back of your wing, they angle down, which is known as
downwash.

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 Figure 5-9. Wingtip vortex from a crop duster.

Figure 5-10 shows the difference in downwash at altitude versus near the ground. Bearing in
mind the direction of rotation of these vortices, it can be seen that they induce an upward
flow of air beyond the tip and a downwash flow behind the wing’s trailing edge. This induced
downwash has nothing in common with the downwash that is necessary to produce lift. It is,
in fact, the source of induced drag.

Figure 5-10. The difference in wingtip vortex size at altitude versus near the ground.

Downwash points the relative wind downward, so the more downwash you have, the more
your relative wind points downward. That's important for one very good reason: lift is always
perpendicular to the relative wind. In Figure 5-11, you can see that when you have less
206
downwash, your lift vector is more vertical, opposing gravity. And when you have more
downwash, your lift vector points back more, causing induced drag. On top of that, it takes
energy for your wings to create downwash and vortices, and that energy creates drag.

The greater the size and strength of the vortices and consequent downwash component on the
net airflow over the airfoil, the greater the induced drag effect becomes. This downwash over
the top of the airfoil at the tip has the same effect as bending the lift vector rearward;
therefore, the lift is slightly aft of perpendicular to the relative wind, creating a rearward lift
component. This is induced drag.

In order to create a greater negative pressure on the top of an airfoil, the airfoil can be
inclined to a higher AOA. If the AOA of a symmetrical airfoil were zero, there would be no
pressure differential, and consequently, no downwash component and no induced drag. In
any case, as AOA increases, induced drag increases proportionally. To state this another way
—the lower the airspeed, the greater the AOA required to produce lift equal to the aircraft’s
weight and, therefore, the greater induced drag. The amount of induced drag varies inversely
with the square of the airspeed.

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 Figure 5-11. The difference in downwash at altitude versus near the ground.

Conversely, parasite drag increases as the square of the airspeed. Thus, in steady state, as
airspeed decreases to near the stalling speed, the total drag becomes greater, due mainly to
the sharp rise in induced drag. Similarly, as the aircraft reaches its never-exceed speed (V NE),
the total drag increases rapidly due to the sharp increase of parasite drag.
As seen in Figure 5-6, at some given airspeed, total drag is at its minimum amount. In
figuring the maximum range of aircraft, the thrust required to overcome drag is at a minimum
if drag is at a minimum. The minimum power and maximum endurance occur at a different
point.

Induced Downwash
Wing tip vortices create certain vertical velocity components in the airflow in the vicinity of
the wing, both in front of and behind it, Figure 6.9. These vertical velocities strengthen
upwash and downwash which reduces the effective angle of attack. The stronger the vortices,
the greater the reduction in effective angle of attack.

Due to the localized reduction in effective angle of attack, the overall lift generated by a wing
will be below the value that would be generated if there were no spanwise pressure
differential.
It is the production of lift itself which reduces the magnitude of the lift force being generated.

To replace the lift lost by the increased upwash and downwash, the wing must be flown at a
higher angle of attack than would otherwise be necessary. This increases drag. This extra
drag
is called Induced drag, Figure 6.10.

Induced (Vortex) Drag Curve

Induced (vortex) drag is inversely proportional to the square of the air speed.

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 Figure 1.56 Induced (vortex) drag curve

From the curve above (Figure 1.56) it can be seen that as the air speed increases, so induced
(vortex) drag decreases.

Factors affecting induced drag are:

1. The size of the lift force (Lift and weight)
Because induced drag is a component of the lift force, the greater the lift, the greater will be
the induced drag. Lift must be equal to weight in level flight so induced drag will depend on
the weight of the aircraft. Induced drag will be greater at higher aircraft weights. Certain
manoeuvres require the lift force to be greater than the aircraft weight.
The relationship of lift to weight is known as the ‘Load Factor’ (or ‘g’). For example, lift is
greater than weight during a steady turn so induced drag will be higher during a steady turn
than in straight and level flight. Therefore, induced drag also increases as the Load Factor
increases. Induced drag will increase in proportion to the square of the lift force.

2. The speed of the aircraft

Induced drag decreases with increasing speed (for a constant lift force). This is because, as
speed increases, the downwash caused by the tip vortices becomes less significant, the
rearward inclination of the lift is less, and therefore induced drag is less. Induced drag
varies inversely as the square of the speed.

3. Wing planform
The greater the weight, the more lift must be created, which results in greater pressure
differences, creating more downwash.

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The angular deflection of the airflow will depend on the speed. For a given downwash
velocity the deflection angle will be greater at lower speeds than at higher speeds.
Theoretical analysis indicates that for a given amount of lift, the smallest amount of trailing
vortices will be produced when the downwash is constant along the span. The same analysis
shows that constant downwash is obtained following an elliptical relationship. An elliptical
spanwise variation of lift represents a theoretical ideal case for minimum trailing edge
vortices.

The wing span has a marked effect on the amount of induced drag. The strength of the vortex
diminishes from the wing tip towards the fuselage and therefore the downwash created also
diminishes.

For a given strength of tip vortex, the longer the wing span the lower will be the average
downwash and the lower the induced drag. For a given amount of lift, the longer the span and
smaller the chord the weaker the vortex produced by a given wing. The relationship of span
to chord is called the aspect ratio is high.

4. The aspect ratio of the wing

The tip vortices of a high aspect ratio wing affect a smaller proportion of the span so the
overall change in downwash will be less, giving a smaller rearward tilt to the lift force.
Induced drag therefore decreases as aspect ratio increases (for a given lift force). The
induced drag coefficient is inversely proportional to the aspect ratio.

From the previous three factors it is possible to develop the following equation

It can be seen that the relationship for the induced drag coefficient, (C Di), emphasizes the
need of a high aspect ratio wing for aeroplane configurations designed to operate at the
higher lift coefficients during the major portion of their flight, i.e. conventional high speed jet
transport aircraft.

The effect of aspect ratio on lift and drag characteristics is shown in Figure 6.11 and Figure
6.12. The basic aerofoil section properties are shown on these plots, and these properties
would be typical only of a wing planform of extremely high (infinite) aspect ratio. When a
wing of some finite aspect ratio is constructed of this basic section, the principal differences

210
will be in the lift and drag characteristics - the moment characteristics remain essentially the
same.

The effect of increasing aspect ratio on the lift curve, Figure 6.11, is to decrease the wing
angle of attack necessary to produce a given lift coefficient. Higher aspect ratio wings are
more sensitive to changes in angle of attack, but require a smaller angle of attack for
maximum lift.

Figure 6.11

From Figure 6.12 it can be seen that at any lift coefficient, a higher aspect ratio gives a
lower
wing drag coefficient since the induced drag coefficient varies inversely with aspect
ratio. When the aspect ratio is high, the induced drag varies only slightly with lift. At high
lift coefficients (low IAS), the induced drag is very high and increases very rapidly with lift
coefficient.

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 Figure 6.12

The lift and drag curves for a high aspect ratio wing, Figure 6.11 and Figure 6.12, show
continued strong increase in CL with α up to stall and large changes in CD only at the point
of stall.

For a rectangular wing aspect ratio is wing span / chord length (b / c).
For a non-rectangular wing aspect ratio is wing span squared / wing area (b² / s).

Figure 1.60 Velair 89 (has high aspect ratio)

The high aspect ratio of the Velair 89 shown above enables it to produce high lift and low
drag and is manpowered by a single pilot.

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 Figure 1.58 Aspect ratio of different aircraft

The above diagram (Figure 1.57) shows three different aspect ratios for the same wing area.
Wings designed to minimise trailing edge vortices have a long span and short chord: in other
words, the aspect ratio high.

Continuing to increase aspect ratio is restricted by the following considerations. Very high
aspect ratio wings will experience the following:
1. Excessive wing bending moments:
which can be reduced by carrying fuel in the wings and mounting the engines in pods beneath
the wing.

2. Reduced rate of roll (particularly at low airspeed):

This is caused by the down-going wing (only while it is actually moving down) experiencing
an increased effective angle of attack. The increased effective angle of attack is due to the
resultant of the forward TAS of the wing and the angular TAS of the tip. The higher the
aspect ratio, the greater the vertical TAS of the tip for a given roll rate, leading to a greater
increase in effective angle of attack.
The higher the effective angle of attack at the tip, the greater the resistance to roll. These
phenomena is called aerodynamic damping and will be covered in more detail in later
chapters.

3. Reduced ground clearance in roll during take-off and landing.

The Induced Drag Coefficient (CDi )

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This equation would seem to imply that induced drag (Di) increases with speed, but the
induced drag coefficient (CDi) is proportional to CL2 and inversely proportional to wing
aspect ratio. As speed increases, to maintain a constant lift force CL must be reduced. Thus,
with an increase in speed, CDi decreases:

The following example illustrates the change in CDi with speed, which leads to the change in
Di.
If an aircraft’s speed is increased from 80 kt (41 m/s) to 160 kt (82 m/s), the dynamic
pressure will be four times greater. (Sea level ISA density is used in the example, but any
constant density will give the same result).

Referring to the lift formula: L = Q CL S

If dynamic pressure is four times greater because speed is doubled, CL must be reduced to a
quarter of its previous value to maintain a constant lift force.
Applying 1/4 of the previous CL to the CDi formula:

Conclusion: If speed is doubled in level flight: dynamic pressure will be four times greater,
CL must be decreased to ¼ of its previous value, CDi will be 1/16 of its previous value and
Di will be reduced to ¼ of its previous value.
If speed is halved in level flight: dynamic pressure will be ¼ of its previous value, CL will
need to be four times greater, CDi will be 16 times greater, giving four times more Di

Methods of Reducing Induced Drag

Induced drag is low at high speeds, but at low speeds it comprises over half the total drag.
Induced drag depends on the strength of the trailing vortices, and it has been shown that a
high aspect ratio wing reduces the strength of the vortices for a given lift force. However,
very high aspect ratios increase the wing root bending moment, reduce the rate of roll and

214
give reduced ground clearance in roll during take-off and landing; therefore, aspect ratio has
to be kept within practical limits. The following list itemizes other methods used to minimize
induced drag by weakening the wing tip vortices.
i. Wing end Plates:
A flat plate placed at the wing tip will restrict the tip vortices and have a similar effect to an
increased aspect ratio but without the extra bending loads. However, the plate itself will cause
parasite drag, and at higher speeds there may be no overall saving in drag.

Figure

ii. Tip tanks:

Fuel tanks placed at the wing tips will have a similar beneficial effect to an end plate, will
reduce the induced drag and will also reduce the wing root bending moment.

215
 iii. Winglets:
These are small vertical aerofoils which form part of the wing tip (Figure 6.13). Shaped and
angled to the induced airflow, they generate a small forward force (i.e. “negative drag”, or
thrust). Winglets partly block the air flowing from the bottom to the top surface of the wing,
reducing the strength of the tip vortex. In addition, the small vortex generated by the winglet
interacts with and further reduces the strength of the main wing tip vortex.

Figure 6.13

iv. Wing tip shape:

The shape of the wing tip can affect the strength of the tip vortices, and designs such as
turned down or turned up wing tips have been used to reduce induced drag.

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Avoiding Wake Turbulence
Wake turbulence is a disturbance in the atmosphere that forms behind an aircraft as it passes
through the air. It includes variety of components, the most significant of which are wingtip
vortices and jet-wash
Wake turbulence is a function of an aircraft producing lift, resulting in the formation of two
counter-rotating vortices trailing behind the aircraft.

Wake turbulence from the generating aircraft can affect encountering aircraft due to the
strength, duration, and direction of the vortices. Wake turbulence can impose rolling
moments exceeding the roll-control authority of encountering aircraft, causing possible injury
to occupants and damage to aircraft. Pilots should always be aware of the possibility of a
wake turbulence encounter when flying through the wake of another aircraft, and adjust the
flight path accordingly.

Wingtip vortices are greatest when the generating aircraft is “heavy, clean, and slow.” This
condition is most commonly encountered during approaches or departures because an
aircraft’s AOA is at the highest to produce the lift necessary to land or take off. To minimize
the chances of flying through an aircraft’s wake turbulence:
1. Avoid flying through another aircraft’s flight path.
2. Rotate prior to the point at which the preceding aircraft rotated when taking off
behind another aircraft.
3. Avoid following another aircraft on a similar flight path at an altitude within 1,000
feet. [Figure 5-13]

217
 Figure 5-13. Avoid following another aircraft at an altitude within 1,000 feet.

4. Approach the runway above a preceding aircraft’s path when landing behind another
aircraft and touch down after the point at which the other aircraft wheels contacted
the runway. [Figure 5-14]

Figure 5-14. Avoid turbulence from another aircraft.

A hovering helicopter generates a down wash from its main rotor(s) similar to the vortices of
an airplane. Pilots of small aircraft should avoid a hovering helicopter by at least three rotor
disc diameters to avoid the effects of this down wash. In forward flight, this energy is
transformed into a pair of strong, high-speed trailing vortices similar to wing-tip vortices of
larger fixed-wing aircraft. Helicopter vortices should be avoided because helicopter forward
flight airspeeds are often very slow and can generate exceptionally strong wake turbulence.

Wind is an important factor in avoiding wake turbulence because wingtip vortices drift with
the wind at the speed of the wind. For example, a wind speed of 10 knots causes the vortices
to drift at about 1,000 feet in a minute in the wind direction. When following another aircraft,
a pilot should consider wind speed and direction when selecting an intended take-off or
landing point. If a pilot is unsure of the other aircraft’s take-off or landing point,
approximately 3 minutes provides a margin of safety that allows wake turbulence dissipation.
[Figure 5-15] For more information on wake turbulence, see Advisory Circular (AC) 90-23,
Aircraft Wake Turbulence.

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Figure 5-15. When the vortices of larger aircraft sink close to the ground (within 100 to 200
feet), they tend to move laterally over the ground at a speed of 2 or 3 knots (top). A
crosswind will decrease the lateral movement of the upwind vortex and increase the
movement of the downwind vortex. Thus a light wind with a cross runway component of 1 to
5 knots could result in the upwind vortex remaining in the touchdown zone for a period of
time and hasten the drift of the downwind vortex toward another runway (bottom).

Ground Effect
Ever since the beginning of manned flight, pilots realized that just before touchdown it would
suddenly feel like the aircraft did not want to go lower, and it would just want to go on and
on. This is due to the air that is trapped between the wing and the landing surface, as if there
were an air cushion. This phenomenon is called ground effect.

When an aircraft in flight comes within several feet of the surface, ground or water, a change
occurs in the three dimensional flow pattern around the aircraft because the vertical

219
component of the airflow around the wing is restricted by the surface. This alters the wing’s
upwash, downwash, and wingtip vortices. [Figure 5-16]

Figure 5-16. Ground effect changes airflow.

Ground effect, then, is due to the interference of the ground (or water) surface with the
airflow patterns about the aircraft in flight. While the aerodynamic characteristics of the tail
surfaces and the fuselage are altered by ground effect, the principal effects due to proximity
of the ground are the changes in the aerodynamic characteristics of the wing. As the wing
encounters ground effect and is maintained at a constant AOA, there is consequent reduction
in the upwash, downwash, and wingtip vortices.

Induced drag is a result of the airfoil’s work of sustaining the aircraft, and a wing or rotor lifts
the aircraft simply by accelerating a mass of air downward. It is true that reduced pressure on
top of an airfoil is essential to lift, but that is only one of the things contributing to the overall
effect of pushing an air mass downward.
The more downwash there is, the harder the wing pushes the mass of air down. At high
angles of attack, the amount of induced drag is high; since this corresponds to lower airspeeds
in actual flight, it can be said that induced drag predominates at low speed.

However, the reduction of the wingtip vortices due to ground effect alters the span-wise lift
distribution and reduces the induced AOA and induced drag. Therefore, the wing will require
a lower AOA in ground effect to produce the same CL. If a constant AOA is maintained, an
increase in CL results. [Figure 5-17]

Ground effect also alters the thrust required versus velocity. Since induced drag predominates
at low speeds, the reduction of induced drag due to ground effect will cause a significant
reduction of thrust required (parasite plus induced drag) at low speeds. Due to the change in

220
up-wash, downwash, and wingtip vortices, there may be a change in position (installation)
error
of the airspeed system associated with ground effect.
In the majority of cases, ground effect causes an increase in the local pressure at the static
source and produces a lower indication of airspeed and altitude. Thus, an aircraft may be
airborne at an indicated airspeed less than that normally required.

Figure 5-17. Ground effect changes drag and lift.

In order for ground effect to be of significant magnitude, the wing must be quite close to the
ground. One of the direct results of ground effect is the variation of induced drag with wing
height above the ground at a constant CL. When the wing is at a height equal to its span, the
reduction in induced drag is only 1.4 percent.

However, when the wing is at a height equal to one-fourth its span, the reduction in induced
drag is 23.5 percent and, when the wing is at a height equal to one-tenth its span, the
reduction in induced drag is 47.6 percent. Thus, a large reduction in induced drag takes place
only when the wing is very close to the ground. Because of this variation, ground effect is
most usually recognized during the lift-off for take-off or just prior to touchdown when
landing.

During the take-off phase of flight, ground effect produces some important relationships. An
aircraft leaving ground effect after take-off encounters just the reverse of an aircraft entering
ground effect during landing. The aircraft leaving ground effect will:
1. Require an increase in AOA to maintain the same CL
2. Experience an increase in induced drag and thrust required
3. Experience a decrease in stability and a nose-up change in moment
4. Experience a reduction in static source pressure and increase in indicated airspeed.

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Ground effect must be considered during take-offs and landings. For example, if a pilot fails
to understand the relationship between the aircraft and ground effect during take-off, a
hazardous situation is possible because the recommended take-off speed may not be
achieved. Due to the reduced drag in ground effect, the aircraft may seem capable of take-off
well below the recommended speed. As the aircraft rises out of ground effect with a
deficiency of speed, the greater induced drag may result in marginal initial climb
performance.

In extreme conditions, such as high gross weight, high density altitude, and high temperature,
a deficiency of airspeed during take-off may permit the aircraft to become airborne but be
incapable of sustaining flight out of ground effect. In this case, the aircraft may become
airborne initially with a deficiency of speed and then settle back to the runway.

A pilot should not attempt to force an aircraft to become airborne with a deficiency of speed.
The manufacturer’s recommended take-off speed is necessary to provide adequate initial
climb performance. It is also important that a definite climb be established before a pilot
retracts the landing gear or flaps. Never retract the landing gear or flaps prior to establishing a
positive rate of climb and only after achieving a safe altitude.

If, during the landing phase of flight, the aircraft is brought into ground effect with a constant
AOA, the aircraft experiences an increase in CL and a reduction in the thrust required, and a
“floating” effect may occur. Because of the reduced drag and lack of power-off deceleration
in ground effect, any excess speed at the point of flare may incur a considerable “float”
distance. As the aircraft nears the point of touchdown, ground effect is most realized at
altitudes less than the wingspan. During the final phases of the approach as the aircraft nears
the ground, a reduction of power is necessary to offset the increase in lift caused from ground
effect otherwise the aircraft will have a tendency to climb above the desired glidepath (GP).

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Aeroplane Total Drag
The total drag of an aeroplane in flight is the sum of induced drag and parasite drag. Figure
6.16 illustrates the variation of total drag with IAS for a given aeroplane in level flight at a
particular weight and configuration. Total drag is least at the point where induced and
parasite drags are equal.

Parasitic drag increases with the square of the airspeed, while induced drag, being a function
of lift, is greatest when maximum lift is being developed, usually at low speeds.

Figure 6.16
The lowest point on the curve gives the speed at which the total drag is a minimum. This
speed is called the minimum drag speed.

Figure 6.16 shows the predominance of induced drag at low speed and parasite drag at high
speed. Because of the particular manner in which parasite and induced drags vary with speed,
the speed at which total drag is a minimum (V MD) occurs when the induced and parasite
drags are equal.
The lowest point on the curve gives the speed at which the total drag is a minimum. This
speed is called the minimum drag speed.
The speed for minimum drag is an important reference for many items of aeroplane
performance. Range, endurance, climb, glide, manoeuvre, landing and take-off performance
223
are all based on some relationship involving the aeroplane total drag curve. Since flying at
VMD incurs the least total drag for lift-equal-weight flight, the aeroplane will also be at
L/DMAX angle of attack (approximately 4°).

It is important to remember that L/DMAX is obtained at a specific angle of attack and also that
the maximum Lift/Drag ratio is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency.

NOTE: If an aircraft is operated at the L/DMAX angle of attack, drag will be a minimum while
generating the required lift force. Any angle of attack lower or higher than that for L/D MAX
increases the drag for a given lift force; greater drag requires more thrust, which would be
inefficient, and expensive. It must also be noted that if IAS is varied, L/D will vary.

Figure 5.7 illustrated L/D ratio plotted against angle of attack. An alternative presentation of
L/D is a polar diagram in which CL is plotted against CD, as illustrated in Figure 6.17.

Figure 6.17

The CL / CD, whole aeroplane polar diagram in Figure 6.17 shows CL increasing initially much
more rapidly than CD but that ultimately C D increases more rapidly. The condition for
maximum Lift/Drag ratio may be found from the drag polar by drawing the tangent to the
curve from the origin.

NOTE: This is a very common method of displaying L/D ratio, so the display in Figure 6.17
should become well known.

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There is an airspeed at which drag is minimum, and in theory, this is the maximum range
speed.
However, flight at this speed is unstable because a small decrease in speed results in an
increase in drag, and a further fall in speed. In practice, for stable flight, maximum range is
achieved at a speed a little above the minimum drag speed where a small speed decrease
results in a reduction in drag.

The Effect of Aircraft Gross Weight on Total Drag

The effect of variation in aircraft gross weight on total drag can be seen from Figure 6.18. As
fuel is consumed, gross weight will decrease. As the aircraft weight decreases, less lift is
required (lower CL) which will reduce induced drag. Total drag will be less and V MD will
occur at a lower IAS.

If an aircraft is operated at a higher gross weight, more lift will be required. If more lift is
generated, induced drag will be higher, total drag will be greater and V MD will occur at a
higher
IAS. If an aircraft is manoeuvred so that the load factor is increased, the result will be similar
to that caused by an increase in gross weight, i.e. induced drag will increase.

Figure 6.18

The Effect of Altitude on Total Drag

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Aircraft usually operate within limits of Indicated Airspeed (IAS), so it is relevant to consider
the variation of drag with IAS. If an aircraft is flown at a constant IAS, dynamic pressure will
be constant. As density decreases with increasing altitude, TAS must be increased to maintain
the constant IAS (Q = ½ ρ V2). If the aircraft is flown at a constant IAS, drag will not vary
with altitude.

The Effect of Configuration on Total Drag

Extension of the landing gear, air brakes, or flaps will increase parasite drag but will not
substantially affect induced drag. The effect of increasing parasite drag is to increase total
drag at any IAS but to decrease the speed VMD compared to the clean aircraft, (Figure 6.19).

Speed Stability
For an aircraft to be in steady flight, the aircraft must be in equilibrium - there can be no out
of balance forces or moments. When an aircraft is trimmed to fly at a steady speed, thrust and
drag are equal. Therefore, when an aircraft is in steady flight it can be said that the term
DRAG
and the term ‘THRUST REQUIRED’ have the same meaning.

Consequently, an alternative to considering DRAG against IAS as in the graph of Figure

6.16,
the term ‘THRUST REQUIRED’ can be substituted for drag.

For an aircraft in steady flight, if there is a variation in speed with no change in throttle
setting,
(which is called ‘THRUST AVAILABLE’), depending on the trim speed, there will be either
an excess or a deficiency of thrust available. This, phenomena is illustrated in Figure 6.20.

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 Figure 6.20

If an aircraft is established in steady flight at point ‘A’ in Figure 6.20, lift is equal to weight
and the thrust available is set to match the thrust required. If the aircraft is disturbed to some
airspeed slightly greater than point ‘A’, a thrust deficiency will exist and, if the aircraft is
disturbed to some airspeed slightly lower than point ‘A’, a thrust excess will exist.
This relationship provides a tendency for the aircraft to return to the equilibrium of point ‘A’
and resume the original trim speed. Steady flight at speeds greater than V MD is characterized
by a relatively strong tendency of the aircraft to maintain the trim speed quite naturally; the
aircraft is speed stable.

Speed stability is an important consideration, particularly at speeds at and below V MD, most
often encountered during the approach to landing phase of flight.

If an aircraft is established in steady flight at point ‘B’ in Figure 6.20, lift is equal to weight
and the thrust available is set to match the thrust required. If the aircraft is disturbed and goes
faster than the trim speed, there will be a decrease in drag giving an excess of thrust which
will cause the aircraft to accelerate. If a disturbance slows the aircraft below the trim speed,
there will be an increase in drag which will give a thrust deficiency causing the aircraft to
slow further.

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This relationship is basically unstable because the variation of excess thrust to either side of
point ‘B’ tends to magnify any original disturbance. Steady flight at speeds less than V MD is
characterized by a tendency for the aircraft to drift away from the trim speed and the aircraft
is speed unstable. If a disturbance reduces speed, it will naturally continue to reduce.

If a disturbance increases speed, it will continue to accelerate until the thrust and drag are
once
more balanced. For this reason, the pilot must closely monitor IAS during the approach phase
of flight. Any tendency for the aircraft to slow down must be countered immediately by a
‘generous’ application of thrust to quickly return to the desired trim speed.

Consider Figure 6.19. If an aircraft maintains a constant IAS in the speed unstable region, the
addition of parasite drag by selecting undercarriage down or by deploying flaps has the
benefit of reducing VMD which can improve speed stability by moving the speed stable
region to the left.

At speeds very close to VMD an aircraft usually exhibits no tendency towards either speed
stability or speed instability - the neutral IAS region.

Power Required (Introduction)

We will now consider the relationship between Thrust, Drag and Power. These sound like
engine considerations which might be better studied in Book 4, but it has already been shown
that Drag can also be referred to as ‘Thrust Required’ and you will now see that a similar
relationship exists with ‘Power Required’ - they are both important airframe considerations.

Thrust is a FORCE (a push or a pull), used to oppose Drag, but Power is the RATE of doing
WORK, or

Power = Work / Time and Work = Force × Distance

so POWER must be

For Power Required:

Which Force?
Drag.
Distance divided by time is speed.
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Which speed?
The only speed there is - the speed of the aircraft through the air, True Airspeed (TAS).
Therefore: POWER REQUIRED = DRAG × TAS

If an aircraft climbs at a constant IAS, Drag will remain constant, but TAS must be increased
- so power required will increase.

It is necessary to consider power required when studying Principles of Flight because Work
must be done on the aircraft to “raise” it to a higher altitude when climbing. Logically,
maximum work can be done on the aircraft in the minimum time when the power available
from the engine(s) is greatest and the power required by the airframe is least.

For easy reference, associate the word POWER with the word RATE. e.g. minimum rate of
descent is achieved in a steady glide when the aircraft is flown at the minimum power
required
speed (VMP).
These and other considerations will be examined more fully during the study of Aircraft
Performance in Book 6 and Flight Mechanics in Chapter 12 of this Book.

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 Figure 6.21

Figure 6.21 is drawn for sea level conditions where TAS = IAS and is valid for one particular
aircraft, for one weight, only in level flight, and shows how a graph of TAS against ‘Power
Required’ has been constructed from a TAS/Drag curve by multiplying each value of drag by
the appropriate TAS and converting it to kilowatts.

The speed for minimum power required is known as VMP and is an Indicated Airspeed
(IAS).

Note that the speed corresponding to minimum power required (V MP), is slower than the
speed for minimum drag (VMD).

Effect of Altitude
An aircraft flying at VMD will experience constant drag at any altitude because VMD is an
IAS. At altitude the TAS for a given IAS is higher, but the power required also increases
because Power Required = Drag × TAS. So the ratio of TAS to Power Required is unaffected
and VMP will remain slower than VMD.
This information primarily concerns aircraft performance, but the relationship of speed for
minimum power required (VMP) and speed for minimum drag (VMD) is important for the study
of rate and angle of descent in a steady glide, outlined in Chapter 12.

Drag Polar
The total drag characteristics for an aircraft can be written as:
CD Total = CDO + CDi known as the drag polar.
CDO = profile (zero lift) drag and
CDi = induced (vortex) drag.
CDi is also expressed as CL² / π e A.R. (the expression 1 / π e A.R. can be re-written as k).
CL² = coefficient of lift squared, e = Oswald efficiency factor to take into account the
deviation from the ideal elliptical lift distribution, A.R. = aspect ratio.

The aircraft drag polar can be represented as a plot of CD Total against CL.

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 Figure 1.62 Drag polar graphs

The drag polar curve is a parabola. Values to the left of the vertical axis pertain to negative
lift when angle of attack σ is less than zero lift angle of attack (άL = 0).
This situation is not encountered frequently in analysis of aircraft performance, hence only
the positive values (i.e. those to the right of the vertical axis) are usually shown.
Much of the basic aerodynamics of an aircraft is reflected in the drag polar curve, and such
curves are essential to the design of an aircraft.

Wave Drag
Wave drag is a force, or drag that retards the forward movement of an airplane, in both
supersonic and transonic flight, as a consequence of the formation of shock waves.

Wave drag is caused by the formation of shock waves around the aircraft in supersonic flight
or around some surfaces of the aircraft while in transonic flight. In cruise, most civil jet
aircraft fly in the Mach .75 to .85 speed range.
Shock waves are typically associated with supersonic aircraft, however, they also form on an
aircraft traveling at less than the speed of sound. This occurs on the aircraft where local
airflow is accelerated to sonic speed and then decreases back to subsonic speed. A
shockwave (and associated wave drag) forms at the point the airflow becomes subsonic.
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This is common on aircraft airfoils. As the aircraft continues to accelerate, the area of the
wing experiencing supersonic flow increases. The shockwave moves further back on the
wing and becomes larger. Boundary layer separation also increases with the increase in speed
and if the
speed is allowed to increase beyond the limiting Mach number, severe buffeting, Mach
tuck or "upset" (loss of control) may occur.
Shock waves radiate a considerable amount of energy, resulting in drag on the aircraft. This
wave drag can be reduced by incorporating one or more aerodynamic design features such as
wing sweep, ultra-thin wings, fuselage shape, anti-shock bodies and super critical airfoils.

Airfoil contamination
All discussion of aerodynamic behaviour of airfoils assumes that the aircraft airfoils are free
of
contamination. Some of the most common forms of contamination are ice, snow and frost.
Each of these, if accumulated on the aircraft, will reduce its capacity to develop lift. Ice
commonly changes the shape of the airfoil which disrupts airflow and make it less efficient.

Snow, ice, and especially frost, alter the smooth even surface that normally promotes laminar
airflow. Laminar airflow is required to set up the pressure differential between the lower and
upper wing surfaces that creates lift. All snow and ice must be completely removed from any
aircraft before flight. Frost must also be removed. While it appears insignificant, the
disruption to airflow caused by frost is possibly the most dangerous.

Airfoil performance is fundamentally influenced by shape and surface characteristics, which

determine flow-pattern and degree of separation. Any surface irregularity can cause a marked
change, which may include changes in stall behaviour. Such irregularities may result from
contamination by ice and snow accretion.
The airframe may become contaminated by ice, frost or water either whilst it is in flight or
when standing on the ground.
The meteorological conditions that cause ice and frost to form are dealt with elsewhere, but
the effect is an accumulation of ice or frost on the surface of the aircraft which will affect its
performance and handling.

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Several accidents have been the result of snow, ice or even Hoare frost build up on aircraft
like in the photograph above. For this reason careful inspection and rectification is essential
before aircraft operate in adverse weather conditions.

On January 13, 1982 at around 16:00 Hours local time, a Florida Airlines Boeing 737 took
off from Washington and crashed in the Potomac river after thirty seconds of flight. The
plane was entirely destroyed and 79 people were killed.
Many crashes are similar to this one, the most recent was that of the ATR 42 where the
defrosting equipment was responsible. Let us observe how the formation of white frost, snow
or ice affects the aerodynamic performance of the aircraft.

Figure 1.69 Scenario of Airfoil contamination

Subjected to all types of weather conditions, icing is the one which causes the formation of a
more or less opaque or transparent ice on the aircraft. Icing is a critical phenomenon in flight;
it increases the weight of the aircraft and becomes particularly dangerous in the phases of
take-off by modifying the aerodynamic shape of the aerofoil, thus deteriorating the airflow.
Thus, the formation of white frost has a direct effect on the safety of flights.

Figure 1.7 Crash of an Iran Air jet carrying 104 passengers due to a heavy snow and Fog
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Figure 1.71 shows the effect of ice contamination on the leading edge. Not only is the
maximum lift coefficient decreased, but the AOA for stall is also decreased. The loss in lift
coefficient and stall AOA is dependent on the depth, shape and texture of the ice accretion in
relation to the aerofoil section.

Types of Contamination
1. Frost
Frost can form on the surface of the aircraft either when it is standing on the ground when the
temperature falls below 0°C, or in flight, if the aircraft, after flying in a region where the
temperature is below 0°C, moves into a warmer layer of air. It consists of a fairly thin coating
of crystalline ice.
2. Ice
The main forms of icing are clear ice, rime ice and rain ice.
Clear ice (glaze ice) is a translucent layer of ice with a smooth surface, caused by large super
cooled water droplets striking the leading edges of the airframe. As there is some delay in
freezing, there is some flow back along the surface behind the leading edge.

Rime ice forms when small super cooled water droplets strike the leading edges and freeze
almost immediately so that there is no flow back. It is a white opaque formation.

Rain ice is caused by rain which becomes super cooled by falling from an inversion into air
which is below 0°C. It does not freeze immediately and forms considerable flow back, and it
builds up very quickly.

If ice is allowed to accumulate on the aircraft during flight (Figure 2-12), the weight of the
aircraft is increased while the ability to generate lift is decreased. As little as 0.8 millimeter of
ice on the upper wing surface increases drag and reduces aircraft lift by 25 percent.

Figure 2-12. In-flight ice formation adds weight, increases drag and reduces lift

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Ice can distort the flow of air over the wing, diminishing the wing's maximum lift, reducing
the angle of attack for maximum lift, adversely affecting airplane handling qualities, and
significantly increasing drag. Wind tunnel and flight tests have shown that frost, snow, and
ice accumulations (on the leading edge or upper surface of the wing) no thicker or rougher
than a piece of coarse sandpaper can reduce lift by 30 percent and increase drag up to 40
percent. Larger accretions can reduce lift even more and can increase drag by 80 percent or
more

Effect of Frost and Ice on the Aircraft

The formation of ice and frost on the airframe will:
1. Modify the profile of the aerofoil.
2. Increase the roughness of the aircraft surface.
3. Increase the weight of the aircraft.

The main effect of frost will be to increase the surface roughness and this will increase the
energy loss in the boundary layer. The skin friction drag will increase and the boundary layer
will have an earlier separation, giving a reduced CLMAX. Take-off with frost on the wings
could result in a stall after lift-off if the normal take-off speed is used.

Tests have shown that frost, ice or snow with the thickness and surface roughness of
medium or coarse sandpaper reduces lift by as much as 30% and increases drag by
40%.

Ice will normally form on and behind the leading edges of wings and tail-plane and can result
in severe distortion of the leading edge profile. This will give a large increase in drag and a
substantial decrease in CLMAX and the AOA for stall is decreased.
The consequence of reduced CLMAX of the wing will give a higher stalling speed and the
decreased CLMAX of the tail-plane could cause it to stall when the aircraft is flying at low
speed, particularly if the wing downwash is increased as a result of flap extension.

Because stall AOA is decreased, stall warning and stall protection systems that activate at
fixed present values applicable to the clean wing, will not function correctly with ice
accretion.

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Due to ice accretion on the horizontal stabilizer leading edge, the maximum downward
balancing force is reduced and the AOA for stall is reduced. The consequence is the potential
for a stall of the horizontal stabilizer, commonly known as tail-plane stall.
Tail-plane stall will result in loss of longitudinal control. Clear ice and rain ice especially can
add considerable weight to the airframe, and this will in turn give a higher stalling speed, as
well as increased induced drag. The margin of thrust to drag will be decreased, reducing the
ability to climb. Increased power will be required to maintain height, resulting in increased
fuel
consumption.

Due to ice accretion on wing, horizontal and vertical stabilizer leading edges, the drag of the
airplane is increased. The drag is also increased due to ice accretion on other forward-facing
surfaces, such as the radome, engine pylons, landing gear struts, etc. The consequence is a
loss of climb capability, loss of the ability to maintain level speed, or loss of the ability to
make a controlled descent and landing.

Ice formation on propeller blades can upset the balance of the propeller and cause severe
vibration, particularly if pieces of ice break off from one blade. Also ice formation on
propeller blades will increase the drag and may decrease the lift of the blades. Increased
power will be required to maintain propeller speed. Eventually, thrust will be decreased
because of reaching power limits and/or loss of lift on the blades.

Effect on Instruments
Formation of ice on static vents and pitot heads could cause errors in the readings of pressure
instruments and, eventually, failure to show any reading.

Effect on Controls
Any moveable surface could become jammed by ice forming in the gaps around the control
or by pieces of ice breaking off and becoming jammed in the control gaps. The controls could
become difficult to operate or immovable.

Water Contamination
If the wings are contaminated with water due to heavy rain, the boundary layer may become
turbulent further forward on the wing, particularly if the section is of the laminar flow type.
This will cause increased drag and may disrupt the boundary layer resulting in a significantly
higher stall speed.

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Adjustments to operational speed should be made in accordance with the
recommendations of the aircraft manufacturer or aircraft operator when taking off and
landing in heavy rain.

Airframe Aging
Over a period of years, the condition of the airframe will deteriorate due to small scratches,
minor damage, repairs and general accumulation of dirt and grease.
The overall effect of this will be to increase the drag of the aircraft (mainly skin friction drag)
with a consequent increase in fuel consumption. The cost of operating the aircraft will
therefore increase with the age of the airframe. The normal deterioration of the airframe is
allowed for in the performance charts of the aeroplane.

Figure 1.71 Effect of ice contamination on the leading edge

3. THEORY OF FLIGHT

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LIFT, WEIGHT, THRUST AND DRAG

Lift is the upward force created by the wing, weight is the pull of gravity on the airplane’s
mass, thrust is the force created by the airplane’s propeller or turbine engine, and drag is the
friction caused by the air flowing around the airplane. All four of these forces are measured
in pounds.
Any time the forces are not in balance, something about the airplane’s condition is changing.
The possibilities are as follows:
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An aircraft in flight is acted upon by four forces:
1. Gravity or weight—the force that pulls the aircraft toward the earth. Weight is the
force of gravity acting downward upon everything that goes into the aircraft, such as
the aircraft itself, crew, fuel, and cargo.
2. Lift—the force that pushes the aircraft upward. Lift acts vertically and counteracts the
effects of weight.
3. Thrust—the force that moves the aircraft forward. Thrust is the forward force
produced by the power plant that overcomes the force of drag.
4. Drag—the force that exerts a braking action to hold the aircraft back. Drag is a
backward deterrent force and is caused by the disruption of the airflow by the wings,
fuselage, and protruding objects.

1. Weight, Center of Gravity and Lift

Gravity is the pulling force that tends to draw all bodies toward the center of the earth. The
center of gravity (CG) may be considered as a point at which all the weight of the aircraft is
concentrated. If the aircraft were supported at its exact CG, it would balance in any attitude.
Note that the CG is of major importance in an aircraft, for its position has a great bearing
upon stability.

The location of the CG is determined by the general design of each particular aircraft. The
designers determine how far the center of pressure (CP) will travel. They then fix the CG
forward of the center of pressure for the corresponding flight speed in order to provide an
adequate restoring moment to retain flight equilibrium.

Weight has a definite relationship to lift. This relationship is simple, but important in
understanding the aerodynamics of flying.
Lift is the upward force on the wing acting perpendicular to the relative wind. Lift is required
to counteract the aircraft’s weight (which is caused by the force of gravity acting on the mass
of the aircraft).
This weight (gravity) force acts downward through the airplane’s CG. In stabilized level
flight, when the lift force is equal to the weight force, the aircraft is in a state of equilibrium
and neither gains nor loses altitude. If lift becomes less than weight, the aircraft loses altitude.
When lift is greater than weight, the aircraft gains altitude.

2. Lift

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The pilot can control lift. Any time the control yoke or stick is moved fore or aft, the AOA is
changed. As the AOA increases, lift increases (all other factors being equal). When the
aircraft reaches the maximum AOA, lift begins to diminish rapidly.

This is the stalling AOA, known as Cl-max critical AOA. Examine Figure 2-15 in Sub-
Module 2 and note how the Cl increases until the critical AOA is reached, then decreases
rapidly with any further increase in the AOA.

Before proceeding further with the topic of lift and how it can be controlled, velocity must be
interjected. The shape of the wing (or rotor) cannot be effective unless it continually keeps
“attacking” new air. If an aircraft is to keep flying, the lift-producing airfoil must keep
moving. In a helicopter or gyro-plane this is accomplished by the rotation of the rotor blades.
For other types of aircraft such as airplanes, weight shift control, or gliders, air must be
moving across the lifting surface. This is accomplished by the forward speed of the aircraft.
Lift is proportional
to the square of the aircraft’s velocity. For example, an airplane traveling at 200 knots has
four times the lift as the same airplane traveling at 100 knots, if the AOA and other factors
remain constant.

An aircraft cannot not continue to travel in level flight at a constant altitude and maintain the
same AOA if the velocity is increased. The lift would increase and the aircraft would climb
as a result of the increased lift force. Therefore, to maintain the lift and weight forces in
balance, and to keep the aircraft straight and level (not accelerating upward) in a state of
equilibrium, as velocity is increased, lift must be decreased. This is normally accomplished
by reducing the AOA by lowering the nose.
Conversely, as the aircraft is slowed, the decreasing velocity requires increasing the AOA to
maintain lift sufficient to maintain flight. There is, of course, a limit to how far the AOA can
be increased, if a stall is to be avoided.
All other factors being constant, for every AOA there is a corresponding airspeed required to
maintain altitude in steady, un-accelerated flight (true only if maintaining “level flight”).
Since an airfoil always stalls at the same AOA, when the weight of the aircraft is increased,
lift must also be increased. The only method of increasing lift is by increasing velocity if the
AOA is held constant just short of the “critical,” or stalling, AOA.

Lift and drag also vary directly with the density of the air. Density is affected by several
factors:

239
pressure, altitude, temperature, and humidity. At an altitude of 18,000 feet, the density of the
air has one-half the density of air at sea level.
In order to maintain its lift at a higher altitude, an aircraft must fly at a greater true airspeed
for any given AOA. Warm (Hot) air is less dense than cool air, and moist air is less dense
than dry air. Thus, on a hot humid day, an aircraft must be flown at a greater true airspeed for
any given AOA than on a cool, dry day.

If the density factor is decreased and the total lift must equal the total weight to remain in
flight, it follows that one of the other factors must be increased. The factor usually increased
is the airspeed or the AOA, because these are controlled directly by the pilot.

Lift varies directly with the wing area, provided there is no change in the wing’s planform. If
the wings have the same proportion and airfoil sections, a wing with a planform area of 200
square feet lifts twice as much at the same AOA as a wing with an area of 100 square feet.

Two major aerodynamic factors from the pilot’s viewpoint are lift and velocity because they
can be controlled readily and accurately. Of course, the pilot can also control density by
adjusting the altitude and can control wing area if the aircraft happens to have flaps of the
type that enlarge wing area.
However, for most situations, the pilot controls lift and velocity to manoeuvre an aircraft. For
instance, in straight-and-level flight, cruising along at a constant altitude, altitude is
maintained by adjusting lift to match the aircraft’s velocity or cruise airspeed, while
maintaining a state of equilibrium in which lift equals weight.

In an approach to landing, when the pilot wishes to land as slowly as practical, it is necessary
to increase lift to near maximum to maintain lift equal to the weight of the aircraft.

3. Thrust and Drag

Thrust has a definite relationship with drag. These relationships are quite simple, but very
important in understanding the aerodynamics of flying.

Wing area is measured in square feet and includes the part blanked out by the fuselage. Wing
area is adequately described as the area of the shadow cast by the wing at high noon. Tests
show that lift and drag forces acting on a wing are roughly proportional to the wing area. This
means that if the wing area is doubled, all other variables remaining the same, the lift and
drag created by the wing is doubled. If the area is tripled, lift and drag are tripled.

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Drag must be overcome for the aircraft to move, and movement is essential to obtain lift. To
overcome drag and move the aircraft forward, another force is essential. This force is thrust.
Thrust is derived from jet propulsion or from a propeller and engine combination. Jet
propulsion theory is based on Newton’s third law of motion. The turbine engine causes a
mass of air to be moved backward at high velocity causing a reaction that moves the aircraft
forward.

In a propeller/engine combination, the propeller is actually two or more revolving airfoils

mounted on a horizontal shaft. The motion of the blades through the air produces lift similar
to the lift on the wing, but acts in a horizontal direction, pulling the aircraft forward.

Before the aircraft begins to move, thrust must be exerted. The aircraft continues to move and
gain speed until thrust and drag are equal. In order to maintain a steady speed, thrust and drag
must remain equal, just as lift and weight must be equal for steady, horizontal flight. If the
revolutions per minute (rpm) of the engine is reduced, the thrust is lessened, and the aircraft
slows down.
As long as the thrust is less than the drag, the aircraft travels more and more slowly until its
speed is insufficient to support it in the air. Likewise, if the rpm of the engine is increased,
thrust becomes greater than drag, and the speed of the aircraft increases. As long as the thrust
continues to be greater than the drag, the aircraft continues to accelerate. When drag equals
thrust, the aircraft flies at a steady speed.

It is worth repeating that when lift balances weight and thrust balances drag, the aircraft is in
level flight neither accelerating or slowing down.
In a straight and level flight, the following conditions will be satisfied if.
1. Algebraic sum of forces acting horizontally equal to zero
2. Algebraic sum of forces acting vertically equal to zero
3. It follows that L = W and T = D.
4. Glide
Glide - Glide is that condition of flight in which the aircraft is losing height without power at
a constant speed maintaining lateral level and direction.

Gliding Angle - Gliding angle is the angle between earth’s horizon and the path of the
aircraft.

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There are three forces acting on an aircraft in a glide are
1. Weight - Weight acting vertically down wards.
2. Lift - Lift acting at right angles to the glide path.
3. Drag - Drag acting backwards along the glide path.

Glide Ratio
The glide ratio of an airplane is the distance the airplane will, with power off, travel forward
in
relation to the altitude it loses. For instance, if an airplane travels 10 000 feet forward while
descending 1 000 feet, its glide ratio is said to be 10 to 1. OR Simply as

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Glide Ratio = Horizontal Distance divided by the Change in Altitude

The glide ratio is affected by all four fundamental forces that act on an airplane (weight, lift,
drag, and thrust). If all factors affecting the airplane are constant, the glide ratio will be
constant.
Although the effect of wind will not be covered in this section, it is a very prominent force
acting on the gliding distance of the airplane in relationship to its movement over the ground.

With a tailwind, the airplane will glide farther because of the higher groundspeed.
Conversely, with a headwind the airplane will not glide as far because of the slower
groundspeed.
Variations in weight do not affect the glide angle provided the pilot uses the correct airspeed.
Since it is the lift over drag (L/D) ratio that determines the distance the airplane can glide,
weight will not affect the distance.
The glide ratio is based only on the relationship of the aerodynamic forces acting on the
airplane.

The only effect weight has is to vary the time the airplane will glide. The heavier the airplane
the higher the airspeed must be to obtain the same glide ratio.
For example, if two airplanes having the same L/D ratio, but different weights, start a glide
from the same altitude, the heavier airplane gliding at a higher airspeed will arrive at the
same touchdown point in a shorter time. Both airplanes will cover the same distance, only the
lighter airplane will take a longer time.

Under various flight conditions, the drag factor may change through the operation of the
landing gear and/or flaps. When the landing gear or the flaps are extended, drag increases and
the airspeed will decrease unless the pitch attitude is lowered. As the pitch is lowered, the
glide path steepens and reduces the distance travelled. With the power off, a wind milling
propeller also creates considerable drag, thereby retarding the airplane’s forward movement.

Wind-milling Propeller - A propeller that is rotated by air flowing over the blades rather than
powered by the engine. work. The product of a force times the distance the force is moved.

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The best speed for the glide is one at which the airplane will travel the greatest forward
distance for a given loss of altitude in still air. This best glide speed corresponds to an angle
of attack resulting in the least drag on the airplane and giving the best lift-to-drag ratio
(L/Dmax). (Figure 3-1)

Figure 3-1. L/DMAX.

Any change in the gliding airspeed will result in a proportionate change in glide ratio. Any
speed, other than the best glide speed, results in more drag. Therefore, as the glide airspeed is
reduced or increased from the optimum or best glide speed, the glide ratio is also changed.
When descending at a speed below the best glide speed, induced drag increases. When
descending at a speed above best glide speed, parasite drag increases. In either case, the rate
of descent will increase. (Figure 3-2)

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Figure 3-2. Best glide speed provides the greatest forward distance for a given loss of altitude

The pilot must never attempt to “stretch” a glide by applying back-elevator pressure and
reducing the airspeed below the airplane’s recommended best glide speed. Attempts to stretch
a glide will invariably result in an increase in the rate and angle of descent and may
precipitate an inadvertent stall.

5. Polar Curve
A polar curve is a graph which contrasts the sink rate of an aircraft with its horizontal speed.
It is used mainly to illustrate performance of a glider.

Knowing the best speed to fly is important in exploiting the performance of a glider. Two of
the key measures of a glider’s performance are its minimum sink rate and its best glide ratio,
also known as the best glide angle. These occur at different speeds.
Knowing these speeds is important for efficient cross country flying. In still air the polar
curve shows that flying at the minimum sink speed enables the pilot
to stay airborne for as long as possible and to climb as quickly as possible. But at this speed,
the glider will not travel as far as if it flew at the speed for the best glide. When in sinking air,
the polar curve shows that best speed to fly depends on the rate that the air is descending. The
optimal speed to fly for best cross country speed may often be considerably in excess of the
speed for the best glide angle to get out of the sinking air as quickly as possible.

By measuring the rate of sink at various air-speeds a set of data can be accumulated and
plotted on a graph. The points can be connected by a line known as the polar curve. Each type
of glider has a unique polar curve. The curve can be significantly degraded with debris such
as bugs, dirt, and rain on the wing. Published polar curves will often be shown for a clean

245
wing in addition to a dirty wing with bug splats represented by small pieces of tape applied to
the leading edge of the wing.

The origin for a polar curve is where the air-speed is zero and the sink rate is zero. In Figure
3-3 a line has been drawn from the origin to the point with minimum sink. The slope of the
line from the origin gives the glide angle, because it is the ratio of the distance along the
airspeed axis to the distance along the sink rate axis.

Figure 3-3. Polar curve showing glide angle for minimum sink.

A whole series of lines could be drawn from the origin to each of the data points, each line
showing the glide angle for that speed. However, the best glide angle is the line with the least
slope. In Figure 3-4, the line has been drawn from the origin to the point representing the best
glide ratio. The airspeed and sink rate at the best glide ratio can be read off the graph. Note
that the best glide ratio is shallower than the glide ratio for minimum sink. All the other lines
from the origin to the various data points would be steeper than the line of the best glide
angle. Consequently, the line for the best glide angle will only just graze the polar curve, e.g.
it is a tangent.

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 Figure 3-4. Polar curve showing glide angle for best glide.

6. Aerodynamic Forces in Flight Maneuvers

Aerodynamic Forces in Turns
If an aircraft were viewed in straight-and-level flight from the front (Figure 3-5), and if the
forces acting on the aircraft could be seen, lift and weight would be apparent: two forces. If
the aircraft were in a bank it would be apparent that lift did not act directly opposite to the
weight, rather it now acts in the direction of the bank. A basic truth about turns: when the
aircraft banks, lift acts inward toward the center of the turn, as well as upward.

Figure 3-5. Forces during normal coordinated turns.

Newton’s First Law of Motion, the Law of Inertia, states that “an object at rest or moving in a
straight line remains at rest or continues to move in a straight line until acted on by some
other force. “
An aircraft, like any moving object, requires a sideward force to make it turn. In a normal
turn, this force is supplied by banking the aircraft so that lift is exerted inward, as well as
upward.

The force of lift during a turn is separated into two components at right angles to each other.
One component, which acts vertically and opposite to the weight (gravity), is called the
“vertical component of lift.”

The other, which acts horizontally toward the center of the turn, is called the “horizontal
component of lift,” or centripetal force. The horizontal component of lift is the force that
pulls the aircraft from a straight flightpath to make it turn.

Centripetal Force – The force that is necessary to keep an object moving in a curve/circular
path and that force is directed inward toward the center.

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Centrifugal force is the “equal and opposite reaction” of the aircraft to the change in direction
and acts equal and opposite to the horizontal component of lift.
This explains why, in a correctly executed turn, the force that turns the aircraft is not supplied
by the rudder. The rudder is used to correct any deviation between the straight track of the
nose and tail of the aircraft. A good turn is one in which the nose and tail of the aircraft track
along the same path. If no rudder is used in a turn, the nose of the aircraft yaws to the outside
of the turn. The rudder is used to bring the nose back in line with the relative wind.

A good turn is one in which the nose and tail of the aircraft track along the same path. If no
rudder is used in a turn, the nose of the aircraft yaws to the outside of the turn. The rudder is
used rolling into the turn to bring the nose back in line with the relative wind. Once in the
turn, the rudder should not be needed.

An aircraft is not steered like a boat or an automobile. In order for an aircraft to turn, it must
be banked. If it is not banked, there is no force available to cause it to deviate from a straight
flightpath. Conversely, when an aircraft is banked, it turns, provided it is not slipping to the
inside of the turn. Good directional control is based on the fact that the aircraft attempts to
turn whenever it is banked. Pilots should keep this fact in mind when attempting to hold the
aircraft
in straight-and-level flight.

Simply banking the aircraft into a turn produces no change in the total amount of lift
developed. Since, the lift during the bank is divided into vertical and horizontal components,
the amount of lift opposing gravity and supporting the aircraft’s weight is reduced.
Consequently, the aircraft loses altitude unless additional lift is created. This is done by
increasing the AOA until the vertical component of lift is again equal to the weight. Since the
vertical component of lift decreases as the bank angle increases, the AOA must be
progressively increased to produce sufficient vertical lift to support the aircraft’s weight.
An important fact for pilots to remember when making constant altitude turns is that the
vertical component of lift must be equal to the weight to maintain altitude.

Bank angle -

At a given airspeed, the rate at which an aircraft turns depends upon the magnitude of the
horizontal component of lift. It is found that the horizontal component of lift is proportional

248
to the angle of bank—that is, it increases or decreases respectively as the angle of bank
increases or decreases.
As the angle of bank is increased, the horizontal component of lift increases, thereby
increasing the rate of turn (ROT). Consequently, at any given airspeed, the ROT can be
controlled by adjusting the angle of bank.

To provide a vertical component of lift sufficient to hold altitude in a level turn, an increase
in the AOA is required. Since the drag of the airfoil is directly proportional to its AOA,
induced drag increases as the lift is increased.
This, in turn, causes a loss of airspeed in proportion to the angle of bank. A small angle of
bank results in a small reduction in airspeed while a large angle of bank results in a large
reduction in airspeed. Additional thrust (power) must be applied to prevent a reduction in
airspeed in level turns. The required amount of additional thrust is proportional to the angle
of bank.

To compensate for added lift, which would result if the airspeed were increased during a turn,
the AOA must be decreased, or the angle of bank increased, if a constant altitude is to be
maintained.
If the angle of bank is held constant and the AOA decreased, the ROT decreases. In order to
maintain a constant ROT as the airspeed is increased, the AOA must remain constant and the
angle of bank increased.

An increase in airspeed results in an increase of the turn radius, and centrifugal force is
directly
proportional to the radius of the turn. In a correctly executed turn, the horizontal component
of lift must be exactly equal and opposite to the centrifugal force. As the airspeed is increased
in a constant-rate level turn, the radius of the turn increases. This increase in the radius of
turn causes an increase in the centrifugal force, which must be balanced by an increase in the
horizontal component of lift, which can only be increased by increasing the angle of bank.

In a slipping turn (moves of an aircraft inward toward the turn), the aircraft is not turning at
the rate appropriate to the bank being used, since the aircraft is yawed toward the outside of
the turning flightpath. The aircraft is banked too much for the ROT, so the horizontal lift
component is greater than the centrifugal force. (Figure 3-6) Equilibrium between the
horizontal lift component and centrifugal force is re-established by either decreasing the
bank, increasing the ROT, or a combination of the two changes.

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 Figure 3-6. Normal, slipping, and skidding turns.

A skidding turn (move of an aircraft out from the turn) results from an excess of centrifugal
force over the horizontal lift component, pulling the aircraft toward the outside of the turn.
The ROT is too great for the angle of bank. Correction of a skidding turn thus involves a
reduction in the ROT, an increase in bank, or a combination of the two changes. To maintain
a given ROT, the angle of bank must be varied with the airspeed. This becomes particularly
important in high-speed aircraft. For instance, at 400 miles per hour (mph), an aircraft must
be banked approximately 44° to execute a standard-rate turn (3° per second). At this angle of
bank, only about 79 percent of the lift of the aircraft
comprises the vertical component of the lift. This causes a loss of altitude unless the AOA is
increased sufficiently to compensate for the loss of vertical lift.

Forces in Climbs
For all practical purposes, the wing’s lift in a steady state normal climb is the same as it is in
a steady level flight at the same airspeed. Although the aircraft’s flight path changed when
the climb was established, the AOA of the wing with respect to the inclined flight path
reverts to practically the same values, as does the lift.

There is an initial momentary change as shown in Figure 5-36. During the transition from
straight-and-level flight to a climb, a change in lift occurs when back elevator pressure is first
applied.

Raising the aircraft’s nose increases the AOA and momentarily increases the lift. Lift at this
moment is now greater than weight and starts the aircraft climbing. After the flight path is
stabilized on the upward incline, the AOA and lift again revert to about the level flight
values.

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 Figure 5-36. Changes in lift during climb entry.

If the climb is entered with no change in power setting, the airspeed gradually diminishes
because the thrust required to maintain a given airspeed in level flight is insufficient to
maintain the same airspeed in a climb. When the flight path is inclined upward, a component
of the aircraft’s weight acts in the same direction as, and parallel to, the total drag of the
aircraft, thereby increasing the total effective drag.

Consequently, the total effective drag is greater than the power, and the airspeed decreases.
The reduction in airspeed gradually results in a corresponding decrease in drag until the total
drag (including the component of weight acting in the same direction) equals the thrust.
[Figure 5-37] Due to momentum, the change in airspeed is gradual, varying considerably
with differences in aircraft size, weight, total drag, and other factors. Consequently, the total
effective drag is greater than the thrust, and the airspeed decreases.

Figure 5-37. Changes in speed during climb entry.

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Generally, the forces of thrust and drag, and lift and weight, again become balanced when the
airspeed stabilizes but at a value lower than in straight-and-level flight at the same power
setting. Since the aircraft’s weight is acting not only downward but rearward with drag while
in a climb, additional power is required to maintain the same airspeed as in level flight. The
amount of power depends on the angle of climb. When the climb is established steep enough
that there is insufficient power available, a slower speed results.

The thrust required for a stabilized climb equals drag plus a percentage of weight dependent
on the angle of climb. For example, a 10° climb would require thrust to equal drag plus 17
percent of weight. To climb straight up would require thrust to equal all of weight and drag.
Therefore, the angle of climb for climb performance is dependent on the amount of excess
thrust available to overcome a portion of weight.
Note that aircraft are able to sustain a climb due to excess thrust. When the excess thrust is
gone, the aircraft is no longer able to climb. At this point, the aircraft has reached its
“absolute ceiling.”

Forces in Descents
As in climbs, the forces that act on the aircraft go through definite changes when a descent is
entered from straight and-level flight. For the following example, the aircraft is descending at
the same power as used in straight-and level flight.

As forward pressure is applied to the control yoke to initiate the descent, the AOA is
decreased momentarily. Initially, the momentum of the aircraft causes the aircraft to briefly
continue along the same flight path. For this instant, the AOA decreases causing the total lift
to decrease.

With weight now being greater than lift, the aircraft begins to descend. At the same time, the
flight path goes from level to a descending flight path. Do not confuse a reduction in lift with
the inability to generate sufficient lift to maintain level flight. The flight path is being
manipulated with available thrust in reserve and with the elevator.

To descend at the same airspeed as used in straight-and level flight, the power must be
reduced as the descent is entered. Entering the descent, the component of weight acting
forward along the flight path increases as the angle of descent increases and, conversely,
when levelling off, the component of weight acting along the flight path decreases as the
angle of descent decreases.

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7. Stalls
An aircraft stall results from a rapid decrease in lift caused by the separation of airflow from
the wing’s surface brought on by exceeding the critical AOA. A stall can occur at any pitch
attitude or airspeed.
Stalling is a potentially hazardous manoeuvre involving loss of height and loss of control. A
pilot must be able to clearly and unmistakably identify an impending stall so that it can be
prevented. Different types of aircraft exhibit various stall characteristics, some less desirable
than others. Airworthiness authorities specify minimum stall qualities that an aircraft must
possess.

Stalls are one of the most misunderstood areas of aerodynamics because pilots often believe
an airfoil stops producing lift when it stalls. In a stall, the wing does not totally stop
producing lift. Rather, it cannot generate adequate lift to sustain level flight.
Since the CL increases with an increase in AOA, at some point the C l peaks and then begins
to drop off. This peak is called the C L-max. The amount of lift the wing produces drops
dramatically after exceeding the Cl-max or critical AOA, but as stated above, it does not
completely stop producing lift.

In most straight-wing aircraft, the wing is designed to stall the wing root first. The wing root
reaches its critical AOA first making the stall progress outward toward the wingtip. By
having the wing root stall first, aileron effectiveness is maintained at the wingtips,
maintaining controllability of the aircraft.
Various design methods are used to achieve the stalling of the wing root first. In one design,
the wing is “twisted” to a higher AOA at the wing root.
Installing stall strips on the first 20–25 percent of the wing’s leading edge is another method
to introduce a stall prematurely.

The wing never completely stops producing lift in a stalled condition. If it did, the aircraft
would fall to the Earth. Most training aircraft are designed for the nose of the aircraft to drop
during a stall, reducing the AOA and “unstalling” the wing.

The “nose-down” tendency is due to the CL being behind of the CG. The CG range is very
important when it comes to stall recovery characteristics. If an aircraft is allowed to be
operated outside of the CG, the pilot may have difficulty recovering from a stall.

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The most critical CG violation would occur when operating with a CG which exceeds the
rear limit. In this situation, a pilot may not be able to generate sufficient force with the
elevator to counteract the excess weight aft of the CG. Without the ability to decrease the
AOA, the aircraft continues in a stalled condition until it contacts the ground.

The stalling speed of a particular aircraft is not a fixed value for all flight situations, but a
given
aircraft always stalls at the same AOA regardless of airspeed, weight, load factor, or density
altitude. Each aircraft has a particular AOA where the airflow separates from the upper
surface of the wing and the stall occurs. This critical AOA varies from 16° to 20° depending
on the aircraft’s design. But each aircraft has only one specific AOA where the stall occurs.

There are three flight situations in which the critical AOA can be exceeded: low speed, high
speed, and turning. The aircraft can be stalled in straight-andlevel flight by flying too slowly.
As the airspeed decreases, the AOA must be increased to retain the lift required for
maintaining altitude. The lower the airspeed becomes, the more the AOA must be increased.
Eventually, an AOA is reached which results in the wing not producing enough lift to support
the aircraft which starts settling. If the airspeed is reduced further, the aircraft stalls, since the
AOA has exceeded the critical angle and the airflow over the wing is disrupted.

Low speed is not necessary to produce a stall. The wing can be brought into an excessive
AOA at any speed. For example, an aircraft is in a dive with an airspeed of 100 knots when
the pilot pulls back sharply on the elevator control. (Figure 3-7)

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 Figure 3-7. Forces exerted when pulling out of a dive.

Gravity and centrifugal force prevent an immediate alteration of the flightpath, but the
aircraft’s AOA changes abruptly from quite low to very high. Since the flightpath of the
aircraft in relation to the oncoming air determines the direction of the relative wind, the AOA
is suddenly increased, and the aircraft would reach the stalling angle at a speed much greater
than the normal stall speed.

The stalling speed of an aircraft is also higher in a level turn than in straight-and-level flight.
(Figure 3-8) Centrifugal force is added to the aircraft’s weight and the wing must produce
sufficient additional lift to counterbalance the load imposed by the combination of centrifugal
force and weight. In a turn, the necessary additional lift is acquired by applying back pressure
to the elevator control. This increases the wing’s AOA, and results in increased lift. The AOA
must increase as the bank angle increases to counteract the increasing load caused by
centrifugal force. If at any time during a turn the AOA becomes excessive, the aircraft stalls.

Figure 3-8. Increase in stall speed and load factor when banking.

At this point, the action of the aircraft during a stall should be examined. To balance the
aircraft aerodynamically, the CL is normally located aft of the CG. Although this makes the
aircraft inherently nose-heavy, downwash on the horizontal stabilizer counteracts this
condition. At the point of stall, when the upward force of the wing’s lift and the downward
tail force cease, an unbalanced condition exists. This allows the aircraft to pitch down
abruptly, rotating about its CG. During this nose-down attitude, the AOA decreases and the

255
airspeed again increases. The smooth flow of air over the wing begins again, lift returns, and
the aircraft is again flying. Considerable altitude may be lost before this cycle is complete.
As stated in Sub-Module 02, airfoil shape and degradation of that shape must also be
considered in a discussion of stalls. Combined with the increased drag and reduced lift
generation due to the accumulation of ice, snow or frost on the aircraft lifting surfaces, a stall
may occur at a lower angle of attack than normal or at a higher speed.

Airfoil shape and degradation of that shape must also be considered in a discussion of stalls.
For example, if ice, snow, and frost are allowed to accumulate on the surface of an aircraft,
the smooth airflow over the wing is disrupted. This causes the boundary layer to separate at
an AOA lower than that of the critical angle. Lift is greatly reduced, altering expected aircraft
performance. If ice is allowed to accumulate on the aircraft during flight, the weight of the
aircraft is increased while the ability to generate lift is decreased. [Figure 5-40] As little as
0.8 millimeter of ice on the upper wing surface increases drag and reduces aircraft lift by 25
percent.

Figure 5-40. Inflight ice formation.

Pilots can encounter icing in any season, anywhere in the country, at altitudes of up to 18,000
feet and sometimes higher. Small aircraft, including commuter planes, are most vulnerable
because they fly at lower altitudes where ice is more prevalent. They also lack mechanisms
common on jet aircraft that prevent ice build-up by heating the front edges of wings.

Icing can occur in clouds any time the temperature drops below freezing and super-cooled
droplets build up on an aircraft and freeze. (Super-cooled droplets are still liquid even though
the temperature is below 32 °Fahrenheit (F), or 0 °Celsius (C).

Cause of the Stall

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The CL of an aerofoil increases with angle of attack up to a maximum (C LMAX). Any further
increase above this stalling angle, or critical angle of attack, will make it impossible for the
airflow to smoothly follow the upper wing contour, and the flow will separate from the
surface, causing CL to decrease and drag to increase rapidly. Since the CLMAX of an
aerofoil corresponds to the minimum steady flight speed (the 1g stall speed), it is an
important point of reference.

A stall is caused by airflow separation. Separation can occur when either the boundary layer
has insufficient kinetic energy or the adverse pressure gradient becomes too great.

Figure 7.1 Figure 7.1

Figure 7.1 shows that at low angles of attack virtually no flow separation occurs before the
trailing edge, the flow being attached over the rear part of the surface in the form of a
turbulent boundary layer.

As angle of attack increases, the adverse pressure gradient increases, reducing the kinetic
energy, and the boundary layer will begin to separate from the surface at the trailing edge.

257
Further increase in angle of attack makes the separation point move forward and the wing
area that generates a pressure differential becomes smaller. At angles of attack higher than
approximately 16°, the extremely steep adverse pressure gradient will have caused so much
separation that insufficient lift is generated to balance the aircraft weight.

It is important to remember that the angle of attack is the angle between the chord line and
the relative airflow. Therefore, if the angle of attack is increased up to or beyond the critical
angle, an aeroplane can be stalled at any airspeed or flight attitude.

Figure 7.2: The Lift Curve

Figure 7.2 shows that as the angle of attack increases from the zero lift value, the curve is
linear over a considerable range. As the effects of separation begin to be felt, the slope of the
curve begins to fall off. Eventually, lift reaches a maximum and begins to decrease. The angle
at which it does so is called the stalling angle or critical angle of attack, and the
corresponding value of lift coefficient is CLMAX. A typical stalling angle is about 16°

Stall Recovery

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To recover from a stall or prevent a full stall, the angle of attack must be decreased to
reduce the adverse pressure gradient.
This may consist of merely releasing back pressure, or it may be necessary to smoothly move
the pitch control forward, depending on the aircraft design and severity of the stall.
(Excessive forward movement of the pitch control, however, may impose a negative load on
the wing and delay recovery). For most modern jet transport aircraft, it is usually sufficient to
lower the nose to the horizon or just below while applying maximum authorized power to
minimize height loss.

On straight wing aircraft the rudder should be used to prevent wing drop during stall and
recovery. On swept wing aircraft it is recommended that the ailerons be used to prevent wing
drop, with a small amount of smoothly applied co-ordinated rudder. (The rudder on modern
high speed jet transport aircraft is very powerful, and careless use can give too much roll,
leading to pilot induced oscillation - PIO).

Allow airspeed to increase and recover lost altitude with moderate back pressure on the pitch
control. Pulling too hard could trigger a secondary stall, or worse, could exceed the limit load
factor and damage the aircraft structure. As angle of attack reduces below the critical angle,
the adverse pressure gradient will decrease, airflow will re-attach, and lift and drag will return
to their normal values.

Aircraft Behaviour Close to the Stall

Stall characteristics vary with different types of aircraft. However, for modern aircraft during
most normal manoeuvres, the onset of stall is gradual. The first indications of a stall may be
provided by any or all of the following:
1. Unresponsive flight controls,
2. A stall warning or stall prevention device, or
3. Aerodynamic buffet.

Use of Flight Controls Close to the Stall

At low speeds normally associated with stalling, dynamic pressure is at a very low value and
greater control deflection will be required to achieve the same response; also, the flying
controls will feel unresponsive or “mushy”. If an accidental stall does occur, it is vitally
important that the stall and recovery should occur without too much wing drop. Moving a
control surface modifies the chord line and, hence, the angle of attack. An aircraft being
flown close to the stall angle may have one wing that produces slightly less lift than the other;

259
that wing will tend to drop. Trying to lift a dropping wing with aileron will increase its angle
of attack, Figure 7.3, and may cause the wing to stall completely, resulting in that wing
dropping at an increased rate. At speeds close to the stall, ailerons must be used with caution.
On straight wing aircraft the rudder should be used to yaw the aircraft just enough to increase
the speed of a dropping wing to maintain a wing’s level attitude. Swept wing aircraft basic
stall requirements are designed to enable the ailerons to be used successfully up to” stall
recognition” (Page 148 and Page 154), but small amounts of rudder can be used if smoothly
applied and co-ordinated with the ailerons.

Figure 7.3

Stall Recognition
The aeroplane is considered stalled when the behaviour of the aeroplane gives the pilot a
clear and distinctive indication of an acceptable nature that the aeroplane is stalled.
Acceptable indications of a stall, occurring either individually or in combination, are:
1. A nose-down pitch that cannot be readily arrested;
2. Buffeting, of a magnitude and severity that is a strong and effective deterrent to
further speed reduction; or
3. The pitch control reaches the aft stop and no further increase in pitch attitude occurs
when the control is held full aft for a short time before recovery is initiated.

Stall Speed
Stall speed is simply the minimum speed needed for an airplane to produce lift. If an airplane
drops below its specified stall speed, it will no longer produce lift. Increase in stall speed
means the safe speed operate range is reduced.

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Stall speeds vary depending on many factors, some of which include the airplane's weight,
dimensions, altitude and even the weather dimensions.

It is necessary to fly at slow speeds (high angles of attack) during take-off and landing in
order to keep the required runway lengths to a reasonable minimum. There must be an
adequate safety margin between the minimum speed allowed for normal operations and the
stall speed. Prototype aircraft are stalled and stall speeds established for inclusion in the
Flight Manual during the flight testing that takes place before type certification.

Prototype aircraft are stalled and stall speeds established for inclusion in the Flight Manual
during the flight testing that takes place before type certification.

“Small” aircraft (CS-23) use VS0 and VS1 on which to base the stall speed.
For “Large” aircraft (CS-25) a reference stall speed, VSR, is used.
• The reference stall speed (VSR) is a calibrated airspeed defined by the aircraft manufacturer.
VSR may not be less than a 1g stall speed. VSR is expressed as:

Where:
V CLMAX = Calibrated airspeed obtained when the load factor corrected lift coefficient is first a
maximum during the manoeuvre prescribed in the starred bullet point on page 149.
In addition, when the manoeuvre is limited by a device that abruptly pushes the nose down at
a selected angle of attack (e.g. a stick pusher), V CLMAX may not be less than the speed existing
at the instant the device operates.
nZW = Load factor normal to the flight path at VCLMAX
Note: On aircraft without a stick pusher, V SR can be considered to be the same as the 1g stall
speed (VS1g). But it is impossible to fly at speeds less than that at which the stick pusher
activates, so for aircraft fitted with a stick pusher, V SR will be 2 knots or 2% greater than the
speed at which the stick pusher activates. (See Figure 7.4 and Figure 7.5 for an illustration of
the designations of stall speed and stall warning).

From the “sample” aeroplane on Page 76, the speed at CLMAX was 150 kt. This can be
considered
as that aeroplane’s VCLMAX . At 1g, VSR would therefore be 150 kt.

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•V
CLMAX is determined with:
• Zero thrust at the stall speed.
• Propeller pitch controls (if applicable) in the take-off position.
• The aeroplane in other respects (such as flaps and landing gear) in the condition existing
in the test or performance standard in which VSR is being used.
• The weight used when VSR is being used as a factor to determine compliance with a
required performance standard.
• The centre of gravity position that results in the highest value of reference stall speed;
and
• The aeroplane trimmed for straight flight at a speed selected by the manufacturer, but
not less than 1.13V
SR and not greater than 1.3VSR.
• *Starting from the stabilized trim condition, apply the longitudinal control to decelerate the
aeroplane so that the speed reduction does not exceed one knot per second.
• In addition to the requirements above, when a device that abruptly pushes the nose down
at a selected angle of attack (e.g. a stick pusher) is installed, the reference stall speed, VSR ,
may not be less than 2 knots or 2%, whichever is the greater, above the speed at which the
device operates.
V
SR will vary with each of the above conditions. Additional factors which affect VSR are load
factor, thrust in excess of zero and wing contamination. All these effects will be detailed
later.

8. Flight Envelope and Structural Limitations

A flight envelope, performance envelope or service envelope refers to capabilities and
limitations of a particular aircraft design package. In particular, performance airspeeds and
load factors at different altitudes are considered. It is important to maintain flight "within the
envelope" or a structural failure could occur.

Load Factors

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In aerodynamics, load factor is the ratio of the maximum load an aircraft can sustain to the
gross weight of the aircraft. The load factor is measured in Gs (acceleration of gravity), a unit
of force equal to the force exerted by gravity on a body at rest and indicates the force to
which a body is subjected when it is accelerated. Any force applied to an aircraft to deflect its
flight from a straight line produces a stress on its structure, and the amount of this force is the
load factor.

For example, a load factor of 3 means the total load on an aircraft’s structure is three times its
gross weight. Since load factors are expressed in terms of Gs, a load factor of 3 may be
spoken of as 3 Gs, or a load factor of 4 as 4 Gs.

If an aircraft is pulled up from a dive, subjecting the pilot to 3 Gs, he or she would be pressed
down into the seat with a force equal to three times his or her weight. Since modern aircraft
operate at significantly higher speeds than older aircraft, increasing the magnitude of the load
factor, this effect has become a primary consideration in the design of the structure of all
aircraft.
With the structural design of aircraft planned to withstand only a certain amount of overload,
a knowledge of load factors has become essential for all pilots.

Load factors are important for two reasons:

1. It is possible for a pilot to impose a dangerous overload on the aircraft structures.
2. An increased load factor increases the stalling speed and makes stalls possible at
seemingly safe flight speeds.

Load Factors in Aircraft Design

The answer to the question “How strong should an aircraft be?” is determined largely by the
use to which the aircraft is subjected. This is a difficult problem because the maximum
possible loads are much too high for use in efficient design. It is true that any pilot can make
a very hard landing or an extremely sharp pull up from a dive, which would result in
abnormal loads. However, such extremely abnormal loads must be dismissed somewhat if
aircraft are built that take off quickly, land slowly, and carry worthwhile payloads.

The problem of load factors in aircraft design becomes how to determine the highest load
factors that can be expected in normal operation under various operational situations. These
load factors are called “limit load factors.” For reasons of safety, it is required that the aircraft
be designed to withstand these load factors without any structural damage. Although

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certification requirements typically require the aircraft structure be capable of supporting one
and one-half times these limit load factors without failure, it is accepted that parts of the
aircraft may bend or twist under these loads and that some structural damage may occur.

This 1.5 load limit factor is called the “factor of safety” and provides, to some extent, for
loads higher than those expected under normal and reasonable operation. This strength
reserve is not something which pilots should will fully abuse; rather, it is there for protection
when encountering unexpected conditions.

The above considerations apply to all loading conditions, whether they be due to gusts,
maneuvers, or landings. The gust load factor requirements now in effect are substantially the
same as those that have been in existence for years. Hundreds of thousands of operational
hours have proven them adequate for safety. Since the pilot has little control over gust load
factors (except to reduce the aircraft’s speed when rough air is encountered), the gust loading
requirements are substantially the same for most general aviation type aircraft regardless of
their operational use. Generally, the gust load factors control the design of aircraft which are
intended for strictly non-acrobatic usage.

An entirely different situation exists in aircraft design with maneuvering load factors. It is
necessary to discuss this matter separately with respect to: (1) aircraft designed in accordance
with the category system (e.g., normal, utility, acrobatic); and (2) older designs built
according to requirements which did not provide for operational categories.

Aircraft designed under the category system are readily identified by a placard in the flight
deck, which states the operational category (or categories) in which the aircraft is certificated.
The maximum safe load factors (limit load factors) specified for aircraft in the various
categories are:

1
For aircraft with gross weight of more than 4,000 pounds, the limit load factor is reduced. To
the limit loads given above, a safety factor of 50 percent is added. Also note that certification
standards in various countries of manufacture may differ.
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There is an upward graduation in load factor with the increasing severity of maneuvers. The
category system provides for maximum utility of an aircraft. If normal operation alone is
intended, the required load factor (and consequently the weight of the aircraft) is less than if
the aircraft is to be employed in training or acrobatic maneuvers as they result in higher
maneuvering loads.

Aircraft that do not have the category placard are designs that were constructed under earlier
engineering requirements in which no operational restrictions were specifically given to the
pilots. For aircraft of this type (up to weights of about 4,000 pounds), the required strength is
comparable to present-day utility category aircraft, and the same types of operation are
permissible. For aircraft of this type over 4,000 pounds, the load factors decrease with
weight. These aircraft should be regarded as being comparable to the normal category aircraft
designed under the category system, and they should be operated accordingly.

Basic High-speed Aerodynamics

Compressibility
During the latter part of World War II, airplane design had advanced to the extent that a new
problem arose. High-performance airplanes such as the Lockheed Lightning could attain such
high speeds in a dive that, as they approached the speed of sound, the controls lost their
effectiveness and in some instances developed flutter and vibration that caused the airplane to
come apart in the air. There was thought to be an insurmountable sound barrier that prevented
airplanes from flying faster than the speed of sound. But on October 14, 1947, Chuck Yeager,
flying the Bell X-I, flew faster than sound and proved to the world that there was no such a
thing as a true sound barrier.

At this speed, the air flowing over the airplane's surfaces no longer acts as an incompressible
fluid, but it actually compresses and follows the laws of compressible flow.

Compressible and Incompressible Flow

When air flows at a subsonic speed, it acts as an incompressible fluid. Figure 1-39 shows the
way air flowing at a subsonic velocity acts as it flows through a converging duct. The mass of
air flowing through this duct remains constant at all locations. For the same mass of air to
pass through the restriction in the tube, it must speed up, and as its velocity increases, its
pressure decreases. As the air leaves the restriction and enters the diverging portion of the

265
duct, it slows down to its original velocity, and its pressure rises to its original value. The
density of this subsonic flow of air does not change.

Figure 1·39. As airflows through a converging duct at speeds below the speed ofsound,
its velocity increases and its pressure decreases. As it leaves the restriction and enters the
diverging portion of the duct, its velocity decreases and its pressure increases.

Converging duct. A duct. or passage. whose cross-sectional area decreases in the direction of
fluid flow.
Diverging duct. A duct, or passage. Whose cross-section al area increases in the direction of
fluid flow

Speed Ranges / Flight Speed Ranges

The speed of sound varies with temperature. Under standard temperature conditions of 15 °C,
the speed of sound at sea level is 661 knots. At 40,000 feet, where the temperature is –55 °C,
the speed of sound decreases to 574 knots. In high-speed flight and/ or high-altitude flight,
the measurement of speed is expressed in terms of a “Mach number”—the ratio of the true
airspeed of the aircraft to the speed of sound in the same atmospheric conditions.
An aircraft traveling at the speed of sound is traveling at Mach 1.0. Aircraft speed regimes
are defined approximately as follows:
Subsonic - Below Mach 0.75 - All airflow is below the speed of sound.
Transonic - Mach 0.75 to Mach 1.20 - Most of the airflow is subsonic, but in some areas, it is
supersonic.
Sonic - The speed of sound, which is known as Mach 1.
Supersonic - Mach 1.20 to Mach 5.00 - All of the airflow is faster than the speed of sound.
Hypersonic - Greater than Mach 5.00
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Subsonic flight. Flight at an airspeed in which all air flowing over the aircraft is moving at a
speed below the speed of sound.
Transonic flight. Flight at an airspeed in which some air flowing over the aircraft is moving
at a speed below the speed or sound, and other air is moving at a speed greater than the speed
or sound.
Supersonic flight. Flight at an airspeed in which all air flowing over the aircraft is moving at
a speed greater than the speed of sound.
Hypersonic speed. Speed of greater than Mach 5 (5 times the speed of sound).

While flights in the transonic and supersonic ranges are common occurrences for military
aircraft, civilian jet aircraft normally operate in a cruise speed range of Mach 0.7 to Mach
0.90.
The speed of an aircraft in which airflow over any part of the aircraft or structure under
consideration first reaches (but does not exceed) Mach 1.0 is termed “critical Mach number”
or “Mach Crit.”
Thus, critical Mach number is the boundary between subsonic and transonic flight and is
largely dependent on the wing and airfoil design. Critical Mach number is an important point
in transonic flight. When shock waves form on the aircraft, airflow separation followed by
buffet and aircraft control difficulties can occur. Shock waves, buffet, and airflow separation
take place above critical Mach number.

A jet aircraft typically is most efficient when cruising at or near its critical Mach number. At
speeds 5–10 percent above the critical Mach number, compressibility effects begin. Drag
begins to rise sharply. Associated with the “drag rise” are buffet, trim and stability changes,
and a decrease in control surface effectiveness. This is the point of “drag divergence.” (Figure
3-10)

267
 Figure 3-10. Critical Mach.

Subsonic Flight
In low-speed flight, air is considered to be incompressible, and acts in much the same way as
a liquid. It can undergo changes in pressure without any appreciable change in its density.
But in high-speed flight the air acts as a compressible fluid, and its density changes with
changes in its pressure and velocity.
An airplane passing through the air creates pressure disturbances that surround it. When the
airplane is flying at a speed below the speed of sound, these disturbances move out in all
directions and the air immediately ahead of the airplane is affected and its direction changes
before the air reaches the surface. This subsonic airflow pattern is shown in Figure 1-42.

Figure 1-42. Air deflection around air-foil ill flight

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At speeds greater than the speed of sound, the disturbances do not spread out ahead of the
airplane, and there is no change in flow direction ahead of the leading edge.

When the air flows through this same converging duct at a supersonic velocity, shown in
Figure 1-40, it behaves differently. It compresses and its density increases. Its velocity
decreases and its pressure increases. As it flows into the diverging portion of the duct, it
expands and its density decreases. Its velocity increases and its pressure decreases.

Figure 1-40. The flaw of supersonic air through a convergent-divergent duct

The Speed of Sound

The speed of sound is the speed at which small pressure disturbances are able to move
through the air. It is determined entirely by the temperature of the air, as indicated in the chart
in Figure 1-41.

Figure 1-41. The speed of sound in the air varies with the air temperature.

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High-speed flight is measured in terms of Mach number, which is the ratio of the speed of the
aircraft to the speed of sound. An airplane flying at a speed of Mach 1 at sea level is flying at
the speed of sound, which, according to Figure 1-41, is 661.7 knots. When it is flying at a
speed of Mach.75, it is flying at 75% of the speed of sound at the existing air temperature.

Speed of Sound - Sound is pressure waves which propagate spherically through the
atmosphere from their source. The speed of propagation varies ONLY with the temperature
of the air. The lower the temperature, the lower the speed of propagation. On a ‘standard’ day
at sea level the speed of sound is approximately 340 m/s (660 kt TAS).

Airplanes that fly at these speeds have Mach-meters in the cockpit that automatically
compensate airspeed for the air temperature and show the pilot the Mach number at which the
airplane is flying.

Mach number. A measurement of speed based on the ratio of the speed of the aircraft to the
speed of sound under the same atmospheric conditions. An airplane flying at Mach I is flying
at the speed or sound.

Subsonic
As the normal flight discuses in previous lessons

Transonic Flight
When an airplane is flying below the speed of sound in the transonic range, some of the air
flowing over the air-foil has accelerated until it is supersonic and a normal shock wave forms.
Air passing through this normal shock wave slows to a subsonic speed without changing its
direction.
The shock wave can cause the air that passes through it to be turbulent, and to separate from
the wing surface. Shock-induced separation can create serious drag and control problems.

Shock Wave - A narrow region, crossing the streamlines, through which there occur abrupt
increases in pressure, density, and temperature, and an abrupt decrease in velocity. The
normal component of velocity relative to the shock wave is supersonic upstream and subsonic
downstream.

270
 Figure 1-43. When an airplane is. flying in the transonic speed range, some air over the
surface of the wing is speeded up until it becomes supersonic. A normal shock wave forms
that slows the air behind it to a subsonic speed

Effect of Sweepback
One of the most common ways to prevent drag rise and control problems with an airplane
flying in the transonic range is to sweep the wings back. Only the component of the air that
flows across the wing surface perpendicular to the leading edge is involved in the production
of lift.
By sweeping the wing back at an angle, for example, 45°, when the airplane is flying at the
speed of sound (Mach l.0), the air flowing directly across the wing perpendicular to the
leading edge is moving only at a speed of Mach 0.7. See Figure 1-44.

Figure 1-44. By sweeping the wing back, the flight airspeed can be increase appreciably
before the component of the air flowing directly across the wing reaches the speed of sound.

Notice in Figure 1-44 that there is a component of the air that flows in a span-wise direction.
This airflow does not produce lift but it does cause problems. To minimize this span-wise

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flow, wing fences may be installed on the upper surface of the wing parallel to the line of
flight. See Figure 1- 21 on Page 20.

Angle of incidence. The acute angle formed between the chord line of an airfoil and the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft on which it is mounted.

Wash in. A condition in the rigging of an airplane in which a wing is twisted so that its angle
of incidence is greater at the tip than at the root.

Wash out. A condition in the rigging of an airplane in which a wing is twisted so that
its angle of incidence is smaller at the tip than at the root.

Forward-Swept Wing
The advantage gained by sweepback could also be attained by sweeping the wing forward.
This has the additional advantage that the forward-swept wing stalls at the root first,
eliminating the loss of lateral control experienced by a swept-back wing as it approaches a
stall.

But forward-swept wings lack torsional rigidity. In other words, the wing tends to twist when
high flight loads are applied. When a swept-back wing twists in flight, the wing tips wash
out. Their angle of incidence, and thus the lift they produce, decreases. This decreases the
load imposed on the wing.
But when a forward-swept wing twists in flight, its tips wash in. Their angle of incidence
increases and the loads imposed on the wing can increase until they destroy it.

The Grumman Corporation's research airplane, the X-29, uses high-tech composite
construction to make the forward-swept wing lightweight and so rigid that it does not twist in
flight.

272
 Figure 1-45. The Grumman X-29 Advanced Technology Dell1onstrator exploits the
advantages of the forward-swept wing because of the extensive use of composites in its
Aero-elastic tailoring of the wing to counteract undesirable bending stresses.

Aero-elastic tailoring. The design of all aerodynamic surface whose strength and stiffness are
matched to the aerodynamic load imposed upon it.

Supersonic Airflow
When air flows over a surface at a supersonic speed, pressure waves form. There are three
types of pressure waves, normal and oblique shock waves, and expansion waves.

Normal Shock Waves

Air flowing over an airfoil acts in the same way it does as it flows through a converging and
diverging duct. Figure 1-46 shows that air approaching a relatively blunt-nose subsonic
airfoil at a supersonic speed forms a normal shock wave, which wastes energy.

Normal shock wave. A shock waves that forms ahead of a blunt object moving through the
air at the speed of sound. The shock wave is perpendicular to the air approaching the object.
Air passing through a normal shock wave is slowed to a subsonic speed and its static pressure
is increased.

When the supersonic airstream passes through a normal shock wave:

1. The airstream slows to subsonic.
2. The airflow direction immediately behind the wave is unchanged.
3. The static pressure of the airstream behind the wave increases greatly.
4. The density of the airstream behind the wave increases greatly.
5. The energy of the airstream is greatly reduced.
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 Figure 1-46. When a supersonic airstream encounters a blunt object, a normal shock
wave forms. The air imll1ediately behind the wave is slowed to a subsonic speed.

Oblique Shock Waves

When a supersonic airstream strikes a sharp-edged airfoil, the air is forced to turn, forming an
oblique shock wave. See Figure 1-47.

Oblique shock wave. A shock waves that forms on a sharp-pointed object moving through the
air at a speed greater than the speed of sound. Air passing through an oblique shock wave is
slowed down, but not to a subsonic speed. and its static pressure is increased.

As the air passes through an oblique shock wave:

1. The airstream is slowed down, but it is still supersonic.
2. The flow direction changes to follows the surface.
3. The static pressure of the airstream behind the shock wave increases.
4. The density of the airstream behind the shock wave increases.
5. Some of the energy in the airstream is converted into heat and is wasted.

274
Figure 1-47. When a sharp edged, double wedge airfoil moves through the air at a supersonic
speed, the air is forced to turn, and oblique shockwaves form at the leading and trailing
edges. At the center of the airfoil, the surface drops away from the airstream and all
expansion waveforms.

Expansion Waves
When air flows at a supersonic speed over a double-wedge airfoil like that in Figure 1-47, the
air will turn to follow the surface and an expansion wave forms.

Expansion wave. The change in pressure and velocity of a supersonic flow of air as it passes
over a surface which drops away from the flow. As the surface drops away, the air tries to
follow it. In changing its direction, the air speeds up to a higher supersonic velocity and its
static pressure decreases. There is no change in the total energy as the air passes through an
expansion wave, and so there is no sound as there is when air passes through a shock wave.

When supersonic air flows through an expansion wave:

1. The airstream accelerates and the air behind the expansion wave has a higher
supersonic velocity.
2. The direction of flow changes to follow the surface.
3. The static pressure of the airstream behind the wave decreases.
4. The density of the air behind the wave decreases.
5. There is no loss of energy in the airstream.

High Speed Flight

Subsonic Versus Supersonic Flow
In subsonic aerodynamics, the theory of lift is based upon the forces generated on a body and
a moving gas (air) in which it is immersed. At speeds of approximately 260 knots, air can be
considered incompressible in that, at a fixed altitude, its density remains nearly constant
while its pressure varies.
Under this assumption, air acts the same as water and is classified as a fluid. Subsonic
aerodynamic theory also assumes the effects of viscosity (the property of a fluid that tends to
prevent motion of one part of the fluid with respect to another) are negligible, and classifies
air as an ideal fluid, conforming to the principles of ideal-fluid aerodynamics such as
continuity, Bernoulli’s principle, and circulation.

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In reality, air is compressible and viscous. While the effects of these properties are negligible
at low speeds, compressibility effects in particular become increasingly important as speed
increases. Compressibility (and to a lesser extent viscosity) is of paramount importance at
speeds approaching the speed of sound. In these speed ranges, compressibility causes a
change in the density of the air around an aircraft.

During flight, a wing produces lift by accelerating the airflow over the upper surface. This
accelerated air can, and does, reach sonic speeds even though the aircraft itself may be flying
subsonic.

At some extreme AOAs, in some aircraft, the speed of the air over the top surface of the wing
may be double the aircraft’s speed. It is therefore entirely possible to have both supersonic
and subsonic airflow on an aircraft at the same time. When flow velocities reach sonic speeds
at some location on an aircraft (such as the area of maximum camber on the wing), further
acceleration results in the onset of compressibility effects such as shock wave formation, drag
increase, buffeting, stability and control difficulties. Subsonic flow principles are invalid at
all speeds above this point. (Figure 3-9)

Figure 3-9. Wing Airflow.

9. Lift Augmentation
Secondary flight controls are fitted to most aircraft to increase lift when needed during take-
off, landing and low-level slow flight. These are typically airfoils that are fitted to the
leading edge and or trailing edge of the wings and are controlled from the flight deck. These
flight controls can also be used to increase and decrease of speed, lift and drag.

276
Secondary flight controls are fitted to most aircraft to increase lift when needed during take-
off, landing and low-level slow flight. These are typically airfoils that are fitted to the
leading edge and or trailing edge of the wings and are controlled from the flight deck.

Purpose of High Lift Devices

Aircraft are fitted with high lift devices to reduce the take-off and landing distances. This
permits operation at greater weights from given runway lengths and enables greater payloads
to be carried.

Take-off and Landing Speeds

The take-off and landing distances depend on the speeds required at the screen, and these are
laid down in the performance regulations. For both take-off and landing, one of the
requirements is for a safe margin above the stalling speed (1.2VS1 for take-off and 1.3VS0 for
landing). The stalling speed is determined by the C LMAX of the wing, and so to obtain the
lowest possible distances, the CLMAX, must be as high as possible.

Lift Augmentation (CLMAX Augmentation)

Secondary flight controls are fitted to most aircraft to increase lift when needed during take-
off, landing and low-level slow flight. These are typically airfoils that are fitted to the
leading edge and or trailing edge of the wings and are controlled from the flight deck.

One of the main factors which determine the C LMAX of an aerofoil section is the camber. It
has been shown earlier that increasing the camber of an aerofoil section increases the C L at a
given angle of attack and increases C LMAX. For take-off and landing a cambered section is
desirable, but this would give high drag at cruising speeds and require a very nose-down
attitude. It is usual to select a less cambered aerofoil section to optimise cruise and modify
the section for take-off and landing by the use of flaps.

Flaps
A flap is a hinged portion of the trailing or leading edge which can be deflected downwards
and so produce an increase of camber. For low speed aerofoils the flaps will be on the
trailing edge only, but on high speed aerofoils where the leading edge may be symmetrical or
have a negative camber, there will usually be flaps on both the leading edge and the trailing
edge.

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Trailing Edge Flaps - The basic principle of the flap has been adapted in many ways. The
more commonly used types of trailing edge flap are considered below.

Flaps are the most common high-lift devices used on aircraft. These surfaces, which are
attached to the trailing edge of the wing, increase both lift and induced drag for any given
AOA. Flaps allow a compromise between high cruising speed and low landing speed,
because they may be extended when needed, and retracted into the wing’s structure when not
needed. There are four common types of flaps: plain, split, slotted, and Fowler flaps. (Figure
3-15)

Plain Flap
The plain flap is the simplest of the four types. has a simple construction and gives a good
increase in C LMAX, although with fairly high drag
It increases the airfoil camber, resulting in a significant increase in the coefficient of lift (Cl)
at a given AOA. At the same time, it greatly increases drag and moves the center of pressure
(CP) at the rear on the airfoil, resulting in a nose-down pitching moment.
It is used mainly on low-speed aircraft and where very short take-off and landing is not
required.

Figure 8.1 Plain flap

Ailerons, elevators and rudders are plain flaps

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 Figure 3-15. Four common types of flaps.

Split Flap
The flap forms part of the lower surface of the wing trailing edge, the upper surface contour
being unaffected when the flap is lowered.

Figure 8.2 Split flap

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The split flap is deflected from the lower surface of the airfoil and produces a slightly greater
increase in lift than the plain flap. More drag is created because of the turbulent air pattern
produced behind the airfoil. When fully extended, both plain and split flaps produce high
drag with little additional lift.

The split flap gives about the same increase in lift as the plain flap at low angles of attack but
gives slightly more at higher angles as the upper surface camber is not increased, and so
separation is delayed. The drag, however, is higher than for the plain flap due to the increased
depth of the wake that’s why are not mostly used.

Slotted and Multiple Slotted Flaps

When the slotted flap is lowered, a slot or gap is opened between the flap and the wing.

Figure 8.3 Slotted flap

The most popular flap on aircraft today is the slotted flap. Variations of this design are used
for small aircraft, as well as for large ones. Slotted flaps increase the lift coefficient
significantly more than plain or split flaps. On small aircraft, the hinge is located below the
lower surface of the flap, and when the flap is lowered, a duct forms between the flap well in
the wing and the leading edge of the flap.

The purpose of the slot is to direct higher pressure air from the lower surface over is ducted to
the flap’s upper surface the flap and re-energize the boundary layer. The high energy air from
the slot accelerates the upper surface boundary layer and delays airflow separation of the flap.
The slotted flap gives a bigger increase in C LMAX (Allow to used higher AOA than normal)
than the plain or split flap and much less drag, because the drag is minimized by slot air but it
has a more complex construction.
Also slotted flap permits the use of large flap angle of up 40 0 without cause the airflow
separation on the wing surface.
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Thus, the slotted flap produces much greater increases in maximum coefficient of lift (Cl-
max) than the plain or split flap. While there are many types of slotted flaps, large aircraft
often have double and even triple-slotted flaps. These allow the maximum increase in drag
without the airflow over the flaps separating and destroying the lift they produce.

The Fowler Flap

Fowler flaps are a type of slotted flap since the Fowler flap may be slotted. The Fowler flap
moves rearwards and then down, initially giving an increase in wing area and then an
increase in camber, the Fowler flap gives the greatest increase in lift of the flaps considered
and also gives the least drag because of the slot and the reduction of thickness: chord ratio.

The Fowler flap moves rearwards and then down, initially giving an increase in wing area by
first extended to the rear and then an increase in camber by move downward. The Fowler flap
may be slotted.

Figure 8.4: Fowler Flap

By moving the Fowler flap downwards (not much), the lift is increased without a
disproportionate increase in drag. The corresponding flap position is therefore especially
suited to take-off.
If the Fowler flap is further extended, the flap body is also turned downwards, which now
increases the airfoil camber. The lift continues to increase, but now with a greater increase in
drag. The corresponding flap position is therefore suitable for landing.
Fowler flaps are a type of slotted flap. This flap design not only changes the camber of the
wing, it also increases the wing area. Instead of rotating down on a hinge, it slides backwards

281
on tracks. In the first portion of its extension, it increases the drag very little, but increases the
lift a great deal as it increases both the area and camber.
However, the change of pitching moment is greater because of the rearward extension of the
chord.
As the extension continues, the flap deflects downward. During the last portion of its travel,
the flap increases the drag with little additional increase in lift.

Comparison of Trailing Edge Flap

Figure 8.5 shows a comparison of the lift curves for the flaps considered above, for the same
angle of flap deflection. It should be noted, however, that the different types of flap do not all
give their greatest increase in lift at the same flap angle.
In general, the Lowering of the flaps increases drag and lift and lowering flaps for take-off
reduces take-off speeds only.

Figure 8.5:

Figure 8.6 shows the variation of the lift increment with flap angle and the variation of drag
increment with flap angle. It can be seen that the increment in lift is decreasing and the

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increment in drag is increasing as flaps are deployed. It is important to note that any amount
of flap increases drag.

Figure 8.6

Drag
Figure 8.8 shows a comparison of the drag polar curves for the various types of flap. It can be
seen that for a given flap deflection the drag produced by the different types of flap varies,
considerably, the split flap giving the highest drag and the Fowler flap the least.

Figure 8.8
During take-off, drag reduces the acceleration, and so the flap should give as little drag as
possible. For landing, however, drag adds to the braking force and so the flap drag is
beneficial.

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The addition of drag during approach also improves speed stability. As in the case of the lift
increments, the drag increments with increasing flap angle are not constant: the increments in
drag get larger as the flap angle increases.

Lift / Drag Ratio

Lowering flap increases both the lift and the drag, but not in the same proportion. Although
the lift is the larger force, the proportional increase in the drag is greater, and so the
maximum obtainable lift / drag ratio decreases. The maximum lift / drag ratio occurs where
the tangent from the origin of the drag polar touches the curve, and the gradient of the tangent
line is a measure of the maximum lift / drag ratio (Figure 8.9).

The lift / drag ratio is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency and affects the aircraft’s
performance in areas such as range, climb angle and glide angle. With flaps lowered, range
will be decreased, climb angle reduced and glide angle increased.

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Aircraft Attitude with Flaps Lowered
When the aircraft is in steady flight the lift must be equal to the weight. If the flaps are
lowered
but the speed kept constant, lift will increase, and to maintain it at its original value, the angle
of attack must be decreased. The aircraft will therefore fly in a more nose-down attitude if the
flaps are down. On the approach to landing this is an advantage as it gives better visibility of
the landing area.

Leading Edge High Lift Devices

High-lift devices also can be applied to the leading edge of the airfoil. There are two forms
of leading-edge high lift device commonly in use: the leading-edge flap and the leading-
edge slot or slat. The most common types are fixed slots, movable slats, leading edge flaps,
and cuffs. (Figure 3-16)

Figure 3-16. Leading edge high lift devices.

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Leading Edge Slots
A leading-edge slot is a gap from the lower surface to the upper surface of the leading edge,
and it may be fixed, or created by moving part of the leading edge (the slat) forwards. By
improving the airflow condition at high angle of attack (is not to facilitate a bigger camber).
In flight this means that the aircraft will have a very nose-up attitude at low speeds due to
high AOA required by the slot to improve CLMAX, and on the approach to land, visibility of
the landing area could be restricted.

Figure 8.14 Leading edge slat

Fixed Slots direct airflow to the upper wing surface, energize the boundary layer and delay
airflow separation at higher angles of attack. The slot does not increase the wing camber or
wing surface area, but allows a higher maximum CL because the stall is delayed until the
wing reaches a greater AOA.
A movable slat (slotted leading-edge flap) increases the lift through a combination of
increased wing area and increased camber and through the influence of the flow with the aid
of the slat

Automatic Slots
On some aircraft the slots are not controlled by the pilot, but operate automatically. Their
movement is caused by the changes of pressure which occur around the leading edge as the
angle of attack increases. At low angles of attack, the high pressures around the stagnation

286
point keep the slat in the closed position. At high angles of attack, the stagnation point has
moved underneath the leading edge and ‘suction’ pressures occur on the upper surface of the
slat. These pressures cause the slat to move forward and create the slot.

This system is used mainly on small aircraft as a stall protection system. On larger aircraft,
the
position of the slats is selected when required by the pilot, their movement being controlled
electrically or hydraulically.

Disadvantages of the Slot

The slot can give increases in C LMAX of the same magnitude as the trailing edge flap, but
whereas the trailing edge flap gives its CLMAX at slightly less than the normal stalling angle,
the slot requires a much increased angle of attack to give its C LMAX. In flight this means that
the aircraft will have a very nose-up attitude at low speeds, and on the approach to land,
visibility of the landing area could be restricted.

Leading Edge Slat

A slat is a small auxiliary aerofoil attached to the leading edge of the wing, Figure 8.14.
When
deployed, the slat forms a slot which allows passage of air from the high pressure region
below
the wing to the low pressure region above it. Additional Kinetic Energy is added to the
airflow
through the slot by the slat forming a convergent duct.
When slats are deployed, the boundary layer is re-energized

If Kinetic Energy is added to the boundary layer, boundary layer separation will be delayed to
a much higher angle of attack. At approximately 25°, the increased adverse pressure gradient
will once again overwhelm/overcome the Kinetic Energy of the boundary layer and
separation will occur.
If the slot is permanently open, i.e. a fixed slot, the extra drag at high speed is an unnecessary
disadvantage, so most slats in commercial use are opened and closed by a control mechanism.

The slot can be closed for high speed flight and opened for low speeds, usually in conjunction
with the trailing edge flaps and actuated by the same selector on the flight deck.

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The graph at Figure 8.15 shows the comparative figures for a slatted and un-slatted wing of
the
same basic dimensions.

Figure 8.15

The effect of the slat is to prolong the lift curve by delaying boundary layer separation until a
higher angle of attack. When operating at high angles of attack, the slat itself is generating a
high lift coefficient because of its marked camber.
The action of the slat is to flatten the marked peak of the low pressure envelope at high angles
of attack and to change it to one with a more gradual pressure gradient. The flattening of the
lift distribution envelope means that the boundary layer does not undergo the sudden
thickening that occurred through having to negotiate the very steep adverse pressure gradient
that existed immediately behind the former ‘suction’ peak, and so it retains much of its
Kinetic Energy, thus enabling it to penetrate almost the full chord of the wing before
separating.

Figure 8.16 shows the alleviating effect of the slat on the low-pressure peak and that,
although flatter, the area of the low-pressure region, which is proportional to its strength, is
unchanged or even increased. The ‘suction’ peak does not move forward, so the effect of the
slot on pitching moment is insignificant.

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 Figure 8.16

Movable slats consist of leading-edge segments, which move on tracks. At low angles of
attack, each slat is held flush against the wing’s leading edge by the high pressure that forms
at the wing’s leading edge. As the AOA increases, the high-pressure area moves aft below the
lower surface of the wing, allowing the slats to move forward. Some slats, however, are pilot
operated and can be deployed at any AOA. Opening a slat allows the air below the wing to
flow over the wing’s upper surface, delaying airflow separation.

Leading Edge Flaps

On high-speed aerofoil sections, the leading edge may have very little camber and have a
small
radius. This can give flow separation just aft of the leading edge at quite low angles of attack.
This can be remedied by utilizing a leading-edge flap, which increases the leading-edge
camber

Figure 8.11 Krueger flap

Leading edge flaps, like trailing edge flaps, are used to increase both Cl-max and the camber
of the wings. This type of leading-edge device is frequently used in conjunction with trailing
edge flaps and can reduce the nose-down pitching movement produced by the latter (nose
down moment produced by the flap deployment). As is true with trailing edge flaps, a small
increment of leading-edge flaps increases lift to a much greater extent than drag. As greater
amounts of flaps are extended, drag increases at a greater rate than lift.

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Krueger Flap
The Krueger flap is part of the lower surface of the leading edge, which can be rotated about
its forward edge as shown in Figure 8.11. To promote root stall on a swept wing, Krueger
flaps
are used on the inboard section because they are less efficient than the variable camber shown
opposite.

Figure 8.12 Variable camber leading edge flap

A Kruger flap forces the flow to run more over the top of the airfoil. Kruger flaps can be built
more easily and made more lightweight than slats, but the disadvantage is their high level of
drag at small angles of attack. In the case of large passenger aircraft Kruger flaps are often
used on the inner wing together with slats on the outer wing.

Variable Camber Leading Edge Flap

To improve efficiency by giving a better leading-edge profile, the camber of a leading-edge
flap may be increased as it is deployed. Unlike trailing edge flaps, which can be selected to
intermediate positions, leading edge flaps are usually either fully extended (deployed) or
retracted (stowed).

Leading edge cuffs

Leading edge cuffs, like leading edge flaps and trailing edge flaps are used to increase both
Clmax and the camber of the wings. Unlike leading edge flaps and trailing edge flaps, leading
edge cuffs are fixed aerodynamic devices. In most cases leading edge cuffs extend the
leading edge down and forward. This causes the airflow to attach better to the upper surface
of the wing at higher angles of attack, thus lowering an aircraft’s stall speed. The fixed nature
of leading edge cuffs extracts a penalty in maximum cruise airspeed, but recent advances in
design and technology have reduced this penalty.
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Sequence of Operation of leading and trailing edge flaps
The sequence of operation is critical. Lowering the trailing edge flap increases both upwash
and downwash. At high angle of attacks, especially for large aircraft, the increased upwash
could stall the airplane.

Leading edge device therefore be deployed before the trailing edge flaps is lowered to take
advantage of the ability of the leading-edge flaps to increase the angle of attack for Clmax.
When the flaps are retracted, the trailing edge flaps should be retracted first.

Effect of Leading-Edge Flaps on Lift

The main effect of the leading-edge flap is to delay separation and so increase the stalling
angle and the corresponding CLMAX. However, there will be some increase of lift at lower
angles of attack due to the increased camber of the aerofoil section. Figure 8.13 shows the
effect of these flaps on the lift curve.

Figure 8.13

Drag and Pitching Moment of Leading-Edge Devices

Compared to trailing edge flaps, the changes of drag and pitching moment resulting from the
operation of leading-edge devices are small.

Trailing Edge Plus Leading-Edge Devices

Most large transport aircraft employ both trailing edge and leading-edge devices. Figure 8.17
shows the effect on the lift curve of both types of devices.

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 Figure 8.17

Sequence of Operation
For some aerofoils the sequence of flap operation is critical. Lowering a trailing edge flap
increases both the downwash and the upwash. For a high speed aerofoil, an increase of
upwash at the leading edge when the angle of attack is already fairly high could cause the
wing to stall. The leading edge device must therefore be deployed before the trailing edge
flap is lowered. When the flaps are retracted, the trailing edge flap must be retracted before
the leading edge device is raised.

Asymmetry of High Lift Devices

Deployment of high lift devices can produce large changes of lift, drag and pitching moment.
If the movement of the devices is not symmetrical on the two wings, the unbalanced forces
could cause severe roll control problems.

On many flap control systems, the deflection on the two sides is compared while the flaps are
moving, and if one side should fail, movement on the other side is automatically stopped.
However, on less sophisticated systems a failure of the operating mechanism could lead to an
asymmetric situation.
The difference in lift will cause a rolling moment which must be opposed by the ailerons, and
the difference in drag will cause a yawing moment which must be opposed by the rudder.
Whether the controls will be adequate to maintain straight and level flight will depend on the
degree of asymmetry and the control power available

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Flap Load Relief System
On large high speed jet transport aircraft, a device is fitted in the flap operating system to
prevent the flaps deploying if the aircraft speed is too high. The pilot can select the flaps, but
they will not extend until the airspeed is below the flap extend speed (V FE). If a selection is
made and the flaps do not run because the speed is too high, they will extend as soon as the
airspeed decreases to an appropriate value.

Choice of Flap Setting for Take-off, Climb and Landing

Take-off
Take-off distance depends upon unstick speed and rate of acceleration to that speed.
1. Lowest unstick speed will be possible at the highest CL MAX and this will be achieved
at a large flap angle, Figure 8.18.
2. But large flap angles also give high drag, Figure 8.19, which will reduce acceleration
and increase the distance required to accelerate to unstick speed.
3. A lower flap angle will give a higher unstick speed but better acceleration, and so give
a shorter distance to unstick.

Figure 8.18

Thus there will be some optimum setting which will give the shortest possible take-off
distance.
If leading edge devices are fitted, they will be used for take-off as they increase the C LMAX for
any trailing edge flap setting.

Climb

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After take-off, a minimum climb gradient is required in the take-off configuration. Climb
gradient is reduced by flap, so if climb gradient is limiting, a lesser flap angle may be
selected
even though it gives a longer take-off distance.
Landing
Landing distance will depend on touchdown speed and deceleration. The lowest touchdown
speed will be given by the highest CL MAX, obtained at a large flap angle, Figure 8.18. Large
flap angle will also give high drag, Figure 8.19, and so good deceleration. For landing, a large
flap angle will be used. Leading edge devices will also be used to obtain the highest possible
CLMAX.

Figure 8.18

Management of High Lift Devices

To take full advantage of the capabilities of flaps, the flight crew must properly manage their
retraction and extension.

Flap Retraction after Take-off

With reference to Figure 8.20, assume the aircraft has just taken off with flaps extended and
is
at point ‘A’ on the lift curve. If the flaps are retracted, with no change made to either angle of
attack or IAS, the coefficient of lift will reduce to point ‘C’ and the aircraft will sink.

1. From point ‘A’ on the lift curve the aircraft should be accelerated to point ‘B’.
2. From point ‘B’, as the flaps are retracted the angle of attack should be increased to
point ‘C’ to maintain the coefficient of lift constant.
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The pilot should not retract the flaps until the aircraft has sufficient IAS. Of course, this same
factor must be considered for any intermediate flap position between extended and retracted.
(Refer to Page 76 for a review of the Interpretation of the Lift Curve if necessary.)

Figure 8.20
As the configuration is altered from the flaps down to the flaps up or “clean” configuration,
three important changes take place:
1. Changes of pressure distribution on the wing generate a nose-up pitching moment.
But reduced wing downwash increasing the tail plane effective angle of attack
generates a nose down pitching moment. The resultant, actual, pitching moment
experienced by the aircraft will depend upon which of these two pitching moments is
dominant.
2. With reference to Figure 8.21, the retraction of flaps (‘B’ to ‘C’) causes a reduction of
drag coefficient. This drag reduction improves the acceleration of the aircraft.
3. Flap retraction usually takes place in stages, and movement of the flaps between
stages will take a finite period of time. It has been stated that as flaps are retracted, an
increase in angle of attack is required to maintain the same lift coefficient.

295
 Figure 8.21
If aircraft acceleration is low throughout the flap retraction speed range, the angle of attack
must be increased an appreciable amount to prevent the aircraft from sinking. This situation
is typical after take-off when gross weight and density altitude are high.

However, most modern jet transport aircraft have enough acceleration throughout the flap
retraction speed range that the resultant rapid gain in airspeed requires a much less noticeable
increase in angle of attack.

Flap Extension Prior to Landing

With reference to Figure 8.22, assume the aircraft is in level flight in the terminal area prior
to
landing and is at point ‘A’ on the lift curve. If the flaps are extended, with no change made to
angle of attack, the coefficient of lift will increase to point ‘C’ and the aircraft will gain
altitude
(balloon).
1. From point ‘A’, as the flaps are extended the angle of attack should be decreased to
point ‘B’ to maintain the coefficient of lift constant.
2. From point ‘B’ on the lift curve the aircraft should be decelerated to point ‘C’.
(Refer to Page 76 for a review of the Interpretation of the Lift Curve if necessary.)

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 Figure 8.22 Deployment of flaps for landing

Fixed Airflow Devices

Airflow control devices

1. Wing Fences
2. Saw tooth or notch
3. Winglets
4. Vortex Generators
Wing Fences
These devices are usually fitted to aircraft with swept wings. Total airflow over a swept wing,
splits into two components, one moving across the wing chord parallel to the airflow and the
other flowing span-wise towards the wing tip.

The fences are fitted about mid-span, on the leading edge of the wing and extending
rearwards. They are designed to control the span-wise flow of the boundary layer air over the
top of the wing. Also they will straighten the airflow over the ailerons, improving their
effectiveness and straighten the air nearer the wing tip, resulting in less 'spillage' of air from
beneath the wing to the top, thereby producing less drag

The fences are fitted (mostly on swept wing) about mid-span, on the leading edge of the wing
and extending rearwards. They are designed to control the spanwise flow of the boundary
layer air over the top of the wing

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A chord-wise barrier on the upper surface of the wing, called a stall fence, sometimes called a
strake, is used to halt the span-wise flow of air.
During low speed flight, this can maintain proper chord-wise airflow reducing the tendency
for the wing to stall. Usually made of aluminum, the fence is a fixed structure most common
on swept wings, which have a natural span-wise tending boundary air flow.

Saw Tooth Leading Edges

This form of airflow control is more common on military aircraft than modern commercial
airliners.
The saw tooth or notch is simply a small increase in wing chord on the outer portion of the
wing. The step where the change occurs tends to form an invisible 'wall' of high velocity air,
which flows over the wing and straightens the spanwise flow. It functions in much the same
way as the wing fence but removes the extra drag and weight penalty

Winglets
A winglet is an obvious vertical upturn of the wing’s tip resembling a vertical stabilizer. It is
an aerodynamic device designed to reduce the drag created by wing tip vortices in flight.
Usually made from aluminum or composite materials, winglets can be designed to optimize
performance at a desired speed.

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The outboard parts of the wing are upswept to an extreme dihedral angle, give better airflow
control and reduce the drag produced by the wing. It does this by using the up-flow from
below the wing to produce a forward thrust from the winglet,

How wing lets using the up-flow from below the wing to produce a forward thrust?
Winglets Are Wings That Generate Forward Lift
Winglets are actually little wings that generate lift. And, just like any other wing, they
generate lift perpendicular to the relative wind. If you didn't have wingtip vortices, the
winglet would generate lift inward, which isn't very helpful.

But, wingtip vortices change the direction of the relative wind at the wingtip. Because the
vortices move up and over the wing, they add a component of wind that flows toward the
fuselage - bending the relative wind inward. Now, when you draw the lift vector from the
winglet, the lift vector points forward a little.

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It might not look like much, but that little bit of forward lift helps - it opposes the drag
produced by the vortices when they're strong. So, when you're at a high angle of attack - like
high altitude cruise or during take-off and landing - winglets reduce your drag.

Vortex Generators
Vortex generators are small airfoil sections usually attached to the upper surface of a wing.
They are designed to promote positive laminar airflow over the wing and control surfaces.
Usually made of aluminum and installed in a span-wise line or lines, the vortices created by
these devices swirl downward assisting maintenance of the boundary layer of air flowing over
the wing. They can also be found on the fuselage and empennage.
Controls increasingly sluggish airflow towards the trailing edge by mixing the high energy
free stream air into the sluggish boundary layer air, it delays transition point

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small plates or wedges projecting up from the surface of an aerofoil

Often, a gap can exist between the stationary trailing edge of a wing or stabilizer and the
movable control surface(s). At high angles of attack, high pressure air from the lower wing
surface can be disrupted at this gap. The result can be turbulent airflow, which increases drag.

There is also a tendency for some lower wing boundary air to enter the gap and disrupt the
upper wing surface airflow, which in turn reduces lift and control surface responsiveness.

The use of gap seals is common to promote smooth airflow in these gap areas. Gap seals can
be made of a wide variety of materials ranging from aluminium and impregnated fabric to
foam and plastic. Figure 3-20 shows some gap seals installed on various
aircraft.

Figure 3-20. Gap seals promote the smooth flow of air over gaps between fixed and movable
surfaces.

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302
4. FLIGHT STABILITY AND DYNAMICS

1. The Axes of an Aircraft

Whenever an aircraft changes its attitude in flight, it must turn about one or more of three
axes. Figure -1 shows the three axes, which are imaginary lines passing through the center of
the aircraft.
These imaginary line help us to visualize the forces and moments on the aircraft, it is
necessary to establish a set of reference axes passing through the centre of gravity.
The axes of an aircraft can be considered as imaginary axles around which the aircraft turns
like a wheel. At the center, where all three axes intersect, each is perpendicular to the other
two. The three axes are fixed relative to the aircraft irrespective of its attitude.

The axes of an aircraft are three imaginary lines that pass through an aircraft’s CG. The axes
can be considered as imaginary axles around which the aircraft turns. The three axes pass
through the CG at 90° angles to each other.
The axis passes through the CG and parallel to a line from nose to tail is the longitudinal axis,
the axis that passes parallel to a line from wingtip to wingtip is the lateral axis, and the axis
that passes through the CG at right angles to the other
two axes is the vertical axis. Whenever an aircraft changes its flight attitude or position in
flight, it rotates about one or more of the three axes. [Figure 5-18]

Figure 5-18. Axes of an airplane.

On the airplane, all three axes intersect at the center of gravity (CG). As the airplane pivots
on one of these axes, it is in essence pivoting around the center of gravity (CG). The center of
gravity is also referred to as the center of rotation.

The aircraft’s motion about its longitudinal axis resembles the roll of a ship from side to side.
In fact, the names used to describe the motion about an aircraft’s three axes were originally
303
nautical terms. They have been adapted to aeronautical terminology due to the similarity of
motion of aircraft and seagoing ships. The motion about the aircraft’s longitudinal axis is
“roll,” the motion about its lateral axis is “pitch,” and the motion about its vertical axis is
“yaw.” Yaw is the left and right movement of the aircraft’s nose.

Figure 4-1. Motion of an aircraft about its axes.

The three motions of the conventional airplane (roll, pitch, and yaw) are controlled by three
control surfaces. Roll is controlled by the ailerons; pitch is controlled by the elevators; yaw is
controlled by the rudder.

Longitudinal Axis

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The axis that extends lengthwise through the fuselage from the nose to the tail is called the
longitudinal axis. The movement about which is known as rolling. This axis is sometimes
called the roll axis. A moment about this axis is a rolling moment, L, and a roll to the right is
a positive rolling moment.

Lateral Axis
The axis that extends crosswise from wing tip to wing tip is the lateral, or pitch, axis. The
rotation about which is termed pitching. This axis may also be known as the pitching or
looping axis. A moment about the lateral axis is a pitching moment, M, and a positive
pitching moment is nose-up.

Normal / Vertical Axis

The axis that passes through the center, from top to bottom, is called the vertical, or yaw,
axis. This axis is at right angles to the longitudinal and lateral axis, movement about which is
called yawing. This axis can be referred to as the yawing axis.
A moment about the normal axis is a yawing moment, N, and a positive yawing moment
would yaw the aircraft to the right.

On the brightly colored airplane shown in Figure 5-60, the three axes are shown in the colors
red (vertical axis), blue (longitudinal axis), and orange (lateral axis). The flight control that
makes the airplane move around the axis is shown in a matching color.

Figure 5-60. The three axes intersect at the airplane’s center of gravity. The flight controls
that produces motion around the indicated axis is a matching color.

The rudder, in red, causes the airplane to move around the vertical axis and this movement is
described as being a yaw. The elevator, in orange, causes the airplane to move around the

305
lateral axis and this movement is described as being a pitch. The ailerons, in blue, cause the
airplane to move around the longitudinal axis and this movement is described as being a roll.

Roll, pitch, and yaw are controlled by three control surfaces. Roll is produced by the ailerons,
which are located at the trailing edges of the wings. Pitch is affected by the elevators, the rear
portion of the horizontal tail assembly. Yaw is controlled by the rudder, the rear portion of
the
vertical tail assembly.

For example, weight-shift control aircraft control two axes (roll and pitch) using an “A”
frame suspended from the flexible wing attached to a three-wheeled carriage. These aircraft
are controlled by moving a horizontal bar (called a control bar) in roughly the same way hang
glider pilots fly. [Figure 5-19] They are termed weight-shift control aircraft because the pilot
controls the aircraft by shifting the CG.
For more information on weight-shift control aircraft, see the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) Weight-Shift Control Flying Handbook, FAA-H-8083-5. In the case of
powered parachutes, aircraft control is accomplished by altering the airfoil via steering lines.

Figure 5-19. A weight-shift control aircraft.

A powered parachute wing is a parachute that has a cambered upper surface and a flatter
under surface. The two surfaces are separated by ribs that act as cells, which open to the
airflow at the leading edge and have internal ports to allow lateral airflow. The principle at
work holds that the cell pressure is greater than the outside pressure, thereby forming a wing
that maintains its airfoil shape in flight.

306
The pilot and passenger sit in tandem in front of the engine, which is located at the rear of a
vehicle. The airframe is attached to the parachute via two attachment points and lines.
Control is accomplished by both power and the changing of the airfoil via the control lines.
[Figure 5-20]

Figure 5-20. A powered parachute.

Moment and Moment Arm

A study of physics shows that a body that is free to rotate will always turn about its CG. In
aerodynamic terms, the mathematical measure of an aircraft’s tendency to rotate about its CG
is called a “moment.” A moment is said to be equal to the product of the force applied and the
distance at which the force is applied. (A moment arm is the distance from a datum [reference
point or line] to the applied force.) For aircraft weight and balance computations, “moments”
are expressed in terms of the distance of the arm times the aircraft’s weight, or simply, inch-
pounds.

Aircraft designers locate the fore and aft position of the aircraft’s CG as nearly as possible to
the 20 percent point of the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC). If the thrust line is designed to
pass horizontally through the CG, it will not cause the aircraft to pitch when power is
changed, and there will be no difference in moment due to thrust for a power-on or power-off
condition of flight. Although designers have some control over the location of the drag
forces, they are not always able to make the resultant drag forces pass through the CG of the
aircraft. However, the one item over which they have the greatest control is the size and
location of the tail. The objective is to make the moments (due to thrust, drag, and lift) as
small as possible and, by proper location of the tail, to provide the means of balancing an
aircraft longitudinally for any condition of flight.

307
The pilot has no direct control over the location of forces acting on the aircraft in flight,
except for controlling the center of lift by changing the AOA. The pilot can control the
magnitude of the forces. Such a change, however, immediately involves changes in other
forces. Therefore,
the pilot cannot independently change the location of one force without changing the effect of
others. For example, a change in airspeed involves a change in lift, as well as a change in
drag and a change in the up or down force on the tail. As forces such as turbulence and gusts
act to displace the aircraft, the pilot reacts by providing opposing control forces to counteract
this displacement.

Some aircraft are subject to changes in the location of the CG with variations of load.
Trimming devices, such as elevator trim tabs and adjustable horizontal stabilizers, are used to
counteract the moments set up by fuel burnoff and loading or off-loading of passengers or
cargo.

Aircraft Design Characteristics

Each aircraft handles somewhat differently because each resists or responds to control
pressures in its own way. For example, a training aircraft is quick to respond to control
applications, while a transport aircraft feels heavy on the controls and responds to control
pressures more slowly. These features can be designed into an aircraft to facilitate the
particular purpose of the aircraft by considering certain stability and maneuvering
requirements. The following discussion summarizes the more important aspects of an
aircraft’s stability, maneuverability, and controllability qualities; how they are analyzed; and
their relationship to various flight conditions.

2. Stability and Control

Introduction
The development of the airplane was delayed by two problems: how to achieve stability and
how to achieve control. Before the Wright brothers' successful flight in 1903, others had
flown, but none had their success in controlling their aircraft.

Stability is the inherent quality of an aircraft to correct for conditions that may disturb its
equilibrium and to return to or to continue on the original flight path. It is primarily an
aircraft design characteristic.
The flight paths and attitudes an aircraft flies are limited by the aerodynamic characteristics
of the aircraft, its propulsion system, and its structural strength. These limitations indicate the

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maximum performance and maneuverability of the aircraft. If the aircraft is to provide
maximum utility, it must be safely controllable to the full extent of these limits without
exceeding the pilot’s strength or requiring exceptional flying ability. If an aircraft is to fly
straight and steady along any arbitrary flight path, the forces acting on it must be in static
equilibrium. The reaction of anybody when its equilibrium is disturbed is referred to as
stability. The two types of stability are static and dynamic.

Stability is the tendency of an aircraft to return to a steady state of flight without any help
from the pilot, after being disturbed by an external force.
"Stability" relates to maintaining the desired flight attitude with a minimum of pilot effort,
and "control" involves rotating the airplane about one or more of its three axes.

An aircraft is in a state of equilibrium (trim) when the sum of all forces is zero and the sum of
all moments is zero; there are no accelerations and the aircraft will continue in steady flight.
If equilibrium is disturbed by a gust, or deflection of the controls, the aircraft will experience
accelerations due to an unbalance of moments or forces.

To quote Newton’s first law again, ‘a body will tend to remain in a state of rest or uniform
motion unless disturbed by an external force’. Where such a body is so disturbed, stability is
concerned with the motion of the body after the external force has been removed.
This motion may best be considered under two headings: static stability describes the
immediate reaction/response of the body after disturbance force is removed, while dynamic
stability describes the following/subsequent reaction of the body after disturbance force is
removed.

The response is related to the original equilibrium state by use of the terms positive, neutral
and negative stability. Positive stability indicates a return towards the position prior to the
disturbance, neutral stability the taking up of a new position of a constant relationship to the
original, whereas negative stability indicates a continuous divergence from the original state.
Note that in everyday usage positively stable and negatively stable are usually referred to as
‘stable’ and ‘unstable” respectively.

An aircraft must have sufficient stability to maintain a uniform flightpath and recover from
the various upsetting forces. Also, to achieve the best performance, the aircraft must have the
proper response to the movement of the controls. Control is the pilot action of moving the

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flight controls, providing the aerodynamic force that induces the aircraft to follow a desired
flightpath.

Example of Aircraft Stability

When an airplane is in straight-and-level flight at a constant velocity, all the forces acting on
the airplane are in equilibrium. If that straight-and-level flight is disrupted by a disturbance
in
the air, such as wake turbulence, the airplane might pitch up or down, yaw left or right, or go
into a roll. If the airplane has what is characterized as stability, once the disturbance goes
away, the airplane will return to a state of equilibrium.

When an aircraft is said to be controllable, it means that the aircraft responds easily and
promptly to movement of the controls. Different control surfaces are used to control the
aircraft about each of the three axes.
Moving the control surfaces on an aircraft changes the airflow over the aircraft’s surface.
This, in turn, creates changes in the balance of forces acting to keep the aircraft flying straight
and level.

Three terms that appear in any discussion of stability and control are: stability,
maneuverability,
and controllability.

Stability is the characteristic of an aircraft that tends to cause it to fly (hands off) in a
straight-and-level flightpath.
Maneuverability is the characteristic of an aircraft to be directed along a desired flightpath
and to withstand the stresses imposed. OR
Maneuverability is the quantity of the aircraft that permits it to be maneuvered easily and to
withstand the stresses imposed by maneuvers.
It is governed by the aircraft’s weight, inertia, size and location of flight controls, structural
strength, and power-plant. It too is an aircraft design characteristic.
Controllability is the quality of the response of an aircraft to the pilot’s control commands,
especially with regard to flightpath and attitude. while maneuvering the aircraft. It is the
quality of the aircraft’s response to the pilot’s control application when maneuvering the
aircraft, regardless of its stability characteristics.

An aircraft must have the following qualities to stability:

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 1. Adequate stability to maintain a uniform flight condition.
2. The ability to recover from various disturbing influences.
3. Sufficient stability to minimize the workload of the pilot.
4. Proper response to the controls so that it may achieve its design performance with
adequate manoeuvrability.

There are two kinds of stability, static and dynamic.

Static Stability
Static stability has been defined as the initial tendency to return to equilibrium that the
aircraft
displays after being disturbed from its trimmed condition. Occasionally, the initial tendency
is
different or opposite from the overall tendency, so a distinction must be made between the
two.

Static stability refers to the initial tendency, or direction of movement, back to equilibrium. In
aviation, it refers to the aircraft’s initial response when disturbed from a given AOA, slip, or
bank. OR
Static stability. The initial reaction of the aircraft after the removal of the disturbing force.
OR
Static stability. The characteristic or an aircraft that causes it to return to straight and level
flight after it has been disturbed from that condition.
If the nose of an airplane that has positive longitudinal static stability is forced up or down,
and the controls are released, established forces bring the nose back to level flight. If the
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airplane has neutral static stability, the nose will stay displaced but will neither get further
from its disturbed condition nor try to return to level flight. An airplane with negative static
stability will deviate further from a condition of level flight and make no effort to return.

The type of static stability an aircraft possesses is defined by its initial tendency, following
the
removal of some disturbing force.
1. Positive static stability (or static stability)
The initial tendency of the aircraft to return to the original state of equilibrium after
being disturbed. (Figure 4-2)
Positive static stability exists, if an aircraft is disturbed from equilibrium and has the
tendency to return to equilibrium after being disturbed.

Figure 4-2. Three types of static stability.

2. Negative static stability (or static instability)
The initial tendency of the aircraft to continue away from the original state of
equilibrium after being disturbed (Figure 4-2)
Negative static stability, exists if an aircraft has a tendency to continue in the direction
of disturbance.

3. Neutral static stability

The initial tendency of the aircraft to remain in a new condition after its equilibrium
has been disturbed (Figure 4-2)
Neutral static stability exists if an aircraft is subject to a disturbance and has neither
the
tendency to return nor the tendency to continue in the displacement direction.

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In order to relate the response of a body to its initial equilibrium state it is useful at this stage
to use an analogy; the ‘bowl and ball’ can be used to illustrate this idea. If the ball is
displaced from its initial position to a new position, the reaction of the ball will describe its
static stability. If it tends to roll back to its original position, it is said to have positive
stability; if it tends to remain in its new position, it has neutral stability.
Examples of the three types of static stability are shown in Figure 10.1, Figure 10.2 and
Figure
10.3 also, (Figure 1-28. Static stability)

Figure 10.1 illustrates the condition of positive static stability (or static stability). The ball is
displaced from equilibrium at the bottom of the trough. When the disturbing force is
removed, the initial tendency of the ball is to return towards the equilibrium condition. The
ball may roll
back and forth through the point of equilibrium but displacement to either side creates the
initial tendency to return.
A ball has positive static stability when in a trough. If moved up the walls of the trough and
released, it will roll back to the bottom, which is its position of equilibrium.

Figure 10.1: A ball has positive static stability when in a trough. If moved up the walls of the
trough and released, it will roll back to the bottom, which is its position of equilibrium.

Figure 10.2 illustrates the condition of neutral static stability. The ball encounters a new
equilibrium at any point of displacement and has no tendency to return to its original
equilibrium.
A ball has neutral static stability when on a flat plane. When moved from its position of
equilibrium, it will not try to move farther away, neither will it try to return to its original
position.

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 Figure 10.2: A ball has neutral static stability when on a flat plane. When moved from its
position of equilibrium, it will not try to move farther away, neither will it try to return to its
original position.

Figure 10.3 illustrates the condition of negative static stability (or static instability).
Displacement from equilibrium at the hilltop gives a tendency for greater displacement.
A ball has negative static stability when on a ridge. When released from its position of
equilibrium (on the top), it will continue to move farther from its position with no added
disturbance.

Figure 10.3: A ball has negative static stability when on a ridge. When released from its
position of equilibrium (on the top), it will continue to move farther from its position with no
added disturbance.

The term “static” is applied to this form of stability since any resulting motion is not
considered. Only the initial tendency to return to equilibrium is considered in static stability.

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The static longitudinal stability of an aircraft is assessed by it being displaced from some
trimmed angle of attack.
If the aerodynamic pitching moments created by this displacement tend to return the aircraft
to
the equilibrium angle of attack, the aircraft has positive static longitudinal stability.

Positive static stability about an airplane 's lateral axis causes it to return to level flight after
the control has been moved to drop a wing, and then released. Positive static stability about
the vertical axis causes the airplane to straighten out and point into the relative wind after a
rudder pedal has been depressed and then released. Neutral and negative static stability about
these axes have the same effect as they have about the longitudinal axis. See Figure 10.1,10.2
and 10.3.

Dynamic Stability
Static stability has been defined as the initial tendency to return to equilibrium that the
aircraft displays after being disturbed from its trimmed condition. Occasionally, the initial
tendency is different or opposite from the overall tendency, so a distinction must be made
between the two.
Static stability is the production of a restorative force to bring the aircraft back to a condition
of straight and level flight after it has been disturbed. Dynamic stability is the decrease of
these forces with time.

For example, if the nose of an airplane that has positive static and positive dynamic
longitudinal stability is forced down and the control released, the nose will rise, but will go
beyond level flight into a nose-up attitude. From this position, static stability will cause the
nose to drop, but again it will pass through level flight to a nose-down position, although not
as low as the original displacement. The oscillations caused by these restorative forces will
decrease, and the airplane will return to its level-flight attitude. These oscillations are plotted
in Figure 1-29.

An airplane with positive static stability and neutral dynamic stability will continue to
oscillate with the same displacement. One with positive static and negative dynamic stability
will have divergent oscillations, and the intensity of the oscillations will increase with time.

Dynamic stability refers to the aircraft response over time when disturbed from a given pitch,
yaw, or bank.

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Dynamic stability refers to the aircraft response over time when disturbed from a given AOA,
slip, or bank. OR
Dynamic stability describes the following/subsequent reaction of the body after disturbance
force is removed.

This type of stability also has three subtypes positive, neutral, or negative :(Figure 4-3).
Simply this stability of an aircraft what’s happen after initial reaction.

Figure 4-3. Damped versus un-damped stability.

Figure 1-29. Dynamic stability

Damped oscillation. Oscillation whose amplitude decreases with time.

Divergent oscillation. Oscillation whose amplitude increase., with time.
Un-damped oscillation. Oscillation that continues with an unchanging amplitude once it has
started.

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The dynamic stability of an airplane involves the amount of time it takes for it to react to its
static stability after it has been displaced from a condition of equilibrium. Dynamic stability
involves the oscillations that typically occur as the airplane tries to return to its original
position or attitude. Even though an airplane may have positive static stability, it may have
dynamic stability which is positive, neutral, or negative.

Imagine that an airplane in straight-and-level flight is disturbed and pitches nose up. If the
airplane has positive static stability, the nose will pitch back down after the disturbance is
removed. If it immediately returns to straight and-level flight, it is also said to have positive
dynamic stability.
The airplane, however, may pass through level flight and remain pitched down, and then
continue the recovery process by pitching back up. This pitching up and then down is known
as an oscillation.

If the oscillations lessen/diminish over time, the airplane is still classified as having positive
dynamic stability. OR
Positive dynamic stability - over time, the motion of the displaced object decreases in
amplitude and, because it is positive, the object displaced returns toward the equilibrium
state.

If the oscillations increase over time, the airplane is classified as having negative dynamic
stability. OR
Negative dynamic stability - over time, the motion of the displaced object increases and
becomes more divergent.

If the oscillations remain the same over time, the airplane is classified as having neutral
dynamic stability. OR
Neutral dynamic stability - once displaced, the displaced object neither decreases nor
increases in amplitude. A worn automobile shock absorber exhibits this tendency.

Another example of Dynamic Stability shown by the Figure 5-61 shows the concept of
dynamic stability. In view A, the displacement from equilibrium goes through three
oscillations and then returns to equilibrium. In view B, the displacement from equilibrium is
increasing after two oscillations, and will not return to equilibrium. In view C, the
displacement from equilibrium is staying the same with each oscillation.

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 Figure 5-61. Dynamic stability.

Longitudinal Stability / Pitching

In designing an aircraft, a great deal of effort is spent in developing the desired degree of
stability around all three axes. But longitudinal stability about the lateral axis is considered to
be the most affected by certain variables in various flight conditions.

To avoid confusion, consider the axis about which the particular type of stability takes place.
Thus, lateral stability is about the longitudinal axis (rolling), directional stability is about the
normal axis (yawing) and longitudinal stability is about the lateral axis (pitching).
Motion (About The Axis) Axis (About)
Stability
Roll (p) Longitudinal (x)
Lateral
Pitch (q) Lateral (y)
Longitudinal
Yaw (r) Normal (z)
Directional

Static longitudinal stability is considered first because it can be studied in isolation; in

general, it does not interact with motions about the other two axes. Lateral and directional
stability tend to interact (coupled motion).

Longitudinal stability for an airplane involves the tendency for the nose to pitch up or pitch
down, rotating around the lateral axis, which is measured from wingtip to wingtip. If an
airplane is longitudinally stable; it will return to a properly trimmed angle of attack after the
force that upset its flight path is removed.

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Longitudinal stability is the stability / motion about the lateral axis / pitch axis. Longitudinal
stability is the quality that makes an aircraft stable about its lateral axis. It involves the
pitching motion as the aircraft’s nose moves up and down in flight.
Longitudinal stability is stability along the longitudinal axis and about the lateral, or pitch,
axis.

A longitudinally stable airplane will maintain level flight without requiring the pilot to
continually operate the controls.
A longitudinally unstable aircraft has a tendency to dive or climb progressively into a very
steep dive or climb, or even a stall. Thus, an aircraft with longitudinal instability (not stable
longitudinal) becomes difficult and sometimes dangerous to fly.

An airplane has longitudinal stability because of the relationship between its center of gravity
(CG) and center of lift /pressure (CP). Figure 1-30 shows an airplane with its center of lift
behind its center of gravity (CG). The nose-down rotation that would result is counteracted
by a nose-up force caused by the downward aerodynamic load on the tail.

Figure 1-30. Longitudinal stability is produced by the relationship between the center of
gravity and center of lift. And by the downward aerodynamic load on the tail.

This is stability about the lateral (or transverse) axis. If an aircraft is displaced longitudinally,
so that the nose of the aircraft pitches up, it will continue in its original direction due to its
momentum. As a result, the tail-plane will now have a positive angle of attack, and will
produce a nose down turning moment sufficient to bring the aircraft back to a level condition
of flight.
The reverse action takes place if the nose of the aircraft pitches down, ie. the tail-plane will
have a negative angle of attack and will produce a nose up turning moment.

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The nose-down force caused by the CG's position ahead of the center of lift is fixed and does
not change with airspeed. But the tail load is speed dependent-the higher the airspeed, the
greater the downward force on the tail. If the airplane is trimmed for level flight with the
pilot's hands off the controls, and a wind gust causes the nose to drop, the airplane will nose
down and the airspeed will increase.
As the airspeed increases, the tail load increases and pulls the nose back to its level flight
condition. If the nose is forced up, the airspeed will drop off, and the tail load will decrease
enough to allow the nose to drop back to level flight. See Figure 1-30.

Key Facts About Longitudinal Stability

1. An aircraft will exhibit static longitudinal stability if it tends to return towards the trim
angle of attack when displaced by a gust OR a control input.
It is essential that an aircraft has positive static longitudinal stability. If it is stable, an
aeroplane is safe and easy to fly since it seeks and tends to maintain a trimmed condition of
flight. It also follows that control deflections and control “feel” (stick force) must be logical,
both in direction and magnitude.

2. If the aircraft is neutrally stable, it tends to remain at any displacement to which it is

disturbed.
Neutral static longitudinal stability usually defines the lower limit of aeroplane stability since
it is the boundary between stability and instability. The aeroplane with neutral static stability
may be excessively responsive to controls and the aircraft has no tendency to return to trim
following a disturbance - generally, this would not be acceptable.

3. The aircraft which is unstable will continue to pitch in the disturbed direction until the
displacement is resisted by opposing control forces.
The aeroplane with negative static longitudinal stability is inherently divergent from any
intended trim condition. If it is at all possible to fly the aircraft, it cannot be trimmed and
illogical control forces and deflections are required to provide equilibrium with a change of
attitude and airspeed - clearly, this would be totally unacceptable.

Static longitudinal stability or instability in an aircraft, is dependent upon three factors:

1. Location of the wing with respect to the CG
2. Location of the horizontal tail surfaces with respect to the CG
3. Area or size of the tail surfaces
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 In analysing stability, it should be recalled that a body free to rotate always turns
about its CG. To obtain static longitudinal stability, the relation of the wing and tail
moments must be such that, if the moments are initially balanced and the aircraft is
suddenly nose up, the wing moments and tail moments change so that the sum of
their forces provides an unbalanced but restoring moment which, in turn, brings the
nose down again. Similarly, if the aircraft is nose down, the resulting change in
moment brings the nose back up.

The center of lift (CL) in most asymmetrical airfoils has a tendency to change its fore and aft
positions with a change in the AOA. The center of lift tends to move forward with an increase
in AOA and to move aft with a decrease in AOA.
This means that when the AOA of an airfoil is increased, the center of lift, by moving
forward, tends to lift the leading edge of the wing still more. This tendency gives the wing an
inherent quality of instability. (Note: center of lift is also known as the center of pressure
(CP).)

Figure 4-4 shows an aircraft in straight-and-level flight. The line CG-CL-T represents the
aircraft’s longitudinal axis from the CG to a point T on the horizontal stabilizer.

Figure 4-4. Longitudinal stability.

Most aircraft are designed so that the wing’s CL is to the rear of the CG. This makes the
aircraft “nose heavy” and requires that there be a slight downward force on the horizontal
stabilizer in order to balance the aircraft and keep the nose from continually pitching
downward.

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Compensation for this nose heaviness is provided by setting the horizontal stabilizer at a
slight negative AOA. The downward force thus produced holds the tail down,
counterbalancing the “heavy” nose. It is as if the line CG-CL-T were a lever with an upward
force at CL and two downward forces balancing each other, one a strong force at the CG
point and the other, a much lesser force, at point T (downward air pressure on the stabilizer).

To better visualize this physics principle: If an iron bar were suspended at point CL, with a
heavy weight hanging on it at the CG, it would take downward pressure at point T to keep the
“lever” in balance.

Even though the horizontal stabilizer may be level when the aircraft is in level flight, there is
a
downwash of air from the wings. This downwash strikes the top of the stabilizer and
produces a downward pressure, which at a certain speed is just enough to balance the “lever.”

The faster the aircraft is flying, the greater this downwash and the greater the downward force
on the horizontal stabilizer (except T-tails). (Figure 4-5) In aircraft with fixed-position
horizontal stabilizers, the aircraft manufacturer sets the stabilizer at an angle that provides the
best stability (or balance) during flight at the design cruising speed and power setting.

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 Figure 4-5. Effect of speed on downwash.

If the aircraft’s speed decreases, the speed of the airflow over the wing is decreased. As a
result of this decreased flow of air over the wing, the downwash is reduced, causing a lesser
downward force on the horizontal stabilizer. In turn, the characteristic nose heaviness is
accentuated, causing the aircraft’s nose to pitch down more. (Figure 4-6)

This places the aircraft in a nose-low attitude, lessening the wing’s AOA and drag and
allowing the airspeed to increase. As the aircraft continues in the nose-low attitude and its
speed increases, the downward force on the horizontal stabilizer is once again increased.
Consequently, the tail is again pushed downward and the nose rises into a climbing attitude.

Figure 4-6. Reduced power allows pitch down.

As this climb continues, the airspeed again decreases, causing the downward force on the tail
to decrease until the nose lowers once more. Because the aircraft is dynamically stable, the
nose does not lower as far this time as it did before. The aircraft acquires enough speed in this
more gradual dive to start it into another climb, but the climb is not as steep as the preceding
one.

After several of these diminishing oscillations, in which the nose alternately rises and lowers,
the aircraft finally settles down to a speed at which the downward force on the tail exactly
counteracts the tendency of the aircraft to dive. When this condition is attained, the aircraft is
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once again in balanced flight and continues in stabilized flight as long as this attitude and
airspeed are not changed.

A similar effect is noted upon closing the throttle. The downwash of the wings is reduced and
the force at T in Figure 4-4 is not enough to hold the horizontal stabilizer down. It seems as if
the force at T on the lever were allowing the force of gravity to pull the nose down. This is a
desirable characteristic because the aircraft is inherently trying to regain airspeed and re-
establish the proper balance.

Power or thrust can also have a destabilizing effect in that an increase of power may tend to
make the nose rise. The aircraft designer can offset this by establishing a “high thrust line”
wherein the line of thrust passes above the CG. (Figures 4-7 and 4-8) In this case, as power or
thrust is increased a moment is produced to counteract the down load on the tail.

Figure 4-7. Thrust line affects longitudinal stability.

On the other hand, a very “low thrust line” would tend to add to the nose-up effect of the
horizontal tail surface.

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 Figure 4-8. Power changes affect longitudinal stability.

Conclusion: with center of gravity forward of the center of lift and with an aerodynamic tail-
down force, the aircraft usually tries to return to a safe flying attitude.

For the study of stability, it is convenient to consider the changes in magnitude of lift force
due
to changes in angle of attack, acting through a stationary point, the aerodynamic centre (AC).
It will be remembered that the location of the AC is at the quarter chord (or 25% aft of the
leading edge). It should be noted that the pitching moment about the AC is negative (nose-
down) and that this negative (nose-down) pitching moment about the AC does not change
with changes in angle of attack. Figure 10.5.

Longitudinal Control (Rotation About the Lateral Axis)

When an airplane is trimmed for straight and level flight at a fixed airspeed, all the
aerodynamic forces are balanced and no control forces are needed. But the airplane can be

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rotated nose upward about its lateral axis (pitch up) by increasing the downward tail load, or
nose downward (pitch down) by decreasing the tail load.

The most generally used pitch control for an airplane is the fixed horizontal stabilizer with a
movable elevator hinged to its trailing edge. When the control wheel or stick is pulled back,
the trailing edge of the elevator moves up and increases the down load on the horizontal tail
surface. The tail moves down and rotates the airplane nose-up about its lateral axis. See
Figure 1-31 on the next page.

Figure 1-31. This airplane uses a conventional horizontal stabilizer and elevators for
longitudinal stability and control.

Some airplanes use a stabilator for pitch control. See Figure 1-32. This is a single-piece
horizontal surface that pivots about a point approximately one-third of the way back from the
leading edge. When the control wheel is pulled back, the leading edge of the stabilator moves
down and increases the downward force produced by the tail. This rotates the nose up. When
the wheel is pushed in, the nose of the stabilator moves up, decreasing the tail load, and the
airplane rotates nose down.

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 Figure 1-32. This airplane uses a stabilator for longitudinal stability and control.

Stabilator. A flight control on the empennage of an airplane that acts as both a stabilizer and
an elevator. The entire horizontal tail surface pivots and is moved as a unit.

Longitudinal control is achieved on the V-tail Beech Bonanzas with two fixed and two
movable surfaces arranged in the shape of a V. Moving the control wheel in and out actuates
the movable surfaces together so they act as elevators and rotate the airplane about its lateral
axis. When the rudder pedals are moved, the movable surfaces move differentially and act as
a rudder to rotate the airplane about its vertical axis. The movable surfaces on this type of
empennage are called ruddervators.

Ruddervators. The two movable surfaces on a V-tail empennage. When these two surfaces
are moved together with the control yoke, they act as elevators, and when they are moved
differentially with the rudder pedals, they act as the rudder.

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Figure 1-33. This airplane uses two fixed and two movable surfaces arranged in the form of a
V for longitudinal stability and control

Lateral Stability (Rolling)

Lateral stability of an airplane takes place around the longitudinal axis, which is from the
airplane’s nose to its tail of the aircraft.
Stability about the aircraft’s longitudinal axis, which extends from the nose of the aircraft to
its tail, is called lateral stability.

If one wing is lower than the other, good lateral stability will tend to bring the wings back to
a level flight attitude. One design characteristic that tends to give an airplane good lateral
stability is called dihedral. Dihedral is an upward wing angle, with respect to the horizontal,
and it is usually just a few degrees.

Imagine a low wing airplane with a few degrees of dihedral experiencing a disruption of its
flight path such that the left wing drops. When the left wing drops, this will cause the airplane
to experience a sideslip toward the low wing. The sideslip causes the low wing to experience
a higher angle of attack, which increases its lift and raises it back to a level flight attitude.
The dihedral on a wing is shown in Figure 5-63.

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 Figure 5-63. The dihedral of a wing.

This helps to stabilize the lateral or “rolling effect” when one wing gets lower than the wing
on the opposite side of the aircraft.
There are four main design factors that make an aircraft laterally stable: dihedral, sweepback,
keel effect, and weight distribution.

Dihedral
Most airplane wings tilt upward from the fuselage, and this upward angle OR Most aircraft
are designed so that the outer tips of the wings are higher than the wing roots, called dihedral,
gives the airplane lateral stability. [Figure 5-28]

Figure 5-28. Dihedral is the upward angle of the wings from a horizontal (front/rear view)
axis of the plane as shown in the graphic depiction and the rear view of a Ryanair Boeing
737.

The most common procedure for producing lateral stability is to build the wings with an
angle of one to three degrees above perpendicular to the longitudinal axis. The wings on
either side of the aircraft join the fuselage to form a slight V or angle called “dihedral.” The
amount of dihedral is measured by the angle made by each wing above a line parallel to the
lateral axis.

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Dihedral. The positive angle formed between the lateral axis of an airplane and the line that
passes through the center of the wing or the horizontal stabilizer. Dihedral increase the lateral
stability of an airplane.

Dihedral involves a balance of lift created by the wings’ AOA on each side of the aircraft’s
longitudinal axis. If a momentary gust of wind forces one wing to rise and the other to lower,
the aircraft banks. When the aircraft is banked without turning, the tendency to sideslip or
slide or roll downward toward the lowered wing occurs. (Figure 4-9).
This sideslip causes the relative wind affecting the entire airplane to be from the direction of
the slip.

Figure 4-9. Dihedral for lateral stability.

Since the wings have dihedral, the air strikes the lower wing at a much greater AOA than the
higher wing. The increased AOA on the lower wing creates more lift than the higher wing.
Increased lift causes the lower wing to begin to rise upward. As the wings approach the level
position, the AOA on both wings once again are equal, causing the rolling tendency to
subside. The effect of dihedral is to produce a rolling tendency to return the aircraft to a
laterally balanced flight condition when a sideslip occurs.

When the relative wind comes from the side, the wing slipping into the wind is subject to an
increase in AOA and develops an increase in lift. The wing away from the wind is subject to
a decrease in angle of attack, and develops a decrease in lift. The changes in lift effect a

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rolling moment tending to raise the windward wing, hence dihedral contributes to a stable roll
due to sideslip. [Figure 5-29]

Figure 5-29. Sideslip causing different AOA on each blade.

The restoring force may move the low wing up too far, so that the opposite wing now goes
down. If so, the process is repeated, decreasing with each lateral oscillation until a balance for
wings-level flight is finally reached.

Conversely, excessive dihedral has an adverse effect on lateral maneuvering qualities. The
aircraft may be so stable laterally that it resists an intentional rolling motion. For this reason,
aircraft that require fast roll or banking characteristics usually have less dihedral than those
designed for less maneuverability.
If the airplane shown in Figure 1-34 is flying along with the pilot's hands and feet off of the
controls, and a wind gust causes the right wing to drop, the air striking the descending right
wing will increase its angle of attack, and the air striking the rising left wing will decrease its
angle of attack. Since lift is determined by the angle of attack, the uneven lift will bring the
airplane back to level flight.

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 Figure 1-34. Dihedral produces lateral stability. When the right wing drops in
flight, its angle of attack increases, and the angle of attack of the left wing decreases.
Increasing the angle of attack increases the lift, and the wings return to level flight.

Sweepback
A sweptback wing is one in which the leading edge slopes backward. [Figure 5-30]. Many
aspects of an aircraft's configuration can affect its effective dihedral, but two major
components are wing sweepback and the wing location with respect to the fuselage (such as a
low wing or high wing).
As a rough estimation, 10° of sweepback on a wing provides about 1° of effective dihedral,
while a high wing configuration can provide about 5° of effective dihedral over a low wing
configuration.

Figure 5-30. Sweepback wings.

Sweepback is an addition to the dihedral that increases the lift created when a wing drops
from the level position. A sweptback wing is one in which the leading edge slopes backward.
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When a disturbance causes an aircraft with sweepback to slip or drop a wing, the low wing
presents its leading edge at an angle that is perpendicular to the relative airflow. As a result,
the low wing acquires more lift, rises, and the aircraft is restored to its original flight attitude.

Sweepback also contributes to directional stability. When turbulence or rudder application

causes the aircraft to yaw to one side, the right wing presents a longer leading edge
perpendicular to the relative airflow. The airspeed of the right wing increases and it acquires
more drag than the left wing. The additional drag on the right wing pulls it back, turning the
aircraft back to its original path.

Keel Effect and Weight Distribution

A high wing aircraft always has the tendency to turn the longitudinal axis of the aircraft into
the relative wind, which is often referred to as the keel effect. This “weather vane” tendency
is similar to the keel of a ship and exerts a steadying influence on the aircraft laterally about
the longitudinal axis. When the aircraft is disturbed and one wing dips, the fuselage weight
acts like a pendulum returning the airplane to its original attitude.

These aircraft are laterally stable simply because the wings are attached in a high position on
the fuselage, making the fuselage behave like a keel exerting a steadying influence on the
aircraft laterally about the longitudinal axis. When a high-winged aircraft is disturbed and one
wing dips, the fuselage weight acts like a pendulum returning the aircraft to the horizontal
level.

Laterally stable aircraft are constructed so that the greater portion of the keel area is above the
CG. [Figure 5-31 / Figure 4-10] Thus, when the aircraft slips to one side, the combination of
the aircraft’s weight and the pressure of the airflow against the upper portion of the keel area
(both acting about the CG) tends to roll the aircraft back to wings-level flight.

Laterally stable aircraft are constructed so that the greater portion of the keel area is above
and behind the CG. (Figure 4-10) Thus, when the aircraft slips to one side, the combination
of the aircraft’s weight and the pressure of the airflow against the upper portion of the keel
area (both acting about the CG) tends to roll the aircraft back to wings-level flight.

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 Figure 4-10. Keel area for lateral stability.

Lateral Control (Rotation About the Longitudinal Axis)

Balanced aerodynamic forces cause a properly designed and trimmed airplane to fly straight
and level with hands and feet off of the controls. The lift produced by the wings is equal.

When you want to roll the airplane to the right, turn the control wheel to the right. The aileron
on the right wing moves up, decreasing the camber, or curvature, of the right wing and
decreasing the lift it produces. At the same time, the aileron on the left wing moves down,
increasing the camber of the left wing and increasing the lift it produces. The difference in lift
produced by the two wings rolls the airplane to the right.

Vertical (Directional) Stability (Yawing)

Stability about the aircraft’s vertical axis (the sideways moment) is called yawing or
directional
Stability.
And it causes the nose of the airplane to turn into the relative wind when it has been disturbed
from this condition.

Yawing or directional stability is the most easily achieved stability in aircraft design. The
area of the vertical fin and the sides of the fuselage aft of the CG are the prime contributors
which make the aircraft act like the well-known weather vane or arrow, pointing its nose into
the relative wind.

Directional stability is achieved primarily by the weathervane tendency of the vertical fin.
Figure 1-37 shows that when the airplane is flying straight into the relative wind, the air
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flows evenly around the fin, and there is no sideways force on the tail. But if a wind gust
strikes the airplane and forces the nose to the right, the air striking the vertical fin gives it an
angle of attack that increases the lift on the right side and pulls the tail around until the
airplane is headed back into the relative wind.

Figure 1-37. Directional stability

An airplane's propeller forces the air to rotate around the fuselage in a corkscrew-like
manner. This causes the air to strike the vertical fin in such a way that produces an angle of
attack resulting in a sideways force to the right.
To prevent this yawing force, most single-engine propeller-driven airplanes have the leading
edge of the vertical fin offset a few degrees to the left. This places the fin directly into the
relative wind when the airplane is flying at its normal cruising airspeed with the engine
turning at a specific RPM.

In examining a weather vane, it can be seen that if exactly the same amount of surface were
exposed to the wind in front of the pivot point as behind it, the forces fore and aft would be in
balance and little or no directional movement would result. Consequently, it is necessary to
have a greater surface aft of the pivot point than forward of it.

Similarly, the aircraft designer must ensure positive directional stability by making the side
surface greater aft than ahead of the CG. (Figure 4-11) To provide additional positive
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stability to that provided by the fuselage, a vertical fin is added. The fin acts similar to the
feather on an arrow in maintaining straight flight. Like the weather vane and the arrow, the
farther aft this fin is placed and the larger its size, the greater the aircraft’s directional
stability.

Figure 4-11. Fuselage and fin for directional stability

If an aircraft is flying in a straight line, and a sideward gust of air gives the aircraft a slight
rotation about its vertical axis (e.g., the right), the motion is retarded and stopped by the fin
because while the aircraft is rotating to the right, the air is striking the left side of the fin at an
angle.
This causes pressure on the left side of the fin, which resists the turning motion and slows
down the aircraft’s yaw. In doing so, it acts somewhat like the weather vane by turning the
aircraft into the relative wind.
The initial change in direction of the aircraft’s flightpath is generally slightly behind its
change of heading. Therefore, after a slight yawing of the aircraft to the right, there is a brief
moment when the aircraft is still moving along its original path, but its longitudinal axis is
pointed slightly to the right.

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The aircraft is then momentarily skidding sideways, and during that moment (since it is
assumed that although the yawing motion has stopped, the excess pressure on the left side of
the fin still persists) there is necessarily a tendency for the aircraft to be turned partially back
to the left. That is, there is a momentary restoring tendency caused by the fin.

This restoring tendency is relatively slow in developing and ceases when the aircraft stops
skidding. When it ceases, the aircraft is flying in a direction slightly different from the
original
direction. In other words, it will not return of its own accord to the original heading; the pilot
must re-establish the initial heading.

A minor improvement of directional stability may be obtained through sweepback.

Sweepback is incorporated in the design of the wing primarily to delay the onset of
compressibility during high-speed flight. In lighter and slower aircraft, sweepback aids in
locating the center of pressure in the correct relationship with the CG. A longitudinally stable
aircraft is built with the center of pressure aft of the CG.

Because of structural reasons, aircraft designers sometimes cannot attach the wings to the
fuselage at the exact desired point. If they had to mount the wings too far forward, and at
right angles to the fuselage, the center of pressure would not be far enough to the rear to
result in the desired amount of longitudinal stability. By building sweepback into the wings,
however, the designers can move the center of pressure toward the rear. The amount of
sweepback and the position of the wings then place the center of pressure in the correct
location.

The contribution of the wing to static directional stability is usually small. The swept wing
provides a stable contribution depending on the amount of sweepback, but the contribution is
relatively small when compared with other components.

The Effect of Sweepback

One of the problems with high-speed aerodynamics is the compressibility factor, which
causes shock waves to form on the wing. With the leading edge of the wing swept back,
compressibility can be delayed to a higher airspeed. But sweepback also has an effect on
directional stability.

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When an airplane with a swept-back wing is struck by an air gust that causes the nose to yaw
to the left, as is shown in Figure 1-38, the right wing moves forward into the wind and the left
wing moves back. More air is now flowing straight back across the right wing, producing
more induced drag than the left wing, so the nose is pulled back to the right.

Figure 1-38. Effect of sweepback on directional stability

Directional Control (Rotation About the Vertical Axis)

The rudder is used on an airplane only to rotate it about its vertical axis. An airplane is turned
by tilting the lift vector with the ailerons and not by using the rudder. The rudder is used only
at the beginning of the turn to overcome the adverse yaw and start the nose moving in the
correct direction and for such flight conditions as crosswind take-offs and landings.

Dutch Roll (Free Directional Oscillations)

Dutch roll. A coupled oscillation about an airplane's lateral and vertical axes
Sweptwing airplanes sometimes encounter a condition in which the airplane oscillates about
both its longitudinal and vertical axes at the same time. This is known as Dutch roll.

Dutch roll is a coupled lateral/directional oscillation that is usually dynamically stable but is
unsafe in an aircraft because of the oscillatory nature. The damping of the oscillatory mode
may be weak or strong depending on the properties of the particular aircraft.
When the airplane is disturbed in flight in such a way that a wing drops, both the dihedral
and the sweepback work together to restore the airplane to straight and level flight. But if
the dihedral effect is strong with respect to the static directional stability, an oscillation is set
up that is uncomfortable to the occupants.

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If the aircraft has a right wing pushed down, the positive sideslip angle corrects the wing
laterally before the nose is realigned with the relative wind. As the wing corrects the position,
a lateral directional oscillation can occur resulting in the nose of the aircraft making a figure
eight on the horizon as a result of two oscillations (roll and yaw), which, although of about
the same magnitude, are out of phase with each other.

Airplanes that have this problem (continuing Dutch roll tendencies) are usually equipped with
a yaw damper (equipped with gyro-stabilized yaw dampers), a special automatic flight
control device that senses the Dutch roll and applies corrective rudder action to prevent or at
least greatly attenuate it.

In most modern aircraft, except high-speed swept wing designs, these free directional
oscillations usually die out automatically in very few cycles unless the air continues to be
gusty or turbulent.

Manufacturers try to reach a midpoint between too much and too little directional stability.
Because it is more desirable for the aircraft to have “spiral instability” than Dutch roll
tendencies, most aircraft are designed with that characteristic.

Spiral Instability
Spiral instability exists when the static directional stability of the aircraft is very strong as
compared to the effect of its dihedral in maintaining lateral equilibrium.

When the lateral equilibrium of the aircraft is disturbed by a gust of air and a sideslip is
introduced, the strong directional stability tends to yaw the nose into the resultant relative
wind while the comparatively weak dihedral lags in restoring the lateral balance.

Due to this yaw, the wing on the outside of the turning moment travels forward faster than the
inside wing and, as a consequence, its lift becomes greater. This produces an overbanking
tendency which, if not corrected by the pilot, results in the bank angle becoming steeper and
steeper.
At the same time, the strong directional stability that yaws the aircraft into the relative wind
is actually forcing the nose to a lower pitch attitude. A slow downward spiral begins which, if
not counteracted by the pilot, gradually increases into a steep spiral dive. Usually the rate of
divergence in the spiral motion is so gradual the pilot can control the tendency without any
difficulty.

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Many aircraft are affected to some degree by this characteristic, although they may be
inherently stable in all other normal parameters. This tendency explains why an aircraft
cannot
be flown “hands off” indefinitely.

Much research has gone into the development of control devices (wing leveler) to correct or
eliminate this instability. The pilot must be careful in application of recovery controls during
advanced stages of this spiral condition or excessive loads may be imposed on the structure.
Improper recovery from spiral instability leading to inflight structural failures has probably
contributed to more fatalities in general aviation aircraft than any other factor.

Since the airspeed in the spiral condition builds up rapidly, the application of back elevator
force to reduce this speed and to pull the nose up only “tightens the turn,” increasing the load
factor. The results of the prolonged uncontrolled spiral are inflight structural failure, crashing
into the ground, or both. Common recorded causes for pilots who get into this situation are
loss of horizon reference, inability to control the aircraft by reference to instruments, or a
combination of both.

Effect of Wing Planform

Understanding the effects of different wing planforms is important when learning about wing
performance and airplane flight characteristics. A planform is the shape of the wing as
viewed from directly above and deals with airflow in three dimensions. Aspect ratio, taper
ratio, and sweepback are factors in planform design that are very important to the overall
aerodynamic characteristic of a wing. [Figure 5-33]

Aspect ratio is the ratio of wing span to wing chord. Taper ratio can be either in planform or
thickness, or both. In its simplest terms, it is a decrease from wing root to wingtip in wing
chord or wing thickness. Sweepback is the rearward slant of a wing, horizontal tail, or other
airfoil surface.

There are two general means by which the designer can change the planform of a wing and
both will affect the aerodynamic characteristics of the wing. The first is to effect a change in
the aspect ratio. Aspect ratio is the primary factor in determining thcharacteristics of the
ordinary wing and its lift/drag ratio. An increase in aspect ratio with constant velocity will

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decrease the drag, especially at high angles of attack, improving the performance of the wing
when in a climbing attitude.

A decrease in aspect ratio will give a corresponding increase in drag. It should be noted,
however, that with an increase in aspect ratio there is an increase in the length of span, with a
corresponding increase in the weight of the wing structure, which means the wing must be
heavier to carry the same load. For this reason, part of the gain (due to a decrease in drag) is
lost because of the increased weight, and a compromise in design is necessary to obtain the
best results from these two conflicting conditions.

Figure 5-33. Different types of wing planforms.

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The second means of changing the planform is by tapering (decreasing the length of chord
from the root to the tip of the wing). In general, tapering causes a decrease in drag (most
effective at high speeds) and an increase in lift. There is also a structural benefit due to a
saving in weight of the wing.

Most training and general aviation type airplanes are operated at high coefficients of lift, and
therefore require comparatively high aspect ratios. Airplanes that are developed to operate at
very high speeds demand greater aerodynamic cleanness and greater strength, which require
low aspect ratios. Very low aspect ratios result in high wing loadings and high stall speeds.

When sweepback is combined with low aspect ratio, it results in flying qualities very
different from a more conventional high aspect ratio airplane configuration. Such airplanes
require very precise and professional flying techniques, especially at slow speeds, while
airplanes with a high aspect ratio are usually more forgiving of improper pilot techniques.

The elliptical wing is the ideal subsonic planform since it provides for a minimum of induced
drag for a given aspect ratio, though as we shall see, its stall characteristics in some respects
are inferior to the rectangular wing. It is also comparatively difficult to construct. The tapered
airfoil is desirable from the standpoint of weight and stiffness, but again is not as efficient
aerodynamically as the elliptical wing. In order to preserve the aerodynamic efficiency of the
elliptical wing, rectangular and tapered wings are sometimes tailored through use of wing
twist and variation in airfoil sections until they provide as nearly as possible the elliptical
wing’s lift distribution. While it is true that the elliptical wing provides the best coefficients
of lift before reaching an incipient stall, it gives little advance warning of a complete stall,
and lateral control may be difficult because of poor aileron effectiveness.

In comparison, the rectangular wing has a tendency to stall first at the wing root and provides
adequate stall warning, adequate aileron effectiveness, and is usually quite stable. It is,
therefore, favored in the design of low cost, low speed airplanes.

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Turning Flight

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By changing the angle of attack the pilot can control lift, airspeed, and drag. Even the
total load supported in flight by the wing, may be modified by variations in angle of
attack, and when coordinated with power changes, and auxiliary devices such as flaps,
slots, slats, etc., is the essence of airplane control.

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AIRCRAFTR FLIGHT CONTROLS
Primary Flight Controls
The ailerons, elevator (or stabilator), and rudder constitute the primary control system and are
required to control an aircraft safely during flight.
Movement of any of the three primary flight control surfaces (ailerons, elevator or stabilator,
or rudder), changes the airflow and pressure distribution over and around the airfoil.

Ailerons
Ailerons control roll about the longitudinal axis. The ailerons are attached to the outboard
trailing edge of each wing and move in the opposite direction from each other.

Moving the control wheel, or control stick, to the right causes the right aileron to deflect
upward and the left aileron to deflect downward. The upward deflection of the right aileron
decreases the camber resulting in decreased lift on the right wing. The corresponding
downward deflection of the left aileron increases the camber resulting in increased lift on the
left wing. Thus, the increased lift on the left wing and the decreased lift on the right wing
causes the aircraft to roll to the right.

Assignment
What is the relationship between ailerons and high-speed airplanes?
Also, a conventional size aileron would cause wing twist at high speed. For that reason,
spoilers are used in unison with ailerons to provide additional roll control. Some jet transports
have two sets of ailerons, a pair of outboard low-speed ailerons and a pair of high-speed
inboard ailerons.

Jet transport aircraft have small ailerons. The space for ailerons is limited because as much of
the wing trailing edge as possible is needed for flaps. Also, a conventional size aileron would
cause wing twist at high speed. For that reason, spoilers are used in unison with ailerons to
provide additional roll control.
Some jet transports have two sets of ailerons, a pair of outboard low-speed ailerons and a pair
of high-speed inboard ailerons. When the flaps are fully retracted after takeoff, the outboard
ailerons are automatically locked out in the faired position.
When used for roll control, the spoiler on the side of the up-going aileron extends and
reduces the lift on that side, causing the wing to drop. If the spoilers are extended as speed
brakes, they can still be used for roll control. If they are the differential type, they extend
further on one side and retract on the other side. If they are the non-differential type, they

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extend further on one side but do not retract on the other side. When fully extended as speed
brakes, the non-differential spoilers remain extended and do not supplement the ailerons.

Ailerons
Description
Ailerons are a primary flight control surface which control movement about the longitudinal
axis of an aircraft. This movement is referred to as "roll". The ailerons are attached to the
outboard trailing edge of each wing and, when a manual or autopilot control input is made,
move in opposite directions from one another. In some large aircraft, two ailerons are
mounted on each wing. In this configuration, both ailerons on each wing are active during
slow speed flight. However, at higher speed, the outboard aileron is locked and only the
inboard or high speed aileron is functional.

Function
Moving the flight deck control wheel or control stick to the right results in the aileron
mounted on the right wing to deflect upward while, at the same time, the aileron on the left
wing deflects downward. The upward deflection of the right aileron reduces the camber of
the wing resulting in decreased lift on the right wing. Conversely, the downward deflection of
the left aileron results in an increase in camber and a corresponding increase in lift on the left
wing. The differential lift between the wings results in the aircraft rolling to the right. On
some aircraft, ailerons are augmented by roll spoilers mounted on the upper surface of the
wing.

Adverse Yaw
In the functional example above, the increase in camber of the left wing results in an increase
in lift but this, in turn, also causes an increase in drag. This added drag causes the wing to
slow down slightly resulting in rotation, referred to as yaw,around the vertical axis. To
overcome this yaw and thereby maintain coordinated flight, rudder input is required while
entering and exiting a turn. To minimise the amount of adverse yaw produced during a turn,
engineers have developed various aerodynamic and mechanical solutions including
differential ailerons and coupled ailerons and rudder.

Adverse Yaw
Since the downward deflected aileron produces more lift as evidenced by the wing raising, it
also produces more drag. This added drag causes the wing to slow down slightly.

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This results in the aircraft yawing toward the wing which had experienced an increase in lift
(and drag). From the pilot’s perspective, the yaw is opposite the direction of the bank. The
adverse yaw is a result of differential drag and the slight difference in the velocity of the left
and right wings. [Figure 6-5]

Figure 6-5. Adverse yaw is caused by higher drag on the outside wing that is producing more
lift
Adverse yaw becomes more pronounced at low airspeeds. At these slower airspeeds,
aerodynamic pressure on control surfaces are low, and larger control inputs are required to
effectively maneuver the aircraft. As a result, the increase in aileron deflection causes an
increase in adverse yaw. The yaw is especially evident in aircraft with long wing spans.

Application of the rudder is used to counteract adverse yaw. The amount of rudder control
required is greatest at low airspeeds, high angles of attack, and with large aileron deflections.
Like all control surfaces at lower airspeeds, the vertical stabilizer/rudder becomes less
effective and magnifies the control problems associated with adverse yaw.
All turns are coordinated by use of ailerons, rudder, and elevator. Applying aileron pressure
is necessary to place the aircraft in the desired angle of bank, while simultaneous application
of rudder pressure is necessary to counteract the resultant adverse yaw. Additionally, because
more lift is required during a turn than during straight-and-level flight, the angle of attack
(AOA) must be increased by applying elevator back pressure. The steeper the turn, the more
elevator back pressure that is needed.

As the desired angle of bank is established, aileron and rudder pressures should be relaxed.
This stops the angle of bank from increasing, because the aileron and rudder control surfaces
are in a neutral and streamlined position. Elevator back pressure should be held constant to
maintain altitude.

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The roll-out from a turn is similar to the roll-in, except the flight controls are applied in the
opposite direction. The aileron and rudder are applied in the direction of the roll-out or
toward the high wing. As the angle of bank decreases, the elevator back pressure should be
relaxed as necessary to maintain altitude.
In an attempt to reduce the effects of adverse yaw, manufacturers have engineered four
systems: differential ailerons, frise-type ailerons, coupled ailerons and rudder, and flaperons.

Elevator
The pitching moment occurs about the center of gravity (CG). The strength of the pitching
moment is determined by the distance between the CG and the horizontal tail surface, as well
as by the aerodynamic effectiveness of the horizontal tail surface.

High lift devices

To avoid separation of the boundary layer engineers, use high-lift devices such
as slats and flaps.
High lift devices are used in combination with airofoils in order to reduce the take-off or
landing speed by changing the lift characteristics of an airofoil during the landing or the
take-off phases.
When these devices are no longer needed they are returned to a position within the wing to
regain the normal characteristics of the aerofoil

High lift systems operate according to the following principles

1. Increasing the airfoil camber or change AOA
2. Boundary layer control by improving pressure distribution;
3. Increasing the wing area.

Wing flaps, leading edge devices, spoilers, and trim systems constitute the secondary control
system and improve the performance characteristics of the airplane or relieve the pilot of
excessive control forces.

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