HED 1102 COMMUNICATION SKILLS 1

Lesson 2: Communication Models and Concepts; Linear models; Aristotle model of

communication, Lasswell’s model, The Shannon-Weaver model, Berlo’s S-M-C-R model;
Interactive models; The Osgood-Schramm model, The Westley and Maclean model and
Transactional models; Barnlund’s transactional model, Dance’s helical model; Marshall
McLuhan’s “the medium is the message”.

Introduction of the model

Models of communication are simplified representations of the process of

communication. Most models try to describe both verbal and non-verbal communication
and often understand it as an exchange of messages. Their function is to give a compact
overview of the complex process of communication.

“Models,” wrote McQuail and Windahl (1989), “simplify reality, select key elements, and
indicate relationships” (p. 36). They indicated that advances in the understanding of how
communication works are reflected by the development of communication models.

According to Denis McQuail, “a model is a selective representation in verbal or

diagrammatic form of some aspect of the dynamic process of mass communication.” In
other words, models of communication provide us with a visual representation of the
different aspects of a communication situation. It is not easy to determine where a
conversation begins and ends, because communication is a complex process. That is why
we have models of communication — to simplify the process of understanding
communication.

1. Linear models

They look at one-way communication; communication proceeds in a relatively straight

line. Examples are; Aristotle model of communication, Lasswell’s model, The Shannon-
Weaver model, and Berlo’s S-M-C-R model. The main elements in these models are: The
channel, the sender, and the receiver. Simply put, the sender transmits the message via a
channel. The channel is the medium and changes the message into speech, writing, or
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animation. The message then reaches the receiver, who decodes it. This model is
straightforward and is used mainly in marketing, sales, and PR, in communication with
customers.

a. Aristotle's model of communication

This is the oldest communication model that dates back to 300 BC. Aristotle’s model was
designed to examine how to become a better and more persuasive communicator. It is a
foolproof way to excel in public speaking, seminars, and lectures, where the sender
(public speaker, professor, etc.) passes on their message to the receiver (the audience).
So, the sender is the only active member in this model, whereas the audience is
passive. Aristotle identified three elements that improve communication: Ethos — defines
the credibility of the speaker. Speaker gains credibility, authority, and power by being an
expert in a field of their choice; Pathos — connects the speaker with the audience
through different emotions (anger, sadness, happiness, etc.) and Logos — an important
element that signifies logic. It is not enough for the speech to be interesting — it needs to
follow the rules of logic.

Aside from that, Aristotle suggested that we look at five components of a communication
situation to analyse the best way to communicate. While discussing the features of
effective public speech in his famous work Rhetoric, ancient Greek scholar Aristotle
explained that communication comprises of five elements: the speaker (sender), the
speech (message), the audience (receivers), the occasion (context) and the effect
(consequence). He developed the following model of communication, which is still
significant in explaining the process.

One of the major drawbacks of this model is that it does not pay attention to the
feedback in communication because the audience is passive.

b. Lasswell model of communication

Developed by Harold Dwight Lasswell. Lasswell (February 13, 1902 - December 18, 1978)
was a well-known American political scientist and communication scholar. He was a

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professor at Yale University and president of American Political Science Association. He is
ranked among the half a dozen creative innovators in the social sciences in the 20th
century. In 1930s, Lasswell described the act of communication as the answers to these
questions:

• Who? • Says What? • In Which Channel? • To Whom? • With What Effect? The
answers to these questions offer us the main components of this model: Communicator,
Message, Medium, Audience/Receiver and Effect.

According to this model, communication is the transmission of a message with the

effect as the result. The effect is the measurable and obvious change in the receiver of
the message that is caused by the elements of communication. If any of the elements
change, the effect also changes. Lasswell formula thus includes five elements of
communication: Communicator (Sender), Message, Medium (Channel), Receiver and
Effect.

Lasswell’s communication model

Lasswell’s Model example

Let’s say you are watching an infomercial channel on TV and on comes a suitcase
salesman, Mr. Sanders. He is promoting his brand of a suitcase as the best. Aware that
millions of viewers are watching his presentation, Mr. Sanders is determined to leave a
remarkable impression. By doing so, he is achieving brand awareness, promoting his
product as the best on the market, and consequently increasing sales revenue.
So, Mr. Sanders is the communicator. The message he is conveying is the promotion of
his brand of a suitcase as the best. The medium he uses is television. His audience consists
of evening TV viewers in the US. The effect he is achieving by doing this is raising brand
awareness and increasing sales revenue.

c. The Shannon and Weaver model

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Maybe the most popular model of communication is the Shannon-Weaver
model. Strangely enough, Shannon and Weaver were mathematicians, who developed
their work during the Second World War in the Bell Telephone Laboratories. They aimed
to discover which channels are most effective for communicating. So, although they
were doing the research for engineering endeavors, their theory is applicable to human
communication as well. The components of the Shannon-Weaver model of
communication are: Sender, Encoder, Channel, Decoder and Receiver.

Shannon and Weaver were the first to introduce the role of noise in the communication
process. In his book Introduction to Communication Studies, John Fiske defines noise
as “anything that is added to the signal between its transmission and reception that is not
intended by the source.” The noise appears in the form of mishearing a conversation,
misspelling an email, or static on a radio broadcast.

The Shannon-Weaver Model example

Paula, a VP of Marketing in a multinational company, is briefing Julian on new
marketing strategies they are about to introduce next month. She wants a detailed study
on the competitor’s activity by the end of the week. Unfortunately, while she was
speaking, her assistant Peter interrupted her, and she forgot to tell Julian about the most
important issue. At the end of the week, Julian did finish the report, but there were some
mistakes, which had to be corrected later on. Let’s take a moment to briefly analyse this
example. Paula is the sender, her mouth being the encoder. The meeting she held
was the channel. Julian’s ears and brain were decoders, and Julian was the receiver.
Can you guess Peter’s role? Yes, he was the noise.
The trouble in this process was the lack of feedback. Had Julian asked Paula for
clarification after Peter interrupted her, the whole communication process would have
been more effective, and there would have been no mistakes.
Updated version of the Shannon-Weaver Model
Since the original version didn’t include it, the principle of feedback was added to the
updated version, so the model provided a more truthful representation of human
interaction. Simply put, feedback is the transfer of the receiver’s reaction back to the

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sender. It allows the speaker to modify their performance to the reaction of an
audience. Maybe the most important function of feedback is the fact that it helps the
receiver feel involved in the communication process. That makes the receiver more
receptive to the message because they feel their opinion is being taken into account.

d. Berlo’s S-M-C-R model

Berlo’s model of communication is unique in the sense that it gives a detailed account of
the key elements in each step. This model explains communication in four steps: Source,
Message, Channel and Receiver. These are key elements that affect how well the message
is communicated, starting with the source. The source or the sender carefully puts their
thoughts into words and transfers the message to the receiver. So, how does the sender
transfer the information to the receiver? With the help of:

 Communication skills — First and foremost, the source needs good

communication skills to ensure the communication will be effective. The speaker
should know when to pause, what to repeat, how to pronounce a word, etc.
 Attitude — Secondly, the source needs the right attitude. Without it, not even a
great speaker would ever emerge as a winner. The source needs to make a lasting
impression on the receiver(s).
 Knowledge — The third element on our list is knowledge. Here, knowledge does
not refer to educational qualifications. It refers to the clarity of the information
which the source wants to transfer to the receiver.
 Social system — The source should be familiar with the social system in which the
communication process takes place. That would help the source not to offend
anyone.
 Culture — Last but not least, culture. To achieve effective communication, the
source needs to be acquainted with the culture in which the communication
encounter is taking place. This is especially important for cross-cultural
communication.

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The message The speaker creates the message when they transform their thoughts into
words. Here are the key factors of the message:
 Content — Simply put, this is the script of the conversation.
 Elements — Speech alone is not enough for the message to be fully understood.
That is why other elements have to be taken into account: gestures, body
language, facial expressions, etc.
 Treatment — the way the source treats the message. They have to be aware of the
importance of the message so that they can convey it appropriately.
 Structure — The source has to properly structure the message to ensure the
receiver will understand it correctly.
 Code — All the elements, verbal and nonverbal, need to be accurate if you do
not want your message to get distorted and misinterpreted.

The channel To get from the source to the receiver, the message goes through the
channel. All our senses are the channels that help us communicate with one another. Our
sense of hearing lets us know that someone is speaking to us. Through our sense
of taste, we gather information about the spiciness of a sauce we are eating. Our sense
of sight allows us to decipher traffic signs while driving. We decide whether we like a
certain perfume or not by smelling it. By touching the water we feel whether it is too
cold for a swim.

The receiver A receiver is a person the source is speaking to — the destination of the
conveyed message. To understand the message, the receiver should entail the same
elements as the source. They should have similar communication skills, attitudes, and
knowledge, and be acquainted with the social system and culture in which they
communicate.

Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model example Watching the news on the television is the perfect
example of Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model of communication. The news presenter is the
source of the news and she conveys the message to the audience. The news is the
message, the television — the channel, and the audience are the receivers of the
message.

2. Interactive models

These are more complex and dynamic. Examples are; the Osgood-Schramm model and
the Westley and Maclean model. As more dynamic models, interactive models of
communication refer to two-way communication with feedback. However, feedback is
not simultaneous, but rather slow and indirect. Interactive models are used in internet-
based and mediated communication (telephone conversations, letters, etc.).

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Interactive communication model

The main elements of these models: Sender, Message, Receiver, Feedback, Field of
experience

You probably noticed the new, previously not seen, element — field of experience. The
field of experience represents a person’s culture, past experiences, and personal history.
All of these factors influence how a sender constructs a message, as well as how the
receiver takes it. Every one of us brings a unique field of experience into communication
situations.

a. The Osgood-Schramm Model

In their book Communication Models for the Study of Mass Communications-Routledge,
Denis Mcquail and Sven Windahl say that the emergence of this model “meant a clear
break with the traditional linear/one-way picture of communication.” This model is
useful for describing interpersonal, synchronous communication, but less suitable for cases
with little or no feedback. The Osgood-Schramm model is a circular model of
communication, in which messages go in two directions. There are four principles in this
model:

1. Communication is circular— individuals involved in the communication process

are changing their roles as encoders and decoders.
2. Communication is equal and reciprocal— both parties are equally engaged as
encoders and decoders.
3. The message requires interpretation— the information needs to be properly
interpreted to be understood.
4. There are three steps in the process of communication: Encoding, Decoding, and
Interpreting.

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In this model, there is no difference between a sender and a receiver. Both parties are
equally encoding and decoding the messages. The interpreter is a person trying to
understand the message. Furthermore, this model shows that information is of no use
until it is put into words and conveyed to other people.

The Osgood-Schramm Model example Imagine you have not heard from your college
friend for 15 years. Suddenly, she calls you, and you start updating each other with what
happened during the time you have not seen each other. In this example, you and your
friend are equally encoding and decoding messages, and your communication is
synchronous. You are both interpreting each other’s messages.

In Information theory and mass communication, Schramm even says that “it is misleading
to think of the communication process as starting somewhere and ending somewhere. It
is really endless. We are really switchboard centers handling and re-routing the great
endless current of information.”

b. The Westley and Maclean Model

The Westley and Maclean model is primarily used for explaining mass communication.
This model introduces environmental and cultural factors to the process of
communication. Namely, according to this model, the communication process does not
start with the source/sender, but rather with environmental factors.

The Westley and Maclean model also takes into account the object of the
orientation (background, culture, and beliefs) of the sender and the receiver of
messages. The very process of communication starts with environmental factors which
influence the speaker — the culture or society the speaker lives in, whether the speaker is
in a public or private space, etc. Aside from that, the role of feedback is also significant.
This model consists of nine crucial components: Environment (X), Sensory experience
(X¹), Source/Sender (A), The object of the orientation of the source (X²), Receiver (B),

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The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³), Feedback (F), Gatekeepers (C) and
Opinion leaders.

Key elements of communication in the Westley and Maclean Model

As mentioned above, this model shows that the communication process does not start
from the sender of the message, but rather from the environment. So, we will start with
this element. Environment (X) According to the Westley and Maclean Model, the
communication process starts when a stimulus from the environment motivates a person
to create and send a message.

The Westley and Maclean Model example

Imagine that on your way to the office, you witness a road accident. This is the stimulus
that would nudge you to call your friends and tell them about what you had seen, or call
your boss to say you are going to be a bit late. So, the communication process in this
example does not start with you, but with the road accident you have
witnessed. Acknowledgment of the environmental factors in communication allows us to
pay attention to the social and cultural contexts that influence our acts of
communication.

Sensory experience (X¹) When the sender of the message experiences something in their
environment that nudges them to send the message, we are talking about sensory
experience as an element of communication. In the example above, this sensory
experience would be witnessing a road accident.

Source/Sender (A) Only now does the sender come into play. In the above-mentioned
example, you are the sender, as well as a participant in the interpersonal communication

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situation. However, a sender can also be a newscaster sending a message to millions of
viewers. In that case, we are talking about mass communication.

The object of the orientation of the source (X²) The object of the orientation of the
source is the sender’s beliefs or experiences. If we take the previously-mentioned road
accident as an example, you (A) are concerned (X²) that you are going to be late for
work because of the accident (X¹), and that is why you are calling your boss.

Receiver (B) The receiver is the person who receives the message from the sender. In
mass communication, a receiver is a person that watches TV, reads a newspaper, etc.
When speaking about interpersonal communication, a receiver is a person that listens to
the message. In the example with a road accident, mentioned above, receivers of the
message are your friends and your boss.

The object of the orientation of the receiver (X³) The object of orientation of the
receiver is the receiver’s beliefs or experiences, which influence how the message is
received. For example, a skeptical person (B) watching the news is critical (X³) towards
the message.

Feedback (F) Feedback is crucial for this model because it makes this model circular,
rather than linear. As a matter of fact, feedback influences how messages are sent. That
means that a receiver and a gatekeeper are sending messages back to the sender. After
they have received the feedback, the sender modifies the message and sends it back. Let’s
go back to our first example (about the road accident). So, you have witnessed the
accident and feel the urge to call your best friend.

You: “There was a terrible accident downtown!”

Your friend: “My goodness! Are you hurt?”
You: “No, no, I just witnessed it. I wasn’t involved! Don’t worry!”
In this example, after the feedback from your worried friend, you modify your message
and send it back to her.

Gatekeepers (C) This element usually occurs in mass communication, rather than in
interpersonal communication. Gatekeepers are editors of the messages senders are trying
to communicate to receivers. For example, these are newspaper editors that edit the
message before it reaches the readers.

Opinion leaders Again, this element of communication refers to mass communication

situations. Namely, opinion leaders have an immense influence as an environmental

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factor (X) on the sender of the message (A). These are political leaders, celebrities, or
social media influencers.

3. Transactional models

Transactional models are the most dynamic communication models. They look at two-
way communication where the message gets more complex as the communication event
progresses. These include: Barnlund’s transactional model and Dance’s helical model.
Their key components are: Encoding, Decoding, Communicators, The message, The
channel and Noise.

In these models, communication is viewed as a transaction, meaning that it is a

cooperative process in which communicators (a new term for senders and receivers,
which first appears in these models) co-create the process of communication, thereby
influencing its outcome and effectiveness. Aside from that, transactional models show
that we do not just exchange information during our interactions, but create
relationships, form cross-cultural bonds, and shape our opinions. In other words,
communication helps us establish our realities. These models also introduced the roles of
social, relational, and cultural context. Moreover, these models acknowledge that there
are barriers to effective communication — noise.

a. Dance’s Helical Model

According to Dance’s Helical Model, communication is seen as a circular process that gets
more and more complex as communication progresses. That is why it is represented by a
helical spiral. With every cycle of communication, we expand our circle, and each
communication encounter is different from the previous one because communication
never repeats itself. Additionally, in the process of communication, the feedback we get
from the other party involved influences our next statement and we become more
knowledgeable with every new cycle.

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Dance’s helical communication model

In their book Communication: Principles for a Lifetime, Steven A. Beebe, Susan J. Beebe,
and Diana K. Ivy state: “Interpersonal communication is irreversible. Like the spiral
shown here, communication never loops back on itself. Once it begins, it expands
infinitely as the communication partners contribute their thoughts and experiences to the
exchange.”

Dance’s Helical Model example Dance himself explained his model with the example of
a person learning throughout their life. Namely, a person starts to communicate with
their surroundings very early on, using rudimentary methods of communication. For
instance, a baby cries to get the mother’s attention. Later on, they learn to speak in
words, and then full sentences. During the whole process, we build on what we know to
improve our communication. Every communication act is a chance for us to learn how to
communicate more effectively in the future, and feedback helps us achieve more effective
communication. In a way, our whole life is one communicational journey toward the
top of Dance’s helical model.

References

Fiske, J. (2011). Introduction to communication studies. Routledge.

McQuail, D. & Windahl, S. (1989). Models of communication. In E. Barnouw, G.

Gerbner, W. Schramm, T. L. Worth, & L. Gross (eds.), International encyclopedia
of communications, vol. 3 (pp. 36-44). New York: Oxford University Press.

McQuail, D., & Windahl, S. (2016). Communication models: For the study of Mass
Communications. Routledge.

https://pumble.com/learn/communication/communicationmodels/#What_are_models_of
_communication

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