Poetic devices

BY WISDOM

possible | secondary edition | [Date]

Poetic Devices

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Poetry is the kind of thing poets write. — Robert Frost
Man, if you gotta ask, you’ll never know. — Louis
Armstrong A POET IS LIMITED in the materials he can
use in creating his works: all he has are words to express
his ideas and feelings. These words need to be precisely
right on several levels at once: • they must sound right to
the listener even as they delight his ear • they must have
a meaning which might have been unanticipated, but
seems to be the perfectly right one • they must be
arranged in a relationship and placed on the page in ways
that are at once easy to follow and assist the reader in
understanding • they must probe the depths of human
thought, emotion, and empathy, while appearing simple,
self-contained, and unpretentious Fortunately, the
English language contains a wide range of words from
which to choose for almost every thought, and there are
also numerous plans or methods of arrangement of these
words, called poetic devices, which can assist the writer
in developing cogent expressions pleasing to his readers.
Even though most poetry today is read silently, it must
still carry with it the feeling of being spoken aloud, and

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the reader should practice “hearing” it in order to catch
all of the artfulness with which the poet has created his
work.

the SOUNDS of words Words or portions of words can be

clustered or juxtaposed to achieve specific kinds of effects
when we hear them. The sounds that result can strike us
as clever and pleasing, even soothing. Others we dislike
and strive to avoid. These various deliberate
arrangements of words have been identified.

Alliteration: Repeated consonant sounds at the beginning

of words placed near each other, usually on the same or
adjacent lines. A somewhat looser definition is that it is
the use of the same consonant in any part of adjacent
words. Example: fast and furious Example: Peter and
Andrew patted the pony at Ascot

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In the second definition, both P and T in the example are
reckoned as alliteration. It is noted that this is a very
obvious device and needs to be handled with great
restraint, except in specialty forms such as limerick,
cinquain, and humorous verse.

Assonance: Repeated vowel sounds in words placed near

each other, usually on the same or adjacent lines. These
should be in sounds that are accented, or stressed, rather
than in vowel sounds that are unaccented. Example: He’s
a bruins in’ loser

In the second example above, the short A sound in

Andrew, patted, and Ascot would be assonant.

Consonance: Repeated consonant sounds at the ending

of words placed near each other, usually on the same or
adjacent lines. These should be in sounds that are
accented, or stressed, rather than in vowel

–2–

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sounds that are unaccented. This produces a pleasing kind
of near-rhyme. Example: boats into the past Example:
cool soul

Cacophony A discordant series of harsh, unpleasant

sounds helps to convey disorder. This is often furthered
by the combined effect of the meaning and the difficulty
of pronunciation. Example: My stick fingers click with a
snicker And, chuckling, they knuckle the keys; Light-
footed, my steel feelers flicker And pluck from these keys
melodies. —“Player Piano,” John Updike

Euphony: A series of musically pleasant sounds, conveying

a sense of harmony and beauty to the language. Example:
Than Oars divide the Ocean, Too silver for a seam— Or
Butterflies, off Banks of Noon Leap, plash less as they
swim. — “A Bird Came Down the Walk,” Emily
Dickenson (last stanza)

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Onomatopoeia: Words that sound like their meanings. In
Hear the steady tick of the old hall clock, the word tick
sounds like the action of the clock, If assonance or
alliteration can be onomatopoeic, as the sound ‘ck’ is
repeated in tick and clock, so much the better. At least
sounds should suit the tone – heavy sounds for
weightiness, light for the delicate. Tick is a light word,
but transpose the light T to its heavier counterpart, D;
and transpose the light CK to its heavier counterpart G,
and tick becomes the much more solid and down to earth
dig. Example: boom, buzz, crackle, gurgle, hiss, pop,
sizzle, snap, swoosh, whir, zip

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Repetition: The purposeful re-use of words and phrases
for an effect. Sometimes, especially with longer phrases
that contain a different key word each time, this is called
parallelism. It has been a central part of poetry in many
cultures. Many of the Psalms use this device as one of
their unifying elements. Example: I was glad; so very,
very glad. Example: Half a league, half a league, Half a
league onward… … Cannon to right of them, Cannon to
left of them, Cannon in front of them Volley’d and
thunder’d…

Rhyme: This is the one device most commonly associated

with poetry by the general public. Words that have
different beginning sounds but whose endings sound alike,
including the final vowel sound and everything following
it, are said to rhyme. Example: time, slime, mime Double
rhymes include the final two syllables. Example: revival,
arrival, survival Triple rhymes include the final three
syllables. Example: greenery, machinery, scenery

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A variation which has been used effectively is called slant
rhyme, or half rhyme. If only the final consonant sounds
of the words are the same, but the initial consonants and
the vowel sounds are different, then the rhyme is called
a slant rhyme or half rhyme. When this appears in the
middle of lines rather than at the end, it is called
consonance. Example: soul, oil, foul; taut, sat, knit

Another variation which is occasionally used is called near

rhyme. If the final vowel sounds are the

–3–

same, but the final consonant sounds are slightly

different, then the rhyme is called a near rhyme.
Example: fine, rhyme; poem, goin’

Less effective but sometimes used are sight rhymes. Words

which are spelled the same (as if they rhymed), but are
pronounced differently are called sight rhymes or eye
rhymes. Example: enough, cough, through, bough

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Rhythm: Although the general public is seldom directly
conscious of it, nearly everyone responds on some level to
the organization of speech rhythms (verbal stresses) into
a regular pattern of accented syllables separated by
unaccented syllables. Rhythm helps to distinguish poetry
from prose. Example: i THOUGHT i SAW a PUSsyCAT.

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Such patterns are sometimes referred to as meter. Meter
is the organization of voice patterns, in terms of both the
arrangement of stresses and their frequency of repetition
per line of verse. Poetry is organized by the division of
each line into “feet,” metric units which each consist of
a particular arrangement of strong and weak stresses.
The most common metric unit is the iambic, in which an
unstressed syllable is followed by a stressed one (as in the
words reverse and compose). Scansion is the conscious
measure of the pattern of stressed and unstressed
syllables in a line of poetry. Stressed syllables are labeled
with an accent mark: / Unstressed syllables are labeled
with a dash: – Metrical feet may be two or three syllables
in length, and are divided by slashes: | There are five basic
rhythms: Pattern Name Example – / Iamb/Iambic invite
/ – Trochee/Trochaic deadline – – / Anapest/Anapestic
to the beach / – – Dactyl/Dactylic frequently / /
Spondee/Spondaic true blue Meter is measured by the
number of feet in a line. Feet are named by Greek prefix
number words attached to “meter.” A line with five feet
is called pentameter; thus, a line of five iambs is known

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as “iambic pentameter” (the most common metrical
form in English poetry, and the one favored by
Shakespeare). The most common line lengths are:
monometer: one foot tetrameter: four feet heptameter:
seven feet dimeter: two feet pentameter: five feet
octameter: eight feet trimeter: three feet hexameter: six
feet Naturally, there is a degree of variation from line to
line, as a rigid adherence to the meter results in
unnatural or monotonous language. A skillful poet
manipulates breaks in the prevailing rhythm of a poem
for particular effects.

the MEANINGs of words Most words convey several

meanings or shades of meaning at the same time. It is
the poet’s job to find words which, when used in relation
to other words in the poem, will carry the precise
intention of thought. Often, some of the more significant
words may carry several layers or “depths” of meaning
at once. The ways in which the meanings of words are
used can be identified.

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Allegory: A representation of an abstract or spiritual
meaning. Sometimes it can be a single word or phrase,
such as the name of a character or place. Often, it is a
symbolic narrative that has not only a literal meaning,
but a larger one understood only after reading the entire
story or poem

–4–

Allusion: A brief reference to some person, historical

event, work of art, or Biblical or mythological situation
or character.

Ambiguity: A word or phrase that can mean more than

one thing, even in its context. Poets often search out such
words to add richness to their work. Often, one meaning
seems quite readily apparent, but other, deeper and
darker meanings, await those who contemplate the
poem. Example: Robert Frost’s ‘The Subverted Flower’

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Analogy: A comparison, usually something unfamiliar
with something familiar. Example: The plumbing took a
maze of turns where even water got lost.

Apostrophe: Speaking directly to a real or imagined

listener or inanimate object; addressing that person or
thing by name. Example: O Captain! My Captain! our
fearful trip is done…

Cliché: Any figure of speech that was once clever and

original but through overuse has become outdated. If
you’ve heard more than two or three other people say it
more than two or three times, chances are the phrase is
too timeworn to be useful in your writing. Example: busy
as a bee

Connotation: The emotional, psychological or social

overtones of a word; its implications and associations
apart from its literal meaning. Often, this is what
distinguishes the precisely correct word from one that is
merely acceptable.

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Contrast: Closely arranged things with strikingly
different characteristics. Example: He was dark, sinister,
and cruel; she was radiant, pleasant, and kind.

Denotation: The dictionary definition of a word; its

literal meaning apart from any associations or
connotations. Students must exercise caution when
beginning to use a thesaurus, since often the words that
are clustered together may share a denotative meaning,
but not a connotative one, and the substitution of a word
can sometimes destroy the mood, and even the meaning,
of a poem.

Euphemism: An understatement, used to lessen the

effect of a statement; substituting something innocuous
for something that might be offensive or hurtful.
Example: She is at rest. (meaning, she’s dead)

Hyperbole: An outrageous exaggeration used for effect.

Example: He weighs a ton.

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Irony: A contradictory statement or situation to reveal
a reality different from what appears to be true.
Example: Wow, thanks for expensive gift...let’s see: did it
come with a Fun Meal or the Burger King equivalent?

Metaphor: A direct comparison between two unlike

things, stating that one is the other or does the action of
the other. Example: He’s a zero. Example: Her fingers
danced across the keyboard.

Metonymy: A figure of speech in which a person, place,

or thing is referred to by something closely associated
with it. Example: The White House stated today that...
Example: The Crown reported today that...

Oxymoron: A combination of two words that appear to

contradict each other. Example: a pointless point of view;
bittersweet

–5–

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Paradox: A statement in which a seeming contradiction
may reveal an unexpected truth. Example: The hurrier I
go the behinder I get.

Personification: Attributing human characteristics to an

inanimate object, animal, or abstract idea. Example: The
days crept by slowly, sorrowfully.

Pun: Word play in which words with totally different

meanings have similar or identical sounds. Example: Like
a firefly in the rain, I’m de-lighted.

Simile: A direct comparison of two unlike things using

“like” or “as.” Example: He’s as dumb as an ox. Example:
Her eyes are like comets.

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Symbol: An ordinary object, event, animal, or person to
which we have attached extraordinary meaning and
significance – a flag to represent a country, a lion to
represent courage, a wall to symbolize separation.
Example: A small cross by the dangerous curve on the
road reminded all of Johnny’s death.

Synecdoche: Indicating a person, object, etc. by letting

only a certain part represent the whole. Example: All
hands on deck.

Arranging the words Words follow each other in a

sequence determined by the poet. In order to discuss the
arrangements that result, certain terms have been
applied to various aspects of that arrangement process.
Although in some ways these sequences seem arbitrary
and mechanical, in another sense they help to determine
the nature of the poem. These various ways of organizing
words have been identified.

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Point of View: The author’s point of view concentrates
on the vantage point of the speaker, or “teller” of the
story or poem. This may be considered the poem’s “voice”
— the pervasive presence behind the overall work. This is
also sometimes referred to as the persona. • 1st Person:
the speaker is a character in the story or poem and tells
it from his/her perspective (uses “I”). • 3rd Person
limited: the speaker is not part of the story, but tells
about the other characters through the limited
perceptions of one other person. • 3rd Person omniscient:
the speaker is not part of the story, but is able to “know”
and describe what all characters are thinking.

Line: The line is fundamental to the perception of poetry,

marking an important visual distinction from prose.
Poetry is arranged into a series of units that do not
necessarily correspond to sentences, but rather to a series
of metrical feet. Generally, but not always, the line is
printed as one single line on the page. If it occupies more
than one line, its remainder is usually indented to
indicate that it is a continuation.

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There is a natural tendency when reading poetry to pause
at the end of a line, but the careful reader will follow the
punctuation to find where natural pauses should occur.

In traditional verse forms, the length of each line is

determined by convention, but in modern poetry the
poet has more latitude for choice.

Verse: One single line of a poem arranged in a metrical

pattern. Also, a piece of poetry or a particular form of
poetry such as free verse, blank verse, etc., or the art or
work of a poet.

–6–

The popular use of the word verse for a stanza or

associated group of metrical lines is not in accordance
with the best usage. A stanza is a group of verses.

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Stanza: A division of a poem created by arranging the
lines into a unit, often repeated in the same pattern of
meter and rhyme throughout the poem; a unit of poetic
lines (a “paragraph” within the poem). The stanzas
within a poem are separated by blank lines.

Stanzas in modern poetry, such as free verse, often do

not have lines that are all of the same length and meter,
nor even the same number of lines in each stanza. Stanzas
created by such irregular line groupings are often
dictated by meaning, as in paragraphs of prose.

Stanza Forms: The names given to describe the number

of lines in a stanzaic unit, such as: couplet (2), tercet (3),
quatrain (4), quintet (5), sestet (6), septet (7), and
octave (8). Some stanzas follow a set rhyme scheme and
meter in addition to the number of lines and are given
specific names to describe them, such as, ballad meter,
ottava rima, rhyme royal, terza rima, and Spenserian
stanza.

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Stanza forms are also a factor in the categorization of
whole poems described as following a fixed form.

Rhetorical Question: A question solely for effect, which

does not require an answer. By the implication the
answer is obvious, it is a means of achieving an emphasis
stronger than a direct statement. Example: Could I but
guess the reason for that look? Example:
O, Wind, If Winter comes, can Spring be far behind?

Rhyme Scheme: The pattern established by the

arrangement of rhymes in a stanza or poem, generally
described by using letters of the alphabet to denote the
recurrence of rhyming lines, such as the ababbcc of the
Rhyme Royal stanza form.

Capital letters in the alphabetic rhyme scheme are used

for the repeating lines of a refrain; the letters x and y
indicate unrhymed lines.

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In quatrains, the popular rhyme scheme of abab is called
alternate rhyme or cross rhyme. The abba scheme is
called envelope rhyme, and another one frequently used
is xaxa (This last pattern, when working with students,
is generally easier for them to understand when
presented as abcb, as they associate matched letters with
rhymed words).

Enjambment: The continuation of the logical sense —

and therefore the grammatical construction — beyond
the end of a line of poetry. This is sometimes done with
the title, which in effect becomes the first line of the
poem.

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Form: The arrangement or method used to convey the
content, such as free verse, ballad, haiku, etc. In other
words, the “way-it-is-said.” A variably interpreted
term, however, it sometimes applies to details within the
composition of a text, but is probably used most often in
reference to the structural characteristics of a work as it
compares to (or differs from) established modes of
conventionalized arrangements.

• Open: poetic form free from regularity and consistency

in elements such as rhyme, line length, and metrical form
• Closed: poetic form subject to a fixed structure and
pattern • Blank Verse: unrhymed iambic pentameter
(much of the plays of Shakespeare are written in this
form) •F r ee Verse: lines with no prescribed pattern or
structure — the poet determines all the variables as
seems appropriate for each poem

–7–

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• Couplet: a pair of lines, usually rhymed; this is the
shortest stanza • Heroic Couplet: a pair of rhymed lines
in iambic pentameter (traditional heroic epic form) •
Quatrain: a four-line stanza, or a grouping of four lines
of verse

Fixed Form: A poem which follows a set pattern of

meter, rhyme scheme, stanza form, and refrain (if there
is one), is called a fixed form.

Most poets feel a need for familiarity and practice with

established forms as essential to learning the craft, but
having explored the techniques and constraints of each,
they go on to experiment and extend their imaginative
creativity in new directions. A partial listing includes:

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• Ballad: a narrative poem written as a series of quatrains
in which lines of iambic tetrameter alternate with iambic
trimeter with an xaxa, xbxb rhyme scheme with frequent
use of repetition and often including a refrain. The
“story” of a ballad can be a wide range of subjects but
frequently deals with folklore or popular legends. They
are written in a straight-forward manner, seldom with
detail, but always with graphic simplicity and force. Most
ballads are suitable for singing: “Barbara Allen” is an
example. Many of the oldest ballads were first written
and performed by minstrels as court entertainment. Folk
ballads are of unknown origin and are usually lacking in
artistic finish. Because they are handed down by oral
tradition, folk ballads are subject to variations and
continual change. Other types of ballads include literary
ballads, combining the natures of epic and lyric poetry,
which are written by known authors, often in the style
and form of the folk ballad, such as Keats’ ‘La Belle Dame
sans Merci.” • Ballade: a French form, it consists of three
seven or eight-line stanzas using no more than three
recurrent rhymes, with an identical refrain after each

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stanza and a closing envoi repeating the rhymes of the
last four lines of the stanza

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• Concrete Poetry: also known as pattern poetry or
shaped verse, these are poems that are printed on the
page so that they form a recognizable outline related to
the subject, thus conveying or extending the meaning of
the words. Pattern poetry retains its meaning when read
aloud, whereas the essence of concrete poetry lies in its
appearance on the page rather than in the words; it is
intended to be perceived as a visual whole and often
cannot be effective when read aloud. This form has had
brief popularity at several periods in history. • Epigram:
a pithy, sometimes satiric, couplet or quatrain comprising
a single thought or event and often aphoristic with a
witty or humorous turn of thought • Epitaph: a brief
poem or statement in memory of someone who is
deceased, used as, or suitable for, a tombstone
inscription; now, often witty or humorous and written
without intent of actual funerary use • Haiku: a Japanese
form of poetry consisting of three unrhymed lines of five,
seven, and five syllables. The elusive flavor of the form,
however, lies more in its touch and tone than in its
syllabic structure. Deeply imbedded in Japanese culture

PAGE 27
and strongly influenced by Zen Buddhism, haiku are very
brief descriptions of nature that convey some implicit
insight or essence of a moment. Traditionally, they
contain either a direct or oblique reference to a season •
Limerick: a light or humorous form of five chiefly
anapestic verses of which lines one, two and five are of
three feet and lines three and four are of two feet, with
a rhyme scheme of aabba. Named for a town in Ireland
of that name, the limerick was popularized by Edward
Lear in his Book of Nonsense published in 1846, and is
generally considered the only fixed form of English origin.

While the final line of Lear’s limericks usually was a

repetition of the first line, modern limericks generally use
the final line for clever witticisms and word play. Their
content also frequently tends toward the ribald and off-
color.

–8–

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•Lyric: derived from the Greek word for lyre, lyric poetry
was originally designed to be sung. One of the three main
groups of poetry (the others being narrative and
dramatic), lyric verse is the most frequently used modern
form, including all poems in which the speaker’s ardent
expression of a (usually single) emotional element
predominates. Ranging from complex thoughts to the
simplicity of playful wit, the melodic imagery of skillfully
written lyric poetry evokes in the reader’s mind the recall
of similar emotional experiences. • Ode: any of several
stanzaic forms more complex than the lyric, with
intricate rhyme schemes and irregular number of lines,
generally of considerable length, always written in a style
marked by a rich, intense expression of an elevated
thought praising a person or object. “Ode to a
Nightingale” is an example. • Pantoum: derived from the
Malayan pantun, it consists of a varying number of four-
line stanzas with lines rhyming alternately; the second
and fourth lines of each stanza repeated to form the first
and third lines of the succeeding stanza, with the first
and third lines of the first stanza forming the second and

PAGE 29
fourth of the last stanza, but in reverse order, so that the
opening and closing lines of the poem are identical. •
Rondeau: a fixed form used mostly in light or witty verse,
usually consisting of fifteen octo- or decasyllabic lines in
three stanzas, with only two rhymes used throughout. A
word or words from the first part of the first line are
used as a (usually unrhymed) refrain ending the second
and third stanzas, so the rhyme scheme is aabba aabR
aabbaR. An example is “ In Flanders Fields,” by Lt. Col.
John McCrae. • Sestina: a fixed form consisting of six 6-
line (usually unrhymed) stanzas in which the end words
of the first stanza recur as end words of the following
five stanzas in a successively rotating order, and as the
middle and end words of each of the lines of a concluding
envoi in the form of a tercet. The usual ending word order
for a sestina is as follows: First stanza, 1- 2 - 3 - 4 - 5
- 6 Second stanza, 6 - 1 - 5 - 2 - 4 - 3 Third stanza,
3 - 6 - 4 - 1 - 2 - 5 Fourth stanza, 5 - 3 - 2 - 6 - 1
- 4 Fifth stanza, 4 - 5 - 1 - 3 - 6 - 2 Sixth stanza, 2
- 4 - 6 - 5 - 3 - 1 Concluding tercet: middle of first
line - 2, end of first line - 5 middle of second line - 4,

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end of second line - 3 middle if third line - 6, end of
third line - 1 • Sonnet: a fourteen line poem in iambic
pentameter with a prescribed rhyme scheme; its subject
was traditionally love. Three variations are found
frequently in English, although others are occasionally
seen. • Shakespearean Sonnet: a style of sonnet used by
Shakespeare with a rhyme scheme of abab cdcd efef gg •
Italian (Petrarchan) Sonnet: a form of sonnet made
popular by Petrarch with a rhyme scheme of abbaabba
cdecde or cdcdcd • Spenserian Sonnet: a variant of the
Shakespearean form in which the quatrains are linked
with a chain or interlocked rhyme scheme, abab bcbc
cdcd ee. • Sonnet Sequence: a series of sonnets in which
there is a discernable unifying theme, while each retains
its own structural independence. All of Shakespeare’s
sonnets, for example, were part of a sequence. •Triolet:
a poem or stanza of eight lines in which the first line is
repeated as the fourth and seventh lines, and the second
line as the eighth, with a rhyme scheme of ABaAabAB,
as in Adelaide Crapsey’s “Song” (the capital letters in the
rhyme scheme indicate the repetition of identical lines).

PAGE 31
–9–

•Villanelle: a poem consisting of five 3-line stanzas

followed by a quatrain and having only two rhymes. In
the stanzas following the first stanza, the first and third
lines of the first stanza are repeated alternately as
refrains. They are the final two lines of the concluding
quatrain. The villanelle gives a pleasant impression of
simple spontaneity, as in Edwin Arlington Robinson’s
“The House on the Hill.”

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the IMAGES of words A poet uses words more consciously
than any other writer. Although poetry often deals with
deep human emotions or philosophical thought, people
generally don’t respond very strongly to abstract words,
even the words describing such emotions and thoughts.
The poet, then, must embed within his work those words
which do carry strong visual and sensory impact, words
which are fresh and spontaneous but vividly descriptive.
He must carefully pick and choose words that are just
right. It is better to show the reader than to merely tell
him.

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Imagery: The use of vivid language to generate ideas
and/or evoke mental images, not only of the visual sense,
but of sensation and emotion as well. While most
commonly used in reference to figurative language,
imagery can apply to any component of a poem that
evoke sensory experience and emotional response, and
also applies to the concrete things so brought to mind.
Poetry works it magic by the way it uses words to evoke
“images” that carry depths of meaning. The poet’s
carefully described impressions of sight, sound, smell,
taste and touch can be transferred to the thoughtful
reader through imaginative use and combinations of
diction. In addition to its more tangible initial impact,
effective imagery has the potential to tap the inner
wisdom of the reader to arouse meditative and
inspirational responses. Related images are often
clustered or scattered throughout a work, thus serving to
create a particular mood or tone. Images of disease,
corruption, and death, for example, are recurrent
patterns shaping our perceptions of Shakespeare’s
Hamlet.

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Examples:

• Sight: Smoke mysteriously puffed out from the clown’s

ears. • Sound: Tom placed his ear tightly against the
wall; he could hear a faint but distinct thump thump
thump. •Touch: The burlap wall covering scraped against
the little boy’s cheek. •Taste: A salty tear ran across onto
her lips. • Smell: Cinnamon! That’s what wafted into his
nostrils.

Synesthesia: An attempt to fuse different senses by

describing one kind of sense impression in words normally
used to describe another. Example: The sound of her
voice was sweet. Example: a loud aroma, a velvety smile

PAGE 35
Tone, Mood: The means by which a poet reveals attitudes
and feelings, in the style of language or expression of
thought used to develop the subject. Certain tones include
not only irony and satire, but may be loving,
condescending, bitter, pitying, fanciful, solemn, and a
host of other emotions and attitudes. Tone can also refer
to the overall mood of the poem itself, in the sense of a
pervading atmosphere intended to influence the readers’
emotional response and foster expectations of the
conclusion. Another use of tone is in reference to pitch or
to the demeanor of a speaker as interpreted through
inflections of the voice; in poetry, this is conveyed through
the use of connotation, diction, figures of speech, rhythm
and other elements of poetic construction.

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