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Chapter 02 Linux Installation and Usage

TRUEFALSE

1. A swap partition contains a filesystem.

(A) True

(B) False

Answer : (B)

2. When a user interacts with his computer, he interacts directly with the kernel of the computer's
operating system.

(A) True (B)

False

Answer : (B)

3. At minimum, Linux typically requires only two partitions to be created: a partition that is mounted
to the root directory, and a partition for virtual memory.

(A) True (B)

False

Answer : (A)

4. In the past, SATA hard disks were referred to as Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE).

(A) True

(B) False

Answer : (B)

5. By default, Fedora 20 allows the root user to log into the GNOME desktop.

(A) True

(B) False
Answer : (B)

MULTICHOICE
6. What installation media source is the most common source for Linux packages?

(A) DVD

(B) NFS

(C) hard disk

(D) CD-ROM

Answer : (A)

7. What is the minimum number of user accounts that must be created at install time?

(A) one

(B) two

(C) three

(D) four

Answer : (B)

8. A hard drive or SSD can be divided into partitions. What is the maximum number of primary
partitions that can be used on these devices?

(A) 4

(B) 8

(C) 16

(D) 32

Answer : (A)

9. What is the recommended size for the /home directory?

(A) 100 MB

(B) 200 MB

(C) 500 MB

(D) 1000 MB

Answer : (B)

10. Under the root directory in Linux, which directory contains system commands and utilities?
(A) /opt

(B) /var

(C) /boot

(D) /usr

Answer : (D)

11. After logging into a terminal, a user will receive an interface known as which option below?

(A) processor

(B) user interface

(C) swap memory

(D) shell

Answer : (D)

12. When using command-line terminal, specific letters that start with a dash ("-") and appear after
command names are considered to be:

(A) Arguments

(B) Options

(C) Keywords

(D) Metacharacters

Answer : (B)

13. Which Linux command can be utilized to display your current login name?

(A) who

(B) whoami

(C) id

(D) w

Answer : (B)

14. After a shell is no longer needed, what command can be given to exit the shell?

(A) exit
(B) stop

(C) reset

(D) quit

Answer : (A)

15. A calendar for the current month can be shown on the command line by issuing which
command?

(A) date

(B) cal

(C) w

(D) id

Answer : (B)

16. What metacharacter indicates background command execution?

(A) @

(B) ^

(C) &

(D) !

Answer : (C)

17. What metacharacter can be used to issue two commands to be run in consecutive order, without
piping or redirecting output?

(A) \

(B) &

(C) ;

(D) |

Answer : (C)

18. The apropos list command produces the same results as which command below?

(A) man -j list

(B) man -k list

(C) man -l list

(D) man -m list

Answer : (B)

19. In Fedora 20, what terminal is used for graphical login?

(A) tty0

(B) tty1

(C) tty2

(D) tty4

Answer : (B)

20. What directory under / contains the log files and spools for a Linux system?

(A) /boot

(B) /usr

(C) /opt

(D) /var

Answer : (D)

21. Select the utility below that when run will start and perform a thorough check of RAM for
hardware errors:

(A) memcheck68

(B) memtest86

(C) fixram

(D) fsck

Answer : (B)

22. Some Linux distributions have the ability to boot an image from install media and run entirely
from RAM. What is the name for this kind of image?

(A) open media image

(B) live media image

(C) runtime media image

(D) forensic media image

Answer : (B)

23. Prior to performing an installation of Linux, the hardware components of the target system
should be checked against what known compatible list below?

(A) Software / Hardware List (SHL)

(B) Known Working Devices (KWD)

(C) Hardware Compatibility List (HCL)

(D) Compatible Hardware List (CHL)

Answer : (C)

24. What term describes the physical hardware and the underlying operating system upon which a
virtual machine runs?

(A) virtual gateway

(B) virtual leader

(C) virtual host

(D) virtual center

Answer : (C)

25. The Linux kernel exists as a file named:

(A) vmlinuz

(B) vmlinux

(C) kernel.0

(D) krn.linux

Answer : (A)

SHORTANSWER

26. A(n) specifies the parameters that tailor a command to the particular
needs of the user.Answer : argument

27. To print the current date and time, type the command .Answer : date
28. In Linux, the command displays currently logged-in users.Answer :
who

29. The process of requires that each user must log in with a valid user name and
password before gaining access to a user interface.Answer : authentication

30. Older systems often use hard disks that physically connect to the computer in
one of four different configurations.Answer : Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment (PATA)

ESSAY

31. Describe virtual memory, and explain how it is used.

Graders Info :

Virtual memory consists of an area on the hard disk that, when the physical memory (RAM) is being
used excessively, can be used to store information that would normally reside in the physical
memory.When programs are executed that require a great deal of resources on the computer,
information is continuously swapped from the physical memory to the virtual memory on the hard
disk, and vice versa.

32. Explain what a journaling file system is, and detail the benefits of using such a filesystem.

Graders Info :

A journaling filesystem keeps track of the information written to the hard disk in a journal. If you
copy a file on the hard disk from one directory to another, that file must pass into physical memory
and then be written to the new location on the hard disk. If the power to the computer is turned off
during this process, information might not be transmitted as expected and data might be lost or
corrupted. With a journaling filesystem, each step required to copy the file to the new location is
first written to a journal; this means the system can retrace the steps the system took prior to a
power outage and complete the file copy.

33. Describe what a terminal is, and detail why it is necessary.

Graders Info :

A terminal is the channel that allows a certain user to log in to a Linux kernel, and there can be
many terminals in Linux that allow you to log in to the computer locally or across a network. After a
user logs in to a terminal, she receives a user interface called a shell, which then accepts input from
the user and passes this input to the kernel for processing. Since Linux is a multiuser and
multitasking operating system, thousands of terminals can be used. Each terminal can represent a
separate logged-in user that has its own shell.

34. Explain what a metacharacter is, and detail the significance of the $ metacharacter.
Graders Info :

A metacharacter is a keyboard characters that has a special meaning. One of the most commonly
used metacharacters is the $ character, which tells the shell that the following text refers to a
variable. A variable is simply a piece of information that is stored in memory; variable names are
typically uppercase words and most variables are set by the Linux system automatically when you
log in.

35. Explain what the man pages and info pages are, and describe the differences between the two.

Graders Info :

The most common form of documentation for Linux commands is manual pages (commonly referred
to as man pages). Simply type the man command followed by a command name, and extensive
information about that Linux command is displayed page-by-page on the terminal screen. This
information includes a description of the command and its syntax as well as available options,
related files, and commands.
Another utility, originally intended to replace the man command in Linux, is the GNU info pages. You
can access this utility by typing the info command followed by the name of the command in
question. The info command returns an easy-to-read description of each command and also contains
links to other information pages (called hyperlinks). Today however, both the info pages and the
manual pages are used to find documentation because manual pages have been utilized in Linux
since its conception and for over two decades in the UNIX operating system.

MATCH

36. Match each correct item with the statement below.

MULTICHOICE

37. Which filesystems below perform journaling?

(A) VFAT

(B) REISER

(C) ext2

(D) ext4

Answer :

38. What two disk systems allow for the use of more than four hard drives or SSDs in a single
system?
(A) SATA

(B) SCSI

(C) PATA

(D) SAN

Answer :

39. What two commands below will halt a Linux system immediately?

(A) shutdown -H now

(B) shutdown -r now

(C) halt

(D) poweroff

Answer :

40. Which two filesystems below do not perform journaling?

(A) ext2

(B) VFAT

(C) ext3

(D) REISER

Answer :

41. In order to switch between terminals in Linux, a user can press what two keys in combination
with the F1-F6 keys?

(A) Shift

(B) Ctrl

(C) Alt

(D) Tab

Answer :
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absolutely proved. The inhabitants of India having from time
immemorial been in the habit of taking this species and taming it, it
has been much better observed than the other. Varieties have been
remarked as to size, lightness of form, the length and direction of
the tusks, and the colours of the skin. The females and some of the
males have tusks which are always small and straight. The tusks of
the other males never attain so great a length as in the African
species[430]. The natural number of the hoofs is five before and four
behind. The ear is small, frequently angular. The skin is commonly
grey, spotted with brown. There are individuals entirely white. The
height varies from fifteen to sixteen feet. Its manners, the mode of
taking it, and of treating it, have been carefully described by many
travellers and naturalists, from Aristotle down to Mr Corse Scott.
3. Elephas primigenius, Blum, or Mammoth.—The Elephant with
elongated skull, concave forehead, very long alveolæ for the tusks,
the lower jaw obtuse, the grinders broader, parallel, marked with
closer bands, which we name the Fossil Elephant (Elephas
primigenius, Blum.), is the Mammoth of the Russians. Its bones are
only found in the fossil state. No person has seen in a fresh state
bones resembling those by which this species is peculiarly
distinguished, nor have the bones of the two preceding species been
seen in the fossil state.[431] Its bones are found in great number in
many countries, but in better preservation in the north than
elsewhere. It resembles the Indian more than the African species. It
differs, however, from the former in the grinders, in the form of the
lower jaw, and many other bones, but especially in the length of the
alveolæ and tusks. This last character must have singularly modified
the figure and organisation of its proboscis, and given it a
physiognomy much more different from that of the Indian species,
than might have been expected from the similarity of the rest of
their bones. It appears that its tusks were generally large, frequently
more or less spirally arcuate, and directed outwards. There is no
proof that they differ much according to differences of sex or race.
The size was not much greater than that to which the Indian species
may attain; it appears to have been still clumsier in its proportions.
It is already manifest from its osseous remains, that it was a species
differing more from the Indian, than the ass from the horse, and the
jackal and isatis from the wolf and fox. It is not known what had
been the size of its ears, or the colour of its skin; but it is certain
that, at least, some individuals bore two sorts of hair, namely, a red,
coarse, tufted wool, and stiff black hairs, which, upon the neck and
along the dorsal spine, became long enough to form a sort of mane.
Thus, not only is there nothing impossible in its having been able to
support a climate which would destroy the Indian species, but it is
even probable that it was so constituted as to prefer cold climates.
Its bones are generally found in the alluvial and superficial strata of
the earth, and most commonly in the deposits which fill up the
bottom of valleys, or which border the beds of rivers. They scarcely
ever occur by themselves, but are confusedly mingled with bones of
other quadrupeds of known genera, such as rhinoceroses, oxen,
antelopes, horses, and frequently with remains of marine animals,
particularly conchiferous species, some of which have even been
found adhering to them. The positive testimony of Pallas, Fortis, and
many others, does not allow us to doubt that this latter circumstance
has frequently taken place, although it is not always observed. We
ourselves have at this moment under our eyes a portion of a jaw
covered with millepores and small oysters.
The strata which cover the bones of elephants are not of very
great thickness, and they are scarcely ever of a rocky nature. They
are seldom petrified, and there are only one or two cases recorded
in which they were found imbedded in a shelly or other rock.
Frequently they are simply accompanied with our common fresh
water shells. The resemblance, in this latter respect, as well as with
regard to the nature of the soil, between the three places, of which
we have the most detailed accounts, viz. Tonna, Cantstadt, and the
Forest of Bondi, is very remarkable. Every thing, therefore, seems to
announce that the cause which has buried them, is one of the most
recent of those that have contributed to change the surface of the
globe. It is nevertheless a physical and general cause; the bones of
fossil elephants are so numerous, and have been found in places so
desert and even uninhabitable, that we cannot suppose that they
had been conducted there by man. The strata which contain them
and those which are above them, shew, that this cause was
aqueous, or that it was water that covered them; and in many
places these waters were nearly the same as those of our present
sea, since they supported animals nearly the same. But, it was not
by these waters that they were transported to the places where they
now are. Bones of this description have been found in almost every
country that has been examined by naturalists. An irruption of the
sea that might have brought them from places which the Indian
elephant now inhabits, could not have scattered them so far, nor
dispersed them so equably. Besides, the inundation which buried
them has not risen above the great chains of mountains, since the
strata which it has deposited, and which cover the bones, are only
found in plains of little elevation. It is not, therefore, seen how the
carcases of elephants could have been transported into the north,
across the mountains of Thibet, and the Altaic and Uralian chains.
Further, these bones are not rolled; they retain their ridges and
apophyses; they have not been worn by friction. Very frequently the
epiphyses of those which had not yet attained their full growth, are
still attached to them, although the slightest effort would suffice to
detach them. The only alterations that are remarked, arise from the
decomposition which they have undergone during their abode in the
earth. Nor can it with more reason be represented that the entire
carcases had been violently transported. In this case, the bones
would indeed have remained entire; but they would also have
remained together, and would not have been scattered. The shells,
millepores, and other marine productions which are attached to
some of these bones, prove besides that they had remained at least
some time stripped and separated at the bottom of the fluid which
covered them. The elephants’ bones had therefore already been in
the places in which they are found, when the fluid covered them.
They were scattered about in the same manner as in our own
country the bones of horses and other animals that inhabit it may
be, and as the dead bodies are spread in the fields.
 Every circumstance, therefore, renders it extremely probable, that
the elephants which have furnished the fossil bones, dwelt and lived
in the countries where their bones are at present found. They could
only, therefore, have disappeared by a revolution, which had
destroyed all the individuals then living, or by a change of climate,
which prevented them from propagating. But whatever this cause
may have been, it must have been sudden. The bones and ivory
which are found in so perfect a state of preservation in the plains of
Siberia, are only so preserved by the cold which congeals them
there, or which, in general, arrests the action of the elements upon
them. If this cold had come on by degrees and slowly, these bones,
and still more the soft parts with which they are still sometimes
invested, would have had time to decompose, like those which occur
in warm and temperate countries. It would especially have been
impossible that an entire carcase, like that discovered by Mr Adams,
could have retained its flesh and skin without corruption, if it had not
been immediately enveloped by the ice which preserved it. Thus, all
the hypotheses of a gradual cooling of the earth, or of a slow
variation, whether in the inclination or in the position of the axis of
the globe, fall to be rejected.
If the present elephants of India were the descendants of these
ancient elephants, which have been preserved in that climate to the
present day, from their being there placed beyond the reach of the
catastrophe which destroyed them in the others, it would be
impossible to explain why their species has been destroyed in
America, where remains are still found, which prove that they had
formerly existed there. The vast empire of Mexico presented to them
heights enough to escape from an inundation so little elevated as
that which we must suppose to have taken place, and the climate
there is warmer than is requisite for their temperament.
The various mastodons, the hippopotamus and the fossil
rhinoceros lived in the same countries, and in the same districts, as
the elephants, since their bones are found in the same strata and in
the same state. Yet these animals very assuredly no longer exist.
Every thing therefore, Cuvier maintains, concurs to induce a belief
that the fossil elephant is, like them, an extinct species, although it
resembles more than they one of the species at present existing,
and that its extinction has been produced by a sudden cause, by the
same great catastrophe which destroyed the species of the same
epoch.

3. On the Great Mastodon, or Animal of the Ohio.

It appears that the Great Mastodon or Animal of the Ohio, was

very like the elephant in its tusks and whole skeleton, the grinders
excepted; that it very probably had a proboscis; that its height did
not exceed that of the elephant, but that it was a little more
elongated, and had limbs somewhat thicker, with a more slender
belly. Notwithstanding all these points of resemblance, the peculiar
structure of its grinders is sufficient to constitute it of a different
genus from the elephant. It further appears, that it fed much in the
same manner as the hippopotamus and boar, choosing by
preference the roots and other fleshy parts of vegetables; that this
sort of food must have drawn it towards the soft and marshy places;
that, nevertheless, it was not formed for swimming, and living often
in the water like the hippopotamus, but that it was a true land
animal. Its bones are much more common in North America than
any where else. They are even perhaps exclusively confined to that
country. They are better preserved, and fresher, than any other fossil
bones known; and, nevertheless, there is not the slightest proof, the
smallest authentic testimony, calculated to impress a belief that
either in America, or any where else, there is still any living
individual, for the various accounts which we have from time to time
read in the journals respecting living mastodons, which had been
observed in the forests or plains of that vast continent, have never
been confirmed, and can only pass for fables.

Note
ON THE CAVES IN WHICH BONES OF CARNIVOROUS ANIMALS OCCUR IN GREAT
QUANTITIES.

The extraordinary accumulations of fossil bones in caves and

caverns in different districts, especially in those composed of
limestone, have for many years engaged the attention of inquirers;
and, of late, have afforded many interesting facts to the geologist
and zoologist. In England, as will appear from the following details,
many different fossil animals have been discovered in limestone
caves; but hitherto the caves in Scotland, which will probably be
found to contain interesting documents of an ancient population,
have not been examined. As the subject is a curious and interesting
one, we shall, in the following pages, principally from Cuvier’s great
work, lay before our readers a pretty full account of the different
caves, especially those that afford bones of carnivorous animals.

Numerous caves, brilliantly decorated with stalactites of every

form, succeeding each other to a great depth in the interior of
mountains, communicating together by openings so narrow as
scarcely to allow a man to enter them crawling, and which are yet
found strewed with an enormous quantity of bones of large and
small animals, are without dispute among the most remarkable
phenomena which the history of fossil remains could present to the
contemplation of the geologist, especially when we reflect that this
phenomenon recurs in a great number of places, and over a very
extended space of country. These caves have been the object of
research of several naturalists, some of whom have well described
and figured the bones which they contain; and even before they
were explored by the naturalist, they were celebrated among the
common people, who, according to their custom, added many
imaginary prodigies to the natural wonders which are really observed
in them. The bones which they contain were long, under the name
of fossil unicorn, an important article of commerce and materia
medica, on account of the powerful virtues which were attributed to
them; and it is probable that the desire of finding these bones
contributed much to the more accurate knowledge of these caves,
and even to the discovery of several of them.
The most anciently celebrated is the cave of Bauman, situated in
the country of Blankenburg, which belongs to the Duke of
Brunswick, to the south of the city of that name, to the east of
Elbingerode, and to the north of the village of Rubeland, the nearest
inhabited place, in a hill which forms one of the last declivities of the
Hartz toward the east. It has been described by many authors,
among whom we shall particularly mention the great Leibnitz, in his
Protogæa, pl. i. p. 97, where he gives a map of it, borrowed from
the Acta Eruditorum 1702, p. 305.
Its general direction is east and west, but the entrance faces the
north. It is very narrow, although it is under a pretty large natural
vault. The first cave is the largest. From this to the second, one must
descend by another narrow passage, at first by creeping, and
afterwards by a ladder. The difference of level is 30 feet. The second
cave is the richest in stalactite of all forms. The passage to the third
cave is at first the most difficult of all, and we have to climb with
hands and feet; but it afterwards enlarges, and the stalactites of its
walls are those in which the imagination of the curious has
pretended to see the best characterized figures. It has two lateral
dilatations, of which the map of the Acta Eruditorum makes the third
and fourth caves. At its extremity, we have still to ascend, in order to
arrive at the real third cave, which forms a sort of portal. Behrens
says, in his Hercynia curiosa, that it cannot be reached, because it
would be necessary to descend more than 60 feet; but the above
mentioned map, and the description of Von der Hardt, which
accompanies it, describe this third cave under the name of the Fifth,
and place beyond it a narrow passage, terminated by two small
grottoes. Lastly, Silberschlag, in his Geogony, adds, that one of
these grottoes leads to a narrow passage, which, descending much,
leads under the other caves, and terminates in a place filled with
water. There are still many bones in these remote and little
frequented parts. Most of those bones which are in collections from
this cave, or which have been described, are of the bear genus.
 A second cave, nearly as celebrated as the former, and very near,
is that which is named, after the unicorn, Enihornshæle, at the foot
of the chateau of Scharzfels, in a part of the Electorate of Hanover
which is named the Dutchy of Grubenhagen, and nearly upon the
last southern declivity of the Hartz. It has also been described by
Leibnitz, as well as by M. Deluc, in his Letters to the Queen of
England. The entrance is 10 feet high, and 7 broad. We descend
vertically 15 feet into a sort of vestibule, the roof of which lowers to
such a degree, that, at the end of 60 feet, we are obliged to creep.
After a long passage, we come to two other caves, according to
Leibnitz; but Behrens adds three or four, and says, that, according to
the country people, we might penetrate nearly two leagues.
Bruckmann, who gives a map of this cavern (Epistol. Itin. p. 34.),
represents only five caves, arranged nearly in a straight line, and
connected by extremely narrow passages. The second is the richest
in bones; the third, which is the most irregular, has two small lateral
caves; the fifth is the smallest, and contains a fountain. Of the bones
which have been taken from it, some are in the possession of M.
Blumenbach and other naturalists; and others have been figured by
Leibnitz and Mylius. They belong to the bear, hyena, and tiger or lion
genera.
The chain of the Hartz also presents some other caves of less
celebrity, although of the same nature mentioned by Behrens in his
Hercynia curiosa, namely,
The cave of Hartzburg, under the castle of the same name, above
Goslar to the south. We do not know why Büsching disputes its
existence. It is true that Behrens cites J. D. Horstius erroneously, for
having seen bones of various animals taken from it; for Horstius
speaks only (Obs. Anat. dec. p. 10.) of the cave of Scharzfels.
The cave of Ufftrungen, in the county of Stollberg, to the south of
the castle of that name. It is named in the country Heim-knohle, or
Hiding-hole. Behrens thinks that fossil bones might be found in it.
 Another cave of the same neighbourhood, is named Diebsloch,
Thieves’ Hole. Skulls have been found in it, which were supposed to
be human.
We shall not speak here of those caves of the Hartz in which
bones have not been discovered. And even those in which they have
been found, are, at the present day, almost exhausted, it being only
by breaking the stalactite that any can be obtained, so much of
them had been taken away for selling as medicines.
The caves of Hungary come after those of the Hartz, with
reference to the remoteness of the time at which they have been
known. The first notice of them is due to Paterson Hayn, (Ephem.
Nat. Cur. 1672, Obs. cxxxix. and cxciv.) Bruckmann, a physician of
Wolfenbüttel, afterwards described them at length. (Epistola
Itineraria, 77, and Breslauer Sammlung, 1725, First Trim. p. 628.)
They are situated in the county of Liptow, on the southern declivities
of the Carpathian mountains. They are known in the country by the
name of Dragons’ Caves, because the people of the neighbourhood
attribute to those animals the bones which occur in them, and with
which they have been acquainted from time immemorial; but all
those which have been figured by authors belong to the Bear family,
and to the species which is named the Great Cave Bear (Grand Ours
des cavernes).
The caves of Germany the richest in bones are those of Franconia,
of which J. F. Esper, a clergyman of the country of Bayreuth, has
given a very detailed description in a work, printed in French and
German, entitled, Description des Zoolithes nouvellement
decouvertes, &c. Nuremberg Knorr. 1774, folio, with 14 coloured
plates, and in a memoir inserted among those of the Berlin Society
of Naturalists, vol. ix. 1784, p. 56. Another description was
afterwards given, under the title of Objets dignes de remarque des
environs de Muggendorf, by J. C. Rosenmüller, folio, with coloured
views, Berlin, 1804. And more lately, M. Goldfuss, at present
Professor of Natural History at Bonn, and Secretary of the Academia
Naturæ Curiosorum, has made them the subject of a particular work
printed in 1810 in German, under the title of Environs of
Muggendorf, in which he describes them with the greatest care, as
well as the surrounding country, of which he gives a very correct
topographical chart. A great part of these caves is situated in a small
bailiwick, named Streitberg, which was formerly a dependence upon
the country of Bayreuth, but was inclosed in that of Bamberg, and
now forms part of the kingdom of Bavaria. The greatest number
occur in a small peninsula, formed by the river of Wiesent, which
falls into the Pegnetz, and belongs to the basin of the Main.
However, the chief of all these astonishing caves, those of
Gaylenreuth, are beyond the limits of this peninsula, being on the
left bank of the Wiesent, to the north-west of the village from which
it derives its name. The entrance is perforated in a vertical rock; it is
7½ feet high, and faces the east. The first cave turns to the right,
and is upwards of 80 feet long. The unequal heights of the vault
divide it into four parts; the first three are from 15 to 20 feet high,
the fourth is only 4 or 5. At the bottom of this latter, on the level of
the floor, there is a hole 2 feet high, which affords a passage to the
second cave: it has first a direction to the south, over a length of 60
feet by 40 in breadth, and 18 in height; it then turns to the west for
70 feet, becoming lower and lower until at length the height is only
5 feet. The passage which leads to the third cave is very
inconvenient, and one has to turn through various corridors: it is 30
feet across, and from 5 to 6 in height. The ground in it is kneaded
with teeth and jaws. Near the entrance is a pit of from 15 to 20 feet,
to which one descends by a ladder. After having descended, we
come to a vault of 15 feet diameter by 30 in height; and towards the
side at which the descent is made there is a cave strewed with
bones. On still descending a little, a new arcade is met with, which
leads to a cave 40 feet long, and a new pit of from 18 to 20 feet
deep. After descending this, we reach a cavern about 40 feet high,
all strewed with bones. A passage, of 5 feet by 7, leads to a grotto
of 25 feet in length by 12 in breadth. Canals, 20 feet in length,
conduct to another grotto of 20 feet in height. Lastly, there is
another cave, 83 feet broad and 24 high, in which more bones are
found than in any of the others.
The sixth cave, which is the last, has a northerly direction, so that
the whole series of caves and passages nearly describes a
semicircle.
A fissure in the third cave led to the discovery, in 1784, of a new
cave, 15 feet long and 4 broad, in which the greatest quantities of
hyena and lions’ bones were found. The aperture was much too
small for these animals to have passed through it. A particular canal
which ended in this small cave has afforded an incredible number of
bones and large skulls entire.
In the Philosophical Transactions of 1822, pl. xxvi. there may be
seen a profile of this cave, taken on the spot in 1816, by Professor
Buckland, in which is to be especially remarked an enormous mass,
entirely composed of bones enveloped in the stalactite, and thus
forming an osseous breccia, but of quite a different nature from
those which occur at Gibraltar and other places[432].
The cave of Gaylenreuth is one of those the bones of which are
most completely known, by the researches which have been made
or caused to be made in it for a long time back by distinguished
naturalists, such as MM. Esper, de Humboldt, Ebel of Bremen,
Rosenmüller, Sœmmering, Goldfuss, &c., and by the numerous and
rich collections which these researches have produced. According to
the examination which Cuvier has made of the principal of these
collections, three-fourths of the bones found there belong to the
Bear genus, and to two or three species of that genus. The others
belong to the hyena, tiger, wolf, fox, glutton, and polecat, or some
nearly allied species. There are also found, although in much smaller
number, bones of herbivorous quadrupeds, and, in particular, deer, of
which fragments are in the possession of M. Ebel. It would even
appear from a passage of M. Sœmmering’s, that a parcel of bones
had been got in it belonging to an elephant’s skull[433]. According to
Rosenmüller, there were found in it bones of men, horses, oxen,
sheep, deer, roes, mules, badgers, dogs, and foxes, but which from
the researches made by him in the cave itself, and from their state
of preservation, must have been deposited at periods much later
than those of the bear, tigers and hyenas[434].
The small peninsula situate nearly opposite to this cave, presents
several other caves, as the Schœnstein, or Beautiful Rock, which
contains seven contiguous caverns. The Brunnenstein, or Fountain
Rock, in which, according to Esper, there are only found bones of
known species, such as badgers, dogs, foxes, hogs, and deer; but
Esper had too little anatomical knowledge for his testimony to be
entirely relied on with respect to this. These bones are sometimes
encrusted with stalactite. It contains also the Holeberg, or Hollow
Mountain, in which eight or ten caves form a series of 200 feet in
length, with two entrances. Bones of the same bears as at
Gaylenreuth, are found here in various lateral depressions; and there
are also deer and hogs.—The Wizerloch, so named from an ancient
Sclavonic deity formerly worshipped there, the most dismal cavern of
the whole country, situate in its most elevated part, and in which
some vertebræ have been found. It is more than 200 feet long. The
Wunderhœhle, which takes its name from its discoverer, has been
known since 1773: its extent is 160 feet.—Lastly, the Cave of
Klaustein, consisting of four grottoes, and upwards of 200 feet deep.
Bones have been found in the third grotto, and most abundantly
towards its extremity. It might be supposed that the name Klaustein
signified Claw-rock, and it would thus accord very well with a place
where, without doubt, as at Gaylenreuth, a multitude of ungual
phalanges of bears and animals of the tiger kind have been found.
But M. Goldfuss asserts, that it was called Klaustein, or St Nicholas’s
Rock, after a chapel of this name, which formerly stood upon it.—
There are still the Geiss-knok, or Goat Cave, and a cave discovered
in 1793. M. Rosenmüller found in them two human skeletons already
covered with stalactite.
The country which surrounds this small peninsula has itself several
caves, independently of that of Gaylenreuth, as those of Mockas,
Rabenstein, and Kirch-ahorn, three villages, situate, the first to the
south, and the other two to the north-east of Gaylenreuth. Bones
were formerly found in the first. The last bears in the country the
expressive name of Zahn-loch, or Tooth Cave; it also bears the name
of Hohen-mirschfeld, a village on whose ground it is situate; and the
country people have long been in the habit of seeking in it those
bones, which they imagined to be medicinal. MM. Rosenmüller and
Goldfuss have in fact found bear and tiger bones. There are two
others in the territory of the same village, of which the one named
Schneider-loch (Tailor’s Hole), is said to have furnished the vertebræ
of an elephant. That of Zewig, close upon Waschenfeld, at the very
edge of the Wiesent, is nearly 80 feet deep; and it is said that
skeletons of men and wolves were found in it.
All these hills, containing caves in their interior, and situate so near
each other, seem to form a small chain, interrupted only by brooks,
and which joins the more elevated chain of the Fichtelberg, in which
are the highest mountains of Franconia, and from which flow the
Main, the Saale, the Eger, the Naab, and many small rivers. M.
Rosenmüller, and after him, others assert, that those which are in
the hills to the north of the Wiesent, contain not a single fragment of
bone, while those to the south are filled with them.
In 1799, a cave, remarkable for its situation, was discovered,
which connects in some measure those of the Hartz with those of
Franconia. It is the Cave of Glücksbrun, in the bailiwick of Altenstein,
in the territory of Meinungen, on the south-western declivity of the
chain of the Thuringerwald (Blumenb. Archæol. Telluris, p. 15. Zach.
Monate. Corresp. 1800, January, p. 30.) It is the same which M.
Rosenmüller names Libenstein, on account of its being on the road
from Altenstein to this latter, which is a bathing place. There is a
description of it by M. Kocher, in the Magazin für Mineralogie, by M.
C. E. A. De Hof, 1st band. heft. iv. p. 427. The limestone in which it
is situate rests upon bituminous schist, and, rising much upwards,
comes to rest upon primitive rocks. The limestone varies in hardness
and in the nature of its fracture, and contains marine petrifactions,
such as pectinites, echinites, &c.
 In making a road, there was discovered an opening, from which a
very cold air issued, which determined the Duke of Saxe-Meinungen
to have it farther examined. A narrow passage, of twenty feet in
length, was found, which led to a cave of thirty-five feet, having a
breadth of from three to twelve, and a height of from six to twelve,
according to the places, and terminated by a large piece of rock,
which was removed. The labour of two years discovered and cleared
a series of caves connected together, and of which the bottom rose
and fell alternately. They terminate in a place where water flows; but
various lateral fissures make it probable that there are still several
caves which have not been opened, and that they perhaps form a
sort of labyrinth.
The bottom and walls of this cave are furnished with the same
mud as the others, but blacker. The bones were pretty numerous,
and tinged with the same colour, but only two tolerably entire skulls
were obtained. That of which M. Kocher gives a figure, is the species
of bear named Ursus spelæus. There are also caves of this kind in
Westphalia. J. Es Silberschlag, in the Mem. des Naturalistes of Berlin
(Schriften, vol. vi. p. 132), describes the one called Kluter-hœhle,
near the village of Oldenforde, in the county of Mark, on the edge of
the Milspe and Ennepe, two streams which fall into the Ruhr, and
with it into the Rhine. Its entrance is about half-way up a hill called
Kluterberg, is only three feet three inches high, and faces the south.
The cave itself forms a true labyrinth in the interior of the mountain.
Not far from this, in the same county, at Sundwich, two leagues
from Iserlohn, is another cave, which, for about twenty-five years
back, has furnished a very large quantity of bones, part of which has
been carried to Berlin, and the rest has remained in the country in
the hands of various individuals[435].
If we cast a glance upon a general map, it is not difficult to
perceive a certain continuity in the mountains in which these
singular caves occur. The Carpathians join with the mountains of
Moravia and those of Bohemia called Bœhmerwald, to separate the
basin of the Danube, from those of the Vistula, Oder and Elbe. The
Fichtelgebirge separates the basin of the Elbe from that of the
Rhine. The Thuringerwald and the Hartz continue to limit the basin
of the Elbe, by separating it from that of the Weser.
These different chains have but slight intervals between them. The
caves of Westphalia alone are not connected in so evident a manner
with the others.
Very lately, bones have been discovered in a cavern, which
extends more towards the south, and is even situate on the other or
Italian side of the Alps. It is that of Adelsberg in Carniola, a place
situate on the great road from Laybach to Trieste, and about half
way between these two cities. The whole of this country is full of
caverns and grottoes, which have given rise to numerous sinkings of
the surface, thus giving a very singular appearance to the country.
Several of these caverns have long been celebrated among
naturalists. That of Adelsberg is generally visited by travellers, on
account of its being near the highway, and because a river called the
Piuka or Poike is lost there, forming a subterranean lake, and
emerging again on the north side, under the name of Unz. A hole
which the Chevalier de Lowengreif discovered in 1816, in one of its
walls, at the height of 14 fathoms, conducted him to a series of new
caves of vast extent, and of incomparable beauty, from the lustre
and variety of their stalactites.
A part of these caves was, however, known, and must be, or have
been accessible, by some other place, for inscriptions were found in
them with dates, from 1393 to 1676, together with human bones,
and entire carcases, that had been buried there. A German pamphlet
was published at Trieste, in which are described all the windings of
these subterranean passages, their different halls, their domes, their
columns, and all the other appearances produced by their stalactites.
We shall not follow the author (M. de Volpi, Director of the School of
Commerce and Navigation at Trieste) through this immense
labyrinth. Let it suffice to say, that this zealous naturalist asserts his
having proceeded more than three leagues, almost in a straight line,
and that he was only stopped by a lake which rendered it impossible
to go on. It was about two leagues from the entrance that he
discovered bones of animals, of which he gives figures, and which
he describes under the name of Palæotheria. He had the politeness
to communicate to me, says Cuvier, his drawings the year before,
but it appears my reply did not reach him, for he makes no mention
of it in his book.
Be this as it may, his figures clearly shewed that the bones in
question belonged to the great cave-bear. In fact, several of these
bones having been presented to the Congress of Laybach, Prince
Metternich, whose enlightened taste for the advancement of
knowledge has already been of so much service, had the goodness
to address them to Cuvier, who disposed them in the Royal Cabinet,
where any one may satisfy himself as to their species.
There are, without doubt, caves in many other chains, and several
are known in France. Caves occur in Suabia, but no bones have been
found in them; and, in general, it appears, that, before the last
discoveries, and especially that which has been made in Yorkshire,
none were known but those of Germany and Hungary that were rich
in bones of carnivora. In truth, the rock of Fouvent, and which
contains in one of its cavities bones of hyenas, and at the same time
those of elephants, rhinoceroses and horses, might be considered as
belonging to this order of phenomena; but as it was not explored to
any depth, it cannot be certain that it is so.
The case is different with the Kirkdale Cavern. It having been
visited immediately after its discovery by several well informed
persons, and especially by Mr Buckland, every thing has been made
known with respect to it. It is situated in the East Riding of the
county of York, twenty-five miles NNE. of the city of York, and at
about the same distance to the west from the sea and the town of
Scarborough. The small river of Hodgebeck is lost under ground in
the neighbourhood, much in the same way as the Piuka, near
Adelsberg. It is placed in one of the limestone hills which form the
northern boundary of the vale of Pickering, the waters of which fall
into the Derwent. Mr Buckland compares the stone to that of the last
strata of the Alpine limestone, such as are seen near Aigle and
Meillene.
It was in the course of the year 1821, that some labourers
working at a quarry, discovered by chance the opening, which was
closed by rubbish, covered over with earth and turf. It is about 100
feet above the neighbouring brook. It can be entered to the distance
of 150 or 200 feet, but we can only walk erect in some places, on
account of the stalactites. On its sides there are seen spines of sea-
urchins and other marine remains, incrusted in the mass of the rock;
but it is on the bottom, and there only, that there is found the
stratum of mud, of about a foot thick, stuck full of bones, as at
Gaylenreuth. This mud, and the bones which it contains, are, in
various places, covered or penetrated with stalactite, especially near
places where the rock has lateral fissures.
The discovery having acquired much celebrity, a great number of
people procured bones from it, and placed them in various public
depots. Specimens have been deposited in the York Institution, that
of Whitby and Bristol, the British Museum, the Museum of Oxford
and Cambridge, and by Mr Young of Whitby, in the College Museum
of Edinburgh; but the finest collection of the bones of Kirkdale was
presented to Cuvier, and by him deposited in the Royal Cabinet in
Paris. The greatest number of these bones without comparison,
belong to hyenas of the same species as those of the caverns of
Germany; but there are also many of other large and small animals,
which Mr Buckland supposes to form twenty-one species. From the
pieces which I have under my eye, says Cuvier, there indisputably
occur bones of the elephant, hippopotamus, horse, an ox of the size
of the common deer, rabbits, field-rats; also bones of some other
carnivora, namely, of the tiger, wolf, fox, and weasel. All these
bones and teeth are accumulated on the ground, broken and
gnawed, and there are even seen marks of the teeth which have
fractured them. There are even intermixed with them excrements
which have been recognized as perfectly similar to those of the
hyena[436].
 The hills in which these caverns occur resemble each other in their
composition: they are all of limestone, and all produce abundance of
stalactites. These stalactites line the walls, narrow the passages, and
assume a thousand various forms. The bones are nearly in the same
state in all these caverns: detached, scattered, partly broken, but
never rolled, and consequently not brought from a distance by
water; a little lighter and less solid than recent bones, but still in
their true animal nature, very little decomposed, containing much
gelatine, and not at all petrified. A hardened, but still easily frangible
or pulverisable earth, also containing animal parts, and sometimes
blackish, forms their natural envelope. It is often impregnated and
covered with a crust of stalactite. A covering of the same nature
invests the bones in various places, penetrates their natural cavities,
and sometimes attaches them to the walls of the cavern. This
stalactite is often coloured reddish by the animal earth which is
mixed with it. At other times its surface is stained black; but it is
easy to see that these appearances are caused by modern
occurrences, and have no immediate connection with the cause
which brought the bones into these cavities. We even daily see the
stalactite increasing and enveloping here and there groups of bones
which it had formerly respected.
This mass of earth, penetrated by animal matter, indiscriminately
envelopes the bones of all the species; and, if we except some found
at the surface of the ground, and which had been transported there
at much later periods, which may also be distinguished by their
being much less decomposed, they must all have been interred in
the same manner, and by the same causes. In this mass of earth
there are found, confusedly mingled with the bones (at least in the
cave of Gaylenreuth), pieces of a bluish marble, of which all the
corners are rounded and blunted, and which appear to have been
rolled. They singularly resemble those which form part of the
osseous brecciæ of Gibraltar and Dalmatia.
Lastly, what further conspires to render this phenomenon very
striking, is, that the most remarkable of these bones are the same in
these caverns, over an extent of more than two hundred leagues.
Three-fourths and upwards belong to species of bears, which are
now extinct. A half, or two-thirds of the remaining fourth, belong to
a species of hyena, which is equally unknown at the present day. A
smaller number belong to a species of the tiger or lion kind, and to
another of the wolf or dog genus; lastly, the most diminutive have
belonged to various small carnivora, as the fox, the polecat, or at
least species very nearly allied to them, &c.
The Kirkdale Cavern, however, forms a notable exception,
inasmuch as none, or very few, bones of bears are found in it, and in
its being the hyena that appears to predominate among the
carnivora.
The species so common in the alluvial formations, the elephants,
rhinoceroses, horses, oxen or aurochs, and tapirs, are of very rare
occurrence in the caves of Germany. There are even some in which
no one is said to have found them, and the only bones of herbivora
mentioned are remains of deer. In this point also, however, the
Kirkdale cave differs much from the others, inasmuch as it abounds
almost as much in bones of large and small herbivora, as in bones of
carnivora. All the great pachydermata of the alluvial formations are
seen in it: the elephants, rhinoceroses and hippopotami. There are
also seen in it bones of oxen, deer, and even small bones of mice
and birds. But there are no bones of marine animals of any species,
either at Kirkdale or in Germany. Those who have pretended that
they saw bones of seals, morses, or other similar species, have been
led into error by the hypothesis which they had previously adopted.
These bones of carnivora, so numerous in the caves, are rare in
the great alluvial strata; the hyena alone has been seen in any
quantity at Canstadt, near Aichstedt, and in some other places.
There have also been found some traces of bears in Tuscany and
Austria, but their relative proportion is always infinitely less than in
the caves; and it is always sufficiently proved by these
circumstances, that these various animals have lived together in the
same countries, and have belonged to the same epoch.
 Cuvier concludes, there can only be imagined three general causes
which might have placed these bones in such quantity in these vast
subterranean cavities. Either they are the remains of animals which
inhabited these abodes, and which died peaceably there; or
inundations and other violent causes have carried them into these
cavities; or, lastly, they had been enveloped in rocky strata, the
dissolution of which produced these caverns, and they have not
been dissolved by the agent which carried off the matter of the
strata.
This last cause is refuted by the fact, that the strata in which the
caves occur contain no bones; and the second by the entireness of
the smallest prominences of the bones, which does not permit us to
think that they had been rolled; for if some bones are worn, as Mr
Buckland has remarked, they are only so on one side, which would
only prove that some current has passed over them, and in the
deposit in which they are. We are, therefore, obliged to have
recourse to the first supposition, whatever difficulties it presents on
its part, and to say that these caves served as a retreat to
carnivorous animals, and that these carried there, for the purpose of
devouring them, the animals which formed their prey, or the parts of
these animals.
Mr Buckland has observed, that the hyena bones are not less
broken and splintered than those of the herbivorous animals; from
which he concludes, that the hyenas had devoured the dead bodies
of their own species, as those of the present day still do.
These animals attack each other during their life; for the fossil
head of a hyena is preserved, which had evidently been wounded
and afterwards healed[437].
This supposition is moreover confirmed by the animal nature of
the earth in which these bones are found[438].
This much is certain, that the establishment of these animals in
the caves has taken place at a much later epoch than that at which
the great rocky strata have been formed, not only those which
compose the mountains in which the caves are situated, but the
strata of much newer origin. No permanent inundation has
penetrated into the subterranean dens, and formed a regular rocky
deposit. The mud arising from the proper decomposition of these
animals, and the stalactites that have been filtered through the wall
of the caves, are the only matters which cover these remains, and
these stalactites increase so rapidly, that M. Goldfuss already found a
layer of them covering the names of MM. Esper and Rosenmüller,
whose visits did not date thirty years before his own. The rolled
stones that are met with, and the marks of detrition observed on
some bones, announce, at the very utmost, but passing currents.
But how have so many ferocious animals which peopled our
forests been extirpated? All the reply we can make is, that they must
have been destroyed at the same time, and by the same cause, as
the large herbivora, which, like them, also peopled these forests,
and of which no traces remain at the present day any more than of
them.

ACCOUNT OF THE CAVE CONTAINING BONES AT ADELSBERG IN CARNIOLA.

The following interesting account of the cave, slightly noticed at

pages 524 and 525, is extracted from a memoir by M. Bertrand
Geslin, Member of the Natural History Society of Paris, published in
the number of the Annales des Sciences Naturelles for April 1826.
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