CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

G- Growth- Permanent increase in mass

R- Reproduction- Production of offspring
I- Irritability- Ability to detect and respond to changes in the environment
M- Movement- Ability to change position
N- Nutrition- Obtaining nutrients
E- Excretion- The process by which an organism expels metabolic waste
products from their body
R- Respiration- The release of energy from food in the form of ATP and
heat

NOTE: REST OF INFO IN BOOK

Nutrition
● What are macronutrients and what are they?
The nutrients we need in larger quantities that provide us with energy
which are fat, protein and carbohydrate
● What are micronutrients and what are they?
Micronutrients are mostly vitamins and minerals
● What are the 2 inorganic nutrients?
The inorganic nutrients are: minerals and water
● Fill out the following table of the macronutrients

Macronutrient Elements Structure and Importance

Characteristics

Fat (Lipid) Carbon 4 molecules: 1 Energy

hydrogen glycerol and 3 storage and
Sources: oxygen fatty acid chains insulation
Butter, Oil, Nuts
Water insolubility
Provide energy
for cells
They are fatty,
waxy, or oily
 compounds

Protein Carbon Made up of long Growth and

hydrogen chains of amino Repair
Sources: oxygen acids
Meat, Eggs, Proteins contain
Fish the elements:
carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen,
and sometimes
sulfur
They can be
arranged in very
specific
sequences to
create proteins
Can get from
mainly from meats

Carbohydrate Carbon Types of them: Source of

hydrogen Monosaccharides, energy
Sources: oxygen disaccharides,
Bread, Rice, and
Cereal polysaccharide.

● Fill out the following table for the Vitamins

Vitamin
Source Function Deficiency

A
Fish, Carrot, Vision and growth Night
Milk blindness,
Rough Skin

B
Yeast, Liver, Helps in respiration and Beri (nerve
Cereals nervous system health damage)

C
(C for citrus Wound healing, Formation of Scurvy (gum
fruits) collagen, Healthy epithelial bleed)
 Citrus Fruits tissues

D
(D for dairy) Absorption of calcium Rickets
(children)
Liver, butter, Osteomalacia
cheese (adults)

E
(E for earth oils) Healthy skin and eyes Nerve and
muscle
Plant oil, nuts, Strong immune system damage
Wheat germ oil,
Sunflower oil Dry Skin

K
Green Leafy Blood clotting Increase
Vegetable, blood clotting
soybean oil, Wound Healing
tomato, cereal
grains

● Fill out the following table for the Minerals

Mineral Sources Function Deficiency

Calcium Cheese, Needed for Weak bones and

milk, tinned blood clotting teeth
tuna, eggs
Important Rickets
for bones and
teeth Poor blood
clotting

Phosphate
Fresh Need for atp Brittle bones and
Vegetables formation teeth
, dairy
products, Combine
liver, milk with calcium in
the formation
of bones and
teeth
Needed in
 the cell
nucleus

Floride
Added in Strengths Tooth decay
water and tooth enamel
toothpaste

Iron
Green Formation of Anemia-
leafy hemoglobin in tiredness, lack of
vegetables, red blood cells energy, etc
liver, eggs,
yeast,
kidney

Iodine
Sea Formation of Goitre- Reduced
foods, the hormone metabolic rate,
iodized thyroxin swelling of thyroid
table salt gland (adult)
Cretinism
(children)- physical
and mental
retardation

Magnesium
Green leafy Growth and Weakness,
vegetable maintenance of irritability, abnormal
nuts, bones heart rhythm,
seeds, muscle twitches
whole Proper function
grains of nerves and
muscles
Helps
neutralize
stomach acid

Sodium
Table salt Osmoregulation Muscle cramps and
weakness
Muscle and
nerve function
Maintains
stable blood
pressure
 ● Fill out the following table for the various Food Tests

Test for Description/Steps Result

A few drops of iodine solution were added to Starch was present

Starch
solution X and shaken. A blue black color was
observed.

Reducing Sugar A small amount of Benedict's solution was Reducing Sugar was presen
added to solution X. The solution was heated
and allowed to cool. A brick red precipitate was
observed.

Non-reducing Sugar A small amount of dilute acid Non-reducing sugar was

was added to solution X. The solution was present
heated and allowed to cool. Then a small
amount of NaOH solution was added, and the
solution was shaken. Finally a small amount of
Benedict's solution was added. The solution
was boiled and let cool. The solution
changed from green to yellow, then to a
deep orange/brick red precipitate.

Lipid A few drops of Sudan II solution (or iodine Lipid was present
solution) were added to solution X. The
solution was shaken and allowed to stand. A
red ring did not form at the surface.

Protein An equal amount of NaOH was added to Protein was present

solution X and shaken. A few drops of copper
(II) sulphate were added to solution X and
shaken again. A violet colour was observed.

Five functions of Water are?

● As a solvent
● Chemical reactions
● Transportion around the body
 ● Cleaning and personal hygiene
● Cooking food

Three functions of Fiber are?

● Assist peristalsis
● Helps prevent constipation
● Adds bulk

What are constipation and diarrhoea? What are 5 causes of these?

● Constipation- Stool becomes hard, dry, and difficult to pass
● Diarrhea- The passage of plenty liquid stools per day
● Causes- Not drinking enough water, lack of exercise, depression, some
medications and block intestines

Define the term “Balanced Diet”

A balanced diet is one that fulfills all of a person's nutritional needs

How do the following affect what is a balanced diet for a person

● Age- Certain ages require more of a certain nutrient than others
● Sex- Women need fewer calories than men, but in many cases, they have
higher vitamin and mineral needs.
● Occupation- The amount a person needs

Define malnutrition
It happens when your diet does not contain the right amount of nutrients

What is obesity, how does it happen and why is it bad?

Obesity is generally caused by eating too much and moving too little and making them
fat. Being obese reduces life expectancy and will cause problems with the body

What is anorexia, how does it happen and why is it bad?

An abnormal loss of the appetite for food. It is not exactly sure what causes it but it is
bad since the body is not getting enough food and can lead to starvation

What is bulimia, how does it happen and why is it bad?

It is an eating disorder whose exact cause is unknown and it is bad because it can be
damaging and deadly to the body.

What is kwashiorkor, how does it happen and why is it bad?

Kwashiorkor is a severe form of malnutrition and it is caused by protein deficiency and it
can cause loss of muscle mass.

What is marasmus, how does it happen and why is it bad?

Marasmus is a deficiency of all macronutrients: carbohydrates, fats, and protein. It is
caused by a deficiency in calories and energy.

What is BMI and what is it used for? Is BMI the best way to measure if
someone is within a healthy weight range? Explain your answer.
Body mass index. A measure that relates body weight to height.BMI is sometimes used
to measure total body fat and whether a person is a healthy weight. Clearly, BMI is not a
perfect predictor of health. However, it continues to serve as a helpful beginning point
for major illnesses that are more common in overweight or obese people.

DIGESTION
What Is Digestion?

Digestion is the breakdown of food into smaller components that can be absorbed into
the body.

● Mechanical Digestion - the breakdown of food into smaller pieces with teeth or
intestinal muscles
● Chemical Digestion - the breaking up of chemicals in food assisted by enzymes

TEETH:

Milk/Baby/temporary teeth (Deciduous teeth) are what children are born with. They have
20 while adults have 32 permanent teeth. The first set of teeth lacks the 12 molars
which is why children should eat softer types of food.

Mastication (chewing) is the breaking down of food mechanically.

Types Of Teeth:-

● Incisors - shaped edged for biting and cutting

● Canines - pointed for tearing, holding and biting
● Premolars And Molars - larger, flat surfaces with ridges at the edges for
chewing and grinding up food
 Structure Of A Tooth

● Enamel: The hardest bodily tissue covering the surface of the dental crown. It
is as hard as crystal (7 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness).

● Dentin: The tissue that forms the tooth from the dental crown to the tooth root,
situated inside the enamel and cementum. It is softer than the enamel. A small
tube filled with tissue fluid, called the dentinal tubule, runs inside the dentin.

● Cementum: The tissue covering the surface of the tooth root. It connects the
alveolar bone with the tooth by the periodontal ligament. Its hardness is similar
to bone.

● Dental pulp: The tissue is called the nerve. Blood vessels and the lymph
vessels, as well as nerve fibers, are located in the dental pulp, supplying
nutrients to the dentin.

● Periodontal ligament: Tissue consisting mainly of the fibrous tissue that

connects the tooth root and the alveolar bone. It prevents force applied to the
tooth from being directly imposed on the alveolar bone while chewing food.

● Alveolar bone: The jaw bone supporting the tooth; the tooth is planted into this
bone. When a large part of the alveolar bone is destroyed by periodontal
disease or other causes, the tooth becomes loose.

● Gingiva: The soft tissue covering the alveolar bone. It is generally called “gum”.

● Gingival sulcus: The small space between the tooth and the gums. Even
people with healthy teeth usually have a depth of 1 to 2 mm in this space.
When this space deepens due to inflammation, it is called the periodontal
pocket or gingival pocket.

Tooth Decay:-

Tooth decay happens when the enamel of the tooth is damaged. This can happen
when bacteria in the mouth, frequent snacking and a lot of sugary drinks. Bacteria can
then enter the softer dentine inside.
 ● Plaque: is a sticky substance that constantly forms on teeth formed by a mixture
of saliva,food and bacteria naturally.
● Cavities: are permanently damaged areas in your teeth that develop into tiny
openings or holes caused by acid dissolving in the enamel. This can get infected
and lead to a toothache.
● Periodontal Diseases: are mainly the result of infections and inflammation of
the gums and bone that surround and support the teeth.

Bacteria + Sugar = Acid = Dissolves Enamel = Tooth Decay

Care Of Teeth:-

● Avoiding foods with a high sugar content

● Using toothpaste and drinking water containing fluoride
● Regular, effective brushing to prevent the build-up of plaque (a sticky layer on
the teeth)
● Use dental floss
● Eat foods with calcium,phosphorus and vitamins c & d

ENZYMES

What Are Enzymes?

Enzymes are proteins that help speed up the chemical reactions in our bodies

You actually need them for basically every chemical reaction that happens inside your
body. It will be controlled by a specific enzyme.

● The product is made from the substrate joining the active site and is released

Temperature And Enzyme Activity

● Low Temperatures: reduce the rate of chemical reactions since there is not
enough energy to occur
 ● Higher Temperatures: increase the rate of chemical reactions since there is
more kinetic energy. This can break the reaction since the active site would
change shape and the substrate no longer fits.

Properties Of Enzymes:-
● Works best at a certain pH e.g. pepsin needs an acidic pH
● Works best at near body temperature (37°C)
● Higher the temperature more chemical reactions and lower the less

The Production Of Enzymes:-

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

What Is The Digestive System?

The digestive system is a system of organs responsible for getting food into and out of
the body to make fuel for the body. Your digestive system is made up of the
gastrointestinal (GI) tract and your liver, pancreas and gallbladder.

Why Is Digestion Important?

Digestion is how your body turns the food you eat into nutrients for energy, growth, and
cell repair.

What are the main organs of the digestive system?

● Mouth
● Pharynx
● Esophagus
● Stomach
● Small intestine
● Large intestine
● Rectum
 ● Anus

Accessory organs that play a part in digestion -

● The Liver
● The Gallbladder
● The Pancreas

Peristalsis-A series of wave-like muscle movements that move the food through the
digestive tract.

Organ Function

Mouth - Chews and breaks down food mechanically through

mastication (chewing)

- Secretes saliva containing enzymes to begin chemical

digestion of food

Pharynx - Connects the mouth to the esophagus

- Allows passage of food from the mouth to the esophagus

Esophagus - Transports food to the stomach

Stomach - Stores and further breaks down food through mechanical and
chemical digestion

- Secretes gastric juices containing enzymes and hydrochloric

acid

Small - Receives food from the stomach

Intestine
- Where food is mixed with bile and enzymes for digestion and
the absorption of nutrients by villi and microvilli

Large - Receives undigested food from the small intestine

Intestine
- Absorbs remaining water and salts only
 - Stores waste before elimination

Rectum - Stores waste before it is eliminated through the anus

Anus - Opening through which waste is eliminated from the body

Small Intestine- It has 3 Parts The Duodenum, Jejunum, and

Ileum

Breaks down food from the stomach and absorbs much of the nutrients from the
food

● Duodenum:- Is to mix food with enzymes and bile to digest it

● Jejunum and Ileum:- This is the second part of the small intestine. Food
(now chyme) spends the most time in the ileum, where the most water and
nutrients are absorbed.

● The Ileum have small finger-like structures called Villi and Microvilli to
increase the surface area for absorption.

Accessory Organs:

Organ Function

Pancreas - Secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum (part of the

small intestine)

- Pancreatic juice contains a variety of enzymes involved in the

chemical digestion of food

Liver - Produces bile to neutralize the acidity of food coming from the
stomach

Gallbladder - Stores and concentrates bile produced by the liver

 - Releases bile into the duodenum (part of the small intestine)
to aid in the digestion and absorption of fats

NOTE: Bible aids in Emulsification (is the process of breaking down fat into smaller
globules)

Assimilation:- The process of making use of absorbed nutrients

Enzymes In The Digestive System:

DEFINITIONS

Topic Syllabus Content

Mechanical - Chewing (mastication) in the mouth

Digestion

- Action of the stomach to physically break down food

Chemical Digestion - Role of enzymes in breaking down food into smaller

molecules

Digestive System - Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine,

Organs large intestine, rectum, anus

Digestive Processes - Ingestion of food

- Mechanical and chemical digestion in the alimentary

canal

- Absorption of nutrients through the intestinal villi

- Egestion of undigested material

Absorption - Osmosis, diffusion, and active transport of nutrients

 - Role of the hepatic portal vein in transporting absorbed
nutrients to the liver

Fate of Digested - Glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycerol

Nutrients
- Assimilation of nutrients

Accessory Organs - Pancreas: Secretes enzymes for chemical digestion

- Liver: Produces bile to emulsify fats

- Gallbladder: Stores and concentrates bile

Digestive Disorders - Constipation and diarrhea

- Causes and effects

Balanced Diet - Definition, food groups, and dietary needs based on

age, sex, and occupation

Malnutrition - Definitions of over- and under-nutrition

- Conditions such as obesity, anorexia, bulimia,

kwashiorkor, and marasmus

QUESTIONS
Tooth Structure:
1. The exposed chewing surface of a tooth is made of
Enamel
2. Tooth blood vessels are found in the
Pulp
3. The hard material of a tooth is made mainly from compounds of

Calcium and phosphorus

4. Types Of Teeth
 ● Incisors - shaped edged for biting and cutting
● Canines - pointed for tearing, holding and biting
● Premolars And Molars - larger, flat surfaces with ridges at the edges for
chewing and grinding up food
Digeston:

1. In which regions of the digestive system is amylase produced?

Mouth and Pancreas

2. What type of acid is in the stomach

Hydrochloric acid

3. Which organ produces both lipase and protease enzymes?

The Pancreas

4. Where is bile produced and it is used for?

In the liver and it is used in digestion and absorption of fat

5. Describe the process of digestion that takes place in the stomach

Glands in your stomach make stomach acid and enzymes that break down food.
Muscles of your stomach mix the food with these digestive juices.

6. List the enzyme in the stomach and its function

● Pepsin- break down of proteins

7. What is peristalsis?

A series of wave-like muscle movements that move the food through the
digestive tract
 BREATHING AND RESPIRATION
What is breathing?
Breathing is the mechanical process by which air enters and leave the
lungs

1. Nose- Brings air into the body

2. Pharynx- Brings air into the larynx
3. Larynx- Brings air into the trachea
4. Trachea- Sends air into the two bronchi
5. Bronchi and Bronchioles- Brings air between bronchioles and alveoli
6. Lungs and Alveoli- Where gas exchange occurs

What is the process whereby AIR is taken into the lungs?

Called inspiration, or inhalation

What are the steps involved in this process?

● Diaphragm contracts (pushes down wards)

● Ribs Expand
● Thoracic cavity increases (chest cavity)
● Air enters the lungs

What is the process whereby AIR is pushed out of the

lungs?

Called exhalation or expiration

What are the steps involved in this process?

● The muscles of your diaphragm relax (pushes
upwards)
● Ribs flattens
● Thoracic cavity reduces (chest cavity)
 ● Air exists the lungs

Part Function
Larynx Vocal cords vibrate and produce sound
Trachea Allows air to flow from throat to bronchi. Cartilage holds the tube open,
C-shaped ring allows the esophagus behind it to expand when it
carries food

Bronchi Allows air to flow in and out of each lung

Bronchioles Allows air to flow between the bronchi and alveoli

Alveoli Gas exchange occurs- oxygen diffuse from air to blood; carbon
dioxide diffuses from blood into alveolar air

What is meant by the term “Vital Capacity” and how is it

measured?
The maximum amount of air a person can inhale after exhalation.

Gaseous Exchange

Explain the term “gaseous exchange”.

Oxygen moves from the lungs to the bloodstream. At the same time
carbon dioxide passes from the blood to the lungs

What is the site of gaseous exchange in humans?

Gas exchange takes place in the millions of alveoli in the lungs

Respiration
 ● General definition of Respiration
Respiration is the breakdown of food to release energy in the form of
ATP and heat

● What are the two types of Respiration

Aerobic and Anaerobic respiration

● Explain both types

Aerobic respiration takes place in presence of oxygen (example
the mitochondria); whereas anaerobic respiration takes place in
absence of oxygen like when cells don't receive enough (example
cytoplasm)

● What is an oxygen debt, how do you get one and how is

it relieved?

Oxygen debt is a lack of oxygen around the body due to intense

exercise and it is relieved by taking breaths after.

● How do we use Anaerobic respiration in yeast?

Oxygen levels fall during the rapid yeast cell reproduction that
occurs when making beer or wine. The yeast must transition to
anaerobic respiration in order to survive.

Compare (in table form) both types of respiration.

Aerobic
Oxygen needed

Large amount of
energy released

Glucose is completely
broken down to C02 + H20

Occurs in mitochondria
Anaerobic

No oxygen needed

Small amount of oxygen released

Glucose is not
completely broken down because ethanol of lactic acid
remains

Occurs in cytoplasm

● What is ATP and why is it important?

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a high energy molecule that cells use to
power their various functions.

● What is CPR and list the steps.

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is an emergency procedure that
can help save a person's life if their breathing or heart stops.

CPR STEPS:
1. Lie the person on their back
2. Place 1 hand on top of their head, 2 fingers under the chin and
gently tilt the head backwards to open the air passageway.
3. Push the chin up to lift the tongue and search for and remove any debris
(including false teeth) in the mouth
4. Pinch the nostrils of the injured person, take a deep breath, seal the
mouth with your lips and breathe out deeply
5. Repeat twice
6. Check that the chest of the injured person is rising and falling. This
indicates that the rescue breaths are effective
7. Check for signs of circulation. If yes, give 10 breaths per minute and
check for signs of circulation every minute. If no given cycles of 15 chest
compressions (at a rate of 100 per minute) to two breathes and check
for signs of circulation every minute.
8. When the person is breathing normally, put then into recovery
Smoking

Fill out the following table

Component Main Physiological Effects Symptoms/Illness

Tar Cause cancer of lungs and mouth

Cancer
Carcinogens are cancer producing
substances, e.g. tar

Carbon Combines with blood hemoglobin and

Monoxide Shortness of breath
reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity
Damaged heart muscles

Particulates Stop cilia sweeping mucus from

Phlegm accumulates; Bronchiti
Bronchial tubes
inflammation of air tubes causes
Bronchial tubes constrict
coughing; emphysema- alveoli walls
damaged, enlarging air spaces

Nicotine Causes addiction; Affects

Reduces stress; Stimulant; Raise
neurotransmitter substances; Adrenaline
blood pressure; Artery walls thicken
released from glands; Blood platelets
and harden; Heart attacks caused;
adhere; Fatty acids increase in blood;
Reduced urine
Increased ADH secretion

● Explain the effects of hookah

A hookah is a water pipe that is used to smoke sweetened and flavored
tobacco. It can cause cancer, Increase CO in the blood, cause respiratory
diseases, cause cardiovascular disease and spread infectious disease through
the sharing of smoking equipment.

● Explain the effects of vaping

 A vape is a device that heats up a liquid to create a vapor to inhale. It can
cause cardiovascular problems such as raised blood pressure,
arteriosclerosis and constriction of blood vessels, leading to heart attacks
and strokes

● Explain the effects of marijuana

Marijuana is a mixture of dried-out leaves, stems, flowers and seeds of the
hemp plant used for smoking. It can cause damage to your brain and body.
For example it will damage your lungs causing breathing problems, lung
infections and other stuff

Running Vs Sitting:

● The activity that involves the MOST intake of air is Running.

● The activity that involves the LEAST intake of air is Sitting.
● Running requires the body to work harder and use more oxygen,
leading to a greater volume of air inhaled per minute. In contrast, sitting
is a more relaxed state where the body's oxygen demands are lower,
resulting in a smaller volume of air inhaled per minute.

ATP VS ADP

Molecule Function Abbreviation

Adenosine Stores and transfers cellular ATP

Triphosphate energy
(ATP)

Adenosine Recycled form of ATP, used for ADP

Diphosphate energy production
(ADP)

NOTE: During a sprint, the muscles produce lactic acid through the process of
anaerobic respiration, which occurs when there is insufficient oxygen available
for the body to undergo aerobic respiration.
 THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Why is this needed?

The circulatory system is needed to transport oxygen, blood and other
substances around the body

Materials That Need To Be Transported

SUBSTANCE TRANSPORTED FROM TRANSPORTED TO

Dissolved food Absorbed in ileum Cells of the body
Nitrogenous waste Cells where produced Kidneys- to be excreted
Oxygen Lungs- where it diffuse Body cells to be used for
into blood respiration
Carbon dioxide Body cells where it is Lungs to be excreted
produced in respiration
Hormones Endocrine glands where Organs where they are
they are produced needed
White blood cells Marrow of bones where Where there are
including antibodies they are produced infections or invasions
by microorganisms

The human circulatory system consists of:

● Blood- a tissue that is composed cells suspended in liquid (mostly
water)
● Blood vessels- they distribute blood throughout the body, with small
vessels allowing substance exchange between blood and tissues.
● The heart- a muscular organ that pumps blood around the body
 Component Function

Plasma The liquid portion of blood that transports blood cells,

nutrients, waste products, and other substances
throughout the body. It makes up about 55% of total
blood volume.

Serum The clear, yellowish liquid that remains after blood has
clotted and the clot has been removed. It contains no
clotting factors.

Red Blood Cells Carry oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and
(Erythrocytes) carbon dioxide from the tissues back to the lungs.

White Blood Defend the body against infection and disease by

Cells engulfing and destroying harmful microorganisms, dead
(Leukocytes) or dying cells, and foreign substances.

Platelets Help the blood to clot, preventing excessive bleeding

(Thrombocytes) when blood vessels are damaged.

Plasma Vs Serum

Component Plasma Serum

Clotting Clots Does Not Clot

factors

Description Liquid portion of Liquid portion of blood

blood with clotting remaining after clotting factors
factors are removed
Blood Vessels:-

ARTERY VEIN CAPILLARY

Carries blood from Carries blood to the Connecting arteries
the heart heart with veins
Thick elastic walls Thinner walls Walls that are 1 cell
thick
Blood under high Blood under low Blood under low
pressure, flows in pressure, flows pressure, slow flow
spurts smoothly
Oxygenated blood Deoxygenated blood Oxygen and carbon
(except pulmonary (except pulmonary dioxide exchanges
artery) vein) with tissues
Valves absent Valves present Valves absent
The Heart:-
Right Side Of Heart:-

Vena Cava Carries deoxygenated blood from the body to the right
atrium

Right Atrium Collects deoxygenated blood from the body

Tricuspid Prevents the backflow of blood into the right atrium

Valve

Right Ventricle Carries deoxygenated blood to the pulmonary artery

Semilunar Prevents backflow of blood into both ventricles

Valves
 Pulmonary Carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs
Artery

Left Side Of Heart:-

Pulmonary Carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium
Vein

Left Atrium Collects oxygenated blood from the lungs

Bicuspid Valve Prevents the backflow of blood into left atrium

Left Ventricle Carries oxygenated blood to the aorta

Semilunar Prevents backflow of blood into both ventricles

Valve

Aorta Artery Transports oxygenated blood from heart to the rest of the
body

NOTE: The left side of the heart has a thicker muscular wall in order to
pump blood to the rest of the body
Double Pump: allows oxygen rich blood to be pumped from the lungs to
the body
Septum:- Muscular sheet that separates the right side of the heart from the
left

SUMMARY

Component Structure Function

Heart Divided into four chambers: Pumps blood throughout

right atrium, right ventricle, left the body.
 atrium, left ventricle.

Pulmonary Blood flows from the right Allows for the exchange of
Circulation ventricle to the lungs via the oxygen and carbon
pulmonary arteries, and returns dioxide in the lungs.
oxygenated blood from the
lungs to the left atrium via the
pulmonary veins.

Systemic Blood flows from the left Delivers oxygen and

Circulation ventricle to the body's tissues nutrients to the body's
via the aorta and other arteries, tissues and removes
and returns deoxygenated waste products.
blood to the right atrium via the
superior and inferior vena
cavae.

Blood Arteries, veins, and capillaries. Arteries carry blood away

Vessels from the heart, veins carry
blood back to the heart,
and capillaries facilitate
the exchange of materials
between blood and
tissues.

Blood Composed of plasma, red blood Transports oxygen,

cells, white blood cells, and nutrients, waste products,
platelets. and other substances
throughout the body.

Valves Atrioventricular valves (tricuspid Ensure one-way flow of

and mitral) and semilunar blood through the heart
valves (pulmonary and aortic). and prevent backflow.

Conduction Sinoatrial (SA) node, Coordinates the

System atrioventricular (AV) node, and contraction of the heart
Purkinje fibers. chambers.

Pacemakers-
The natural resting heart rate is controlled by a group of cells in the right
atrium called the pacemaker, which coordinates the contractions of the
heart muscle.
(remember its located in the right atrium)
Artificial pacemakers-
Are electrical devices used to correct irregularities in the heart rate
The device is implanted just under the skin, with a wire that delivers an
electrical current to the heart to help it contract regularly
BLOOD PRESSURE:-
Blood pressure is the force exerted by the blood against the walls of the blood vessels,
particularly the arteries. It is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) and consists of
two main components:

● Systolic Pressure: The pressure in the arteries when the heart contracts and
pumps blood out (the higher number).

● Diastolic Pressure: The pressure in the arteries when the heart relaxes and fills
with blood (the lower number).

Risk Factor Effect on Blood Pressure

High Salt Intake Increases blood pressure by causing the body to retain
more fluid.

High Fat Diet Can lead to the buildup of plaque in the arteries,
increasing resistance and blood pressure.

Excessive Alcohol Increases blood pressure by affecting the nervous

Consumption system and causing vasoconstriction.

Smoking Increases blood pressure by causing the blood vessels

to constrict and the heart to work harder.

Stress Can lead to temporary increases in blood pressure

and, if chronic, can contribute to sustained high blood
 pressure.

Trends in Hypertension and Obesity in Caribbean Countries:-

Hypertension (high blood pressure)
● Dietary patterns have shifted towards higher intakes of processed foods, salt,
and unhealthy fats, contributing to increased blood pressure and obesity.

● Physical activity levels have declined, particularly in urban areas, as more

sedentary lifestyles become common.
● Smoking rates remain high in some Caribbean countries, especially among men.

● Stress levels have increased due to economic and social challenges, further
exacerbating the risk of hypertension.

Blood Groups:-
The main blood groups are determined by the presence or absence of specific antigens
on the surface of red blood cells. The four major blood groups are:

Blood Antigen Antibody

Group

A A antigen Anti-B antibody

B B antigen Anti-A antibody

AB Both A and B No antibodies

antigens

O No antigens Both Anti-A and Anti-B

antibodies

Precautions in Transfusion and Handling

● Individuals with blood group A can receive blood from groups A or AB.
● Individuals with blood group B can receive blood from groups B or AB.
● Individuals with blood group AB can receive blood from any group.
 ● Individuals with blood group O can only receive blood from group O (universal
donor).
● Individuals with blood group O can give blood to any group (universal recipient).

Rh Factor:-
The Rh factor is another important blood group characteristic, determined by the
presence or absence of the Rh antigen on the surface of red blood cells.

● Rh-positive individuals have the Rh antigen.

● Rh-negative individuals do not have the Rh antigen.

Rh Factor Risk in Pregnancy and Precautions

● If an Rh-negative mother is carrying an Rh-positive baby, the mother's body may
produce antibodies against the Rh antigen, a condition known as Rh
incompatibility.
● This can lead to complications in subsequent pregnancies, such as hemolytic
disease of the newborn, where the mother's antibodies attack the baby's red
blood cells.
● Precautions include:
● Administering Rh immunoglobulin (RhIg) to Rh-negative mothers during
and after pregnancy to prevent the formation of Rh antibodies.
● Careful monitoring of the baby's Rh status and providing appropriate
treatment if Rh incompatibility occurs.

Heart Diseases:-

Heart Disease Causes Effects

Hypertension (High - Excessive salt intake - Damage to blood vessels

Blood Pressure)
- Obesity - Increased workload on the
heart
- Lack of physical
activity - Risk of heart attack, stroke,
and kidney damage
- Stress

- Genetics

Atherosclerosis - High levels of - Narrowing and hardening

cholesterol of arteries

- Inflammation - Reduced blood flow to the

 - Smoking heart and other organs

- Diabetes - Increased risk of heart

attack and stroke
- Obesity

Coronary - Atherosclerosis - Sudden blockage of blood

Thrombosis (Heart flow to the heart muscle
Attack) - Blood clot formation
in the coronary - Damage or death of heart
arteries muscle tissue

- Potentially life-threatening

Obesity - Excessive calorie - Increased workload on the

intake heart

- Sedentary lifestyle - Higher risk of

hypertension,
- Genetic factors atherosclerosis, and heart
failure
- Hormonal
imbalances - Increased risk of other
health problems, such as
diabetes and stroke

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

● Role of tissue fluid

Tissue fluid is a watery liquid surrounding cells, whose function is to
bathe tissues and facilitates substance exchange between the cells
and blood

● What is lymph?
Lymph is a pale fluid that bathes the tissues of an organism, maintaining
fluid balance, and removes bacteria from tissues

● Purpose of the lymphatic system

It maintains fluid levels in our body tissues by removing all fluids that
leak out of our blood vessels.
 ● Differentiate between tissue fluid and lymph
While lymph is found in the lymph vessels, tissue fluid is found in the spaces
between cells

SKELETAL SYSTEM
1. Label the following bones. Pay attention to spelling.

A- Cranium (top of skull)

B- Scapula (shoulder blade)
C- Humerus (upper arm)
D- Clavicle (collar bone)
E- Lumbar (lowest vertebra)
F- Pelvis (connects spine to legs)
G- Ulna (inner lower arm)
H- Radius ( outer lower arm )
I- Femur (thighbone)
J- Patella (knee cap)
K- Fibula ( 1st lower leg bone)
L- Tiba ( 2nd lower leg bone)
2. What are the 7 functions of the skeleton, naming an example of a bone
which carries out the function?

● Support
● Movement
● Breathing
● Protection
● Manufacture Of Blood Cells
● Storage
● Gives body its shape

3. Label the parts of the long bone below:

1. Epiphysis
2.
Shaft
3. Epiphysis
4. Ball
5. Cartilage
6. Spongy Bone
7. Compact Bone
8.
Periosteum
9. Yellow bone
 marrow
10. Marrow Cavity
11. Blood
Vessel

4. List 2 functions of cartilage

● Cartilage supports the trachea and bronchi
● Prevents bones from rubbing against each other

5. What are the structural differences between bone and cartilage that
allow for their function?

Bones are hard and protect your organs, whereas cartilage is soft, elastic,
and is a flexible connective tissue that keeps the bones from rubbing
together.

6. What is the job of a tendon and ligaments? Now write a sentence that can
DISTINGUISH between both of them.
Tendons connect muscles to bones, allowing the force of contraction, and
ligaments connect bones together, allowing movement. Tendons connect
muscles to the bones, whereas ligaments connect bones to bones.

7. List 3 features of a tendon and 3 features of a ligament

● Tendon- Matrix of collagen fibers, connects bone to muscle, non-flexible
● Ligament- matrix of collagen fibers, connects bones to bones, Flexible‌
8. Tendons attach to bones at 2 locations, what are these locations called
and what is the difference between them?
● Insertion- Attached to bone to be moved
● Origin- Attached to anchor bone that does not move

9. There are different types of joints. What are 3 big categories that these
joints can be placed in, giving 1 example of a location of each?

● Immovable- No movement, example the bones of the cranium of the skull

● Slightly moveable- Slight movement, example the vertebrae of the spine

● Freely moveable- Allows movement, example ball and socket joint

10.Hinge joint and ball and socket joint are examples of one of these
categories, which one?
Freely moveable

11.Synovial joints are special types of joints that are involved in movement.
Label the following parts of the joint and create a table with the part
name and its function.
 1. Synovial Membrane
2. Synovial fluid- A thick liquid located between your joints that reduces
friction
3. Ligament
4. Cartilage
12. What are the 3 different types of muscles and how do they differ in
function?
● Skeletal Muscle- Muscles that connect to your bones and allow you to
move. They work with your bones, tendons and ligaments.
● Smooth Muscle- You can't control this type of muscle, e.g. bladder,
stomach and intestines.
● Cardiac Muscle- The muscle that makes up the heart

13. Skeletal muscles work together to bring about movement in the limbs, what
are these pairs of muscles called and how do they bring about movement (use
the words flexor and extensor)?

To bend a limb at a joint, the flexor contracts. After that, the flexor relaxes and
the extensor contracts to extend the limb at the same joint.

14. Explain how movement in the arm is brought about, that is, how the
forearm is raised and lowered.

To raise the forearm, the biceps contract and the triceps relax. To lower the
forearm, the triceps contract and the biceps relax.

MORE QUESTIONS:-
1. Which organs are protected by the skull?
Brain, eye

2. Muscles are joined to bones by

Tendons
3. Which part of the skeleton is made of cartilage?
Walls of trachea, vertebrae, joints, nose, end of ribs
4. What is cartilage?
A strong, flexible connective tissue that protects your joints and bones
5. Ligaments are made of
Elastic tissue
6. Name the bones of the skeleton involved in the following:
● The bones that protect the heart and lungs
Ribs
● The bones that the skull is joined to
Cranium and mandible
● The bones that form the skeleton of the leg
Femur, Tibia, Fibula, Patella
● The bones to which the muscles of the upper arm are attached
The humerus
7. Hinge joints are
The fingers, toes, knees, hip, elbows, and ankles
8. A pair of muscles that cause movement in opposite directions are
 Antagonistic, example biceps and triceps
9. The advantage of a ball and socket joint is that it
Wider range of motion
10. Why do muscles work in pairs?
Skeletal muscles only pull in one direction. For this reason they always
come in pairs.
11. Types of muscle tissues
Smooth muscle tissue, cardiac muscle tissue, skeletal muscle tissue
12. Examples of long bones
Femur, Tibia, Fibula, Humerus
13. Examples of short bones
Tarsals, carpals
14. What is a joint?
It is where two or more bones meet
15. Where is marrow found and its function?
In spongy bone and it produces red blood cells
16. Which gel-like substance helps to lubricate the movement of joints?
Synovial fluid
17. Freely movable joints and examples of them
● Hinge- movement in one place, e.g. knee, elbow, and finger joints
● Pivot- rotation, e.g. Neck to move your head
● Ball and socket- universal movement, e.g. shoulder and hip
● Gliding- bones sliding slightly over each other, e.g. wrist bones and
between vertebrae

ALL BONES IN THE SKELETON

● Cranium (top of skull)
● Mandible (Jaw bone)
● Orbit (eye hole)
● Scapula (shoulder blade)
● Humerus (upper arm)
● Clavicle (collar bone)
● Pelvis (hip bone)
● Ulna (pinky side of forearm)
● Radius (thumb side of forearm )
● Femur (thighbone)
● Patella (knee cap)
● Fibula ( smaller one on the side 1st lower leg bone)
● Tibia ( Bigger one 2nd lower leg bone)
● Sternum (breastbone middle of chest)
● Ribs
● Phalanges (toe and finger bones)
● Carpals (wirst bone)
● Metacarpals (below wrist bone)
● Tarsals (ankle bone)
● Metatarsals ( below ankle bone)
● Cervical-( 1st Vertebrae neck bone) 1-7
● Thoracic-(2nd Vertebrae upper backbone longest) 8-19
● Lumber-( 3rd Vertebrae lower backbone) 20-14
● Sacral-(4th Vertebrae) 25-29
● Coccyx-(5th last Vertebrae tailbone) 30-33
 VERTEBRAE BONES
● Cervical-( 1st Vertebrae neck bone)
● Thoracic-(2nd Vertebrae upper backbone longest)
● Lumber-( 3rd Vertebrae lower backbone
● Sacral-(4th Vertebrae)
● Coccyx-(5th last Vertebrae tailbone)

MUSCLE TONE

It is the tension in the relaxed muscle

Good posture:
Sit at 135°angle
Normal muscle tone assist 3 important functions:

Proper alignment of your center of gravity

Since muscles act like springs it can store energy and release later
More fluid like movement of the muscles

Poor posture:
More use of energy
Compressed digestive system
Compressed breathing system
Compressed blood vessels carrying less blood

Poor posture is caused by:- poor muscle tone, wearing high heels, injury
and obesity

Other factors that affect the skeletal system include:-

 Osteoporosis- Condition where bones become weak
Osteoarthritis- Loss of joint cartilage and bone
Dislocation- Disturbed joint position

EXCRETION
The process by which an organism expels metabolic waste products from
their body.

ORGAN EXCRETORY EXCRETION

PRODUCTS
Kidney Urea, water, salts Urine

Lungs Carbon dioxide, water Expired Air

vapor
Skin Water, Salts, Traces of Sweat
urea
Alimentary Canal Water, bile, mucus, Feces
salts

EGESTION- Discharging undigested waste through the anus

Excretion VS Egestion:- Excretion is metabolic waste whereas egestion is

undigested waste

Major sources of metabolic waste:

1. Carbon Dioxide (Co2)

Aerobic Respiration

2. Urea
Excess amino acids broken in the liver
 3. Bile Pigments
Made from hemoglobin in worn out blood cells broken down by the
liver

4. Water
Aerobic Respiration

THE KIDNEYS:

Kidney functions:-

Excretion- Urine is the excretion of urea and other waste materials from
the blood.
Osmoregulation- Regulation Of Water Levels

Control Blood pH- Urine is produced when extra hydrogen ions in the
blood are neutralized or removed.

Endocrine Organ- Releases hormones that increase the bone marrow's

production of red blood cells.

Parts Of The Urinary System:

1. Renal artery
2. Renal vein
3. Kidney- Filter Blood
4. Ureter- connects the kidney to the bladder
5. Bladder- Stores urine
6. Urethra- Allows the bladder to release urine by connecting to the
outside.
Kidney Structure

There Are Three Regions Of The Kidney:

● Cortex - the outermost region

● Medulla - the inner section of the kidney
● Renal pelvis - the tube linking the kidney to the ureter

Renal Pyramids-
Nephron (Kidney Tubules)

Each kidney contains approximately a million tiny structures known as

nephrons, which are also known as kidney tubules or renal tubules.

A network of capillaries surrounds the nephron, with a knotted section

inside the Bowman's capsule.

The Nephrons Work Through A Two-Step Process- The glomerulus

filters the blood and the tubule returns necessary substances into blood
and removes wastes.

The Nephron Parts:

● Glomerulus- Ultrafiltration

● Bowman's capsule- Helps the glomerulus to filter blood

● Proximal convoluted tubule- Selective reabsorption
● Loop of Henle- reabsorbs water and important nutrients
● Distal convoluted tubule- Selective reabsorption
 ● Collecting duct- Transportation of urine and Osmoregulation.

Two Main Processes Take Place In The Nephron:-

Ultrafiltration:- Involves filtration of the blood which takes place in the

glomerulus
Selective Reabsorption:- Absorbed molecules from the filtrate into the
blood capillaries surrounding the nephron. Example: both tubules.

1. The renal artery forces fluid into the Bowman's capsule via the
glomerulus capillaries.
2. Convoluted tubules reabsorb substances such as salts and water.
3. Loop Of Henle absorbs salts through diffusion, active transport from
the blood, and water through osmosis from collecting ducts.
4. Blood capillaries reabsorb useful substances and secret toxic
substances into the tubule.
5. Urine passes out the body via the urethra
Renal Failure:-

The kidneys can fail in a number of ways, including an accident that results
in blood loss, dehydration, or severe burns. However, most cases of Kidney
failure are linked with hypertension and diabetes.

When your kidneys fail, you either have to get a kidney transplant or
dialysis.

Dialysis:-

A procedure that uses a machine to remove waste products and excess

fluid from the blood when the kidneys are not functioning properly.

The most common type of dialysis is haemodialysis, which involves a tube

attached to a needle in your arm. Blood flows through the tube and into an
external machine, where it is filtered before being returned to the arm via
another tube.

Dialysis is performed in centers 3 days a week for 4 hours. It is even

possible to do it at home.
 SKIN

The skin is our largest organ and is composed of 3 layers:-

Epidermis- First layer composed of cellular components

Dermis- Second layer, matrix of cells and structures
Hypodermis- Last layer, made up of fat, larger vessels and nerves

Functions of the skin include:-

Protection- Prevents injury

Sensory- To detect pain
Vitamin D Synthesis- Using ultraviolet light
Temperature Regulation- Maintain body temperature due to the skin
detecting our external temperature
NOTE: Heat is a form of energy and temperature is a measure of this heat

TEMPERATURE REGULATION
When The Skin Is Warm:-

1. The hair erector muscles relax, causing hairs to lie down so cool air
can pass along the skin’s surface.
2. Vasodilation- Blood vessels widen allowing more blood to pass so
heat can escape
3. Sweating- Sweat is secreted by sweat glands
4. Metabolic rate slows (all over body)
When The Skin Is Cold:-

1. The hair erector muscles in the skin contract, causing hairs to stand
on up, trapping warm air against the skin
2. Vasoconstriction- Blood vessels narrow to reduce blood flow and
thus the amount of heat lost.
3. Sweating Stops
4. Shivering- Muscles relaxing and contracting to produce heat
 HOMEOSTASIS

Homeostasis- Keeping the body's internal environment constant in spite of

external conditions

Why Is It Necessary- So that our cells and enzymes function efficiently

All Mechanisms Of Homeostasis Share Common Features:-

1. A sensor that detects the value of the factor being monitored.

2. Any difference from the body is corrected so that the norm is
maintained to some extent.
3. The corrective mechanism involves a feedback mechanism.

Negative Feedback Mechanism:-

To Maintain a stable internal environment in response to changes in

external conditions.
Used to keep homeostasis in check (examples include regulating body
temperature and blood glucose levels.)

Positive Feedback Mechanism:-

It amplifies the initial stimulus instead of reducing it

Examples of positive feedback in the body include childbirth and blood

clotting.

Regulation Of Blood Sugar (Negative Feedback)

High: When the blood glucose concentration is too high, the pancreas
produces a hormone called insulin.

Insulin causes the liver to convert glucose to glycogen, removing glucose

from the bloodstream and storing it in the liver.

Low: When the blood glucose concentration is too low, the pancreas
produces a hormone called glucagon.
Glucagon causes the liver to convert glycogen back to glucose returning it
back into the blood, increasing blood sugar

Regulation Of Water- Osmoregulation (Negative Feedback)

Osmoregulation is the control of the water potential of body fluids.

Osmoreceptors are specialized sensory neurons that monitor the blood's
water potential. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is released by osmoreceptors,
which causes the kidney to reabsorb water into the blood (collecting duct)
Osmoregulation Simplified:-

Osmoregulation- Regulation Of Water Levels

Hormone- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Parts Of Brain- Hypothalamus- detect water level in blood
Organ Affected- Kidney
Part- Collecting duct of nephrons
Substances being regulated- Water

1. Drinking Too Much Water

The hypothalamus detects water levels, the pituitary gland produces

less ADH, the kidneys reabsorb less water, and more water is
excreted in the urine.
 2. Drinking Less

More ADH is released, causing more water to be reabsorbed, but

less urine is excreted

EXCRETION REVISION FOR TEST

ORGAN EXCRETORY EXCRETION

PRODUCTS
Kidney Urea, water, salts Urine

Lungs Carbon dioxide, water Expired Air

vapor
Skin Water, Salts, Traces of Sweat
urea
Alimentary Canal Water, bile, mucus, Feces
salts

Excretion VS Egestion:- Excretion is metabolic waste while egestion is

undigested waste

Following waste products come from:

Carbon dioxide, metabolic water- Respiration via mitochondria

Urea- Liver via deamination
Bile Pigments- breakdown of red blood cells

Parts Of The Urinary System:

1. Renal Artery
2. Renal Vein
3. Kidney
 4. Ureter
5. Bladder
6. Urethra

4 Functions of the kidney:

a. Osmoregulation
b. Excretion
c. Regulation of blood pH
d. Endocrine

The kidney is made up of:

Nephron

Nephron are comprised of 6 parts:

A. Glomerulus
B. Bowman’s Capsule
C. Proximal Convoluted Tubule
D. Loop Of Henle
E. Distal Convoluted Tubule
F. Collecting Duct

HSB- THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

What Is The Nervous System?

It is the control and coordination within the body

Nervous System 2 Divisions:

● The Central Nervous System (CNS)- The brain and spinal cord.
● The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)- It is a large network of
nerves running throughout the body carrying information to the
CNS.The cranial nerves are connected to the brain and the spinal
nerves are connected to the spinal cord.

1. The Central Nervous System (CNS)-

● The Brain
It coordinates the various actions of the body and stores information.
The actions we decide to make are called voluntary actions and the
ones we are not aware of are called involuntary actions

Functions Of The Different Parts Of The Brain

REGION OF BRAIN FUNCTION
The Cerebrum (Cerebral ● Conscious thought
Hemispheres) ● Interpretation of visual,
auditory and other external
stimuli
● Association of incoming
information with the past
experience
● Learning and reasoning
● Understanding language
● Control of speech
● Coordination of voluntary
actions
● Memory
Cerebellum ● Interpretation of incoming
● information from muscles and
tendons
● Coordination of
balance,posture and
movement
● Muscle coordination
Hypothalamus ● Controls core body
 temperature
● Controls osmoregulation by
controlling release of ADH
● Regulating reproduction
through controlling the
pituitary gland's hormone
release
Medulla Oblongata Regulation of autonomic activities
e.g.

● Heart rate
● Blood pressure
● Breathing rate
● Peristalsis
Pituitary Gland ● Secrets ADH for
osmoregulation
● Secrets growth hormone
● Secretes FSH and LH to
control reproductive organs
 ● The Spinal Cord
The spinal cord has grey matter (cell bodies and short relay neurons) in the
center and white matter (axons) on the outside. It connects the brain and
body, allowing sensory information to enter and motor signals to exit. It
extends from the brain to the lower back.

The Peripheral Nervous System

It is a large network of nerves running throughout the body carrying
information to the CNS. Cranial nerves attached to the brain and spinal
nerves to the spine.

Nerves And Nerve Cells (Neurons)

Neurons are specialized cells that send electrical impulses throughout the
body. Millions of them work together to form a whole

● Three types of neurons:

1. Sensory (Receptor) Neurons- Carries impulses to the CNS
2. Motor (Effector) Neurons- Carries impulses from the CNS to
effector organs (such as muscles and glands)
3. Relay (Connector) Neurons- Passes signals between
neurons
 STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Cell Body This controls the activity of the neuron
and makes all the protein it needs and
it contains cytoplasm and nucleus
Axon Transmit impulses over long distances
Dentries Branched ends that receive impulses
from other neurons
Myelin Sheath Is made of schwann cells that wrap
around the axon forming an insulation
Node Of Ranvir The gaps in the myelin sheath

Nerves- they are bundles of neurons.

● Some carry motor neurons and are known as Motor Nerves

● Some carry sensory neurons and are known as Sensory Nerves
● Some carry a mix of both sensory and motor called Mixed Nerves
Neurons are responsive and transmit information. They can change their
permeability to sodium ions, creating electrical impulses.

Nervous System Coordination

The pathway through the nervous system:

stimulus → receptor → sensory neurone → relay neurone → motor neurone →
effector → response

● First, a stimulus is received by a sensory (receptor) neurone

○ Most receptors are specialized to detect particular stimuli

○ When a receptor is stimulated, it produces electrical impulses

● These impulses then travel along a sensory neuron to the central

nervous system (the coordinator is either the brain or the spinal
cord)
● In the CNS, the impulses are passed on to a relay neurone

● The relay neurone links to a motor neuron, along which the impulses
travel until they reach the effector
The effector is what carries out the response (the effector may be a
muscle or gland)
The action potential- is the wave of positive charge that occurs inside
the axon when the neuron is stimulated.

CONDUCTION OF NERVE IMPULSES

1. An impulse passes when the axon membrane becomes permeable to
sodium ions
2. The positive ions flow across to make the inside of the axon positive
3. This flow of ions passes along the axon to transmit the impulse
4. Metabolic activity pumps out the sodium ions to restore the resting
potential
5. A recovery period follows during which no further impulse can pass

In a neuron, transmission starts with sodium ions flowing in, causing

depolarization. This wave-like depolarization flows down the neuron.
Repolarization happens as potassium ions flow out, resetting the
membrane. ATP is used to recharge the neuron by transporting ions.

Synapses
At a synapse, electricity turns into chemicals called neurotransmitters,
which travel across a small gap between neurons. On the other side, they
convert back into electrical impulses to keep moving along the neuron.

Neurons have multiple synapses important for coordinating information,

especially in the CNS.

Neuromuscular Junctions- are special synapses between motor neurons

and muscles that cause muscle contraction, functioning like normal
synapses.

EXAMPLES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS

NAME NORMAL FUNCTIONS POSSIBLE PROBLEMS

Acetylcholine Muscle contraction and Low levels linked to
controls heartbeat memory loss; High levels
linked to muscle spasms
Dopamine Memory, learning, A deficiency can cause
behavior, coordination of Parkinson’s disease
movement; the brain
releases this during
pleasurable activities
Endorphins The body’s pain relievers Headache disorders and
deficiency may lead to
 fibromyalgia
Adrenaline Fight or Flight response Heart problems, diabetes
increasing heart, and heart disease
breathing rate and burst
of energy

REFLEX ARC
An involuntary (or reflex) response does not involve the brain. This is an
automatic and It's triggered by stimuli such as touching something
sharp or hot. They act quickly to protect the body. Example heartbeat

Many reflexes involve the spinal cord while others involve the brain.

● Brain Reflexes- cranial reflexes, example blinking

● Spine Reflex- spinal reflexes, example knee jerk reflex

Remember there is no conscious thought involved in these.

Voluntary response- involves the brain and is conscious of the decision.
For this to happen, a nerve impulse must start in the brain, pass down the
spinal cord's white matter, and leave through a motor neuron near the
effector.

Knee-Jerk Reflex:
● Stimulus- Steps on pin

● Receptor- Detects the pain

● Sensory neuron- Carries nerve impulses to the spinal cord (CNS)
● Relay neuron- Passes signals between neurons
● Motor neuron- carries impulse to a muscle in the leg (the effector)
● Effector- The muscle will contract and pull the foot up and away from
the sharp object (the response)
● Response- The lower leg moves

Cranial Reflex:
● Stimulus- light intensity
● Receptor- rods and cones of the retina
● Sensory neuron- carries impulse to brain
● Relay neuron- Passes signals between neurons
● Motor neuron- carries impulse back to effector in eye
● Effector- circular muscles in the iris
● Response- Change in the diameter of the pupil
Conditioned Reflex
Some reactions have to be learned first and can be performed without
conscious thought. Example, a child learning to walk or learning to ride a
bicycle
 COMPARISON OF REFLEX ACTIONS WITH VOLUNTARY
ACTIONS

REFLEX ACTION VOLUNTARY ACTION

Quick and simple More complex and variable
Automatic and involuntary Not automatic
Not under conscious control Under conscious control
Cerebrum involved Cerebrum initiates action

SENSE ORGANS
SENSE ORGANS STIMULI
Eye Light intensity (brightness) and wavelength (colour)
Ear Sound ● Gravity ● Motion
Nose Smell-chemicals in the air
Tongue Taste-chemicals in solution
Skin Temperature changes ● Touch ● Pressure ● Pain

THE EYE
Main Parts Of The Eye:

STRUCTURE FUNCTION
Cornea Transparent lens that bends light as it enters the eye
Iris Coloured part of your eye that controls the size of your
pupil
Pupil A gap allowing light to pass through to the lens
Lens Bends light for perfect vision by changing its shape
Retina Made up of two receptor cells called Cones and Rods.
Cones show colour while Rods show black and white in
low light
Fovea On the retina with only cone cells for best image
Optic Nerve Takes all of the impulses generated by receptor cells and
sends them to the brain

Image Formation
As light enters the eye, it is bent by the cornea and lens, forming an upside-
down image on the retina. The optic nerve sends this image to the
cerebrum, which turns it right side up.

Accommodation
This is the way the lens brings about fine focusing
The lens is elastic and its shape and focal length can be changed
Distant Objects- The light rays are parallel when they enter the eye.
A thinner lens is needed to slightly bend the light to give a sharp
image on the retina. The suspensory ligaments tighten, stretching the
lens, while the ciliary muscles relax.

Near Objects- The light rays are diverging when they enter the eye
(moving apart). A thicker lens is needed to bend the light to give a sharp
focus on the retina. The suspensory ligaments loosen, reducing tension of
the lens while the ciliary muscles contracts

Pupillary Reflex
This is a reflex action which controls the amount of light entering the eye
In Bright Light:-
● Pupil needs to get smaller (constrict)
● Circular muscles of iris contract
● Radial muscles of iris relax
● Reflex prevents too much light from entering the eye and damaging
the retina
In Dim Light:-
● Pupil needs to get bigger (dilate)
● Circular muscles of the iris relax
● Radial muscles of the iris contract
Reflex allows for more light to enter the eye, stimulating the retina and
creating better images
 Eye Defects
1. Long sightedness or Hyperopia
● Problem- cannot see near objects clearly
● Cause- eyeball too short or lens not convex enough
● Effect- light focuses at a spot behind the retina causing multiple
spots resulting in blurred vision
● Solution- Convex lens
2. Short sightedness or Myopia
● Problem- cannot see far objects clearly
● Cause- eyeball too long or lens too convex
● Effect- light focuses at a spot in front of the retina causing
multiple spots resulting in blurred vision
● Solution- Concave lens
3. Astigmatism
Problem- Image seem out of focus
Cause- lens has an uneven curvature
Effect- One part focuses the light too much, but the other part does
not focus the light enough. Can affect diabetes if new blood vessels
block off the flow of liquid of the eye
Solution- Special lenses must be fitted
 4. Glaucoma
Problem- Slow deterioration of vision, may lead to blindness
Cause- increased pressure in the eye affecting blood vessels
supplying the optic nerve
Effect- neurons in the optic nerve start to die sending less messages
to the brain
Solution- Treated with drugs to improve drainage of fluid from the
eye (damage already done cannot be fixed)
5. Cataracts
Problem- lens becomes opaque or milky with age
Cause- proteins and fibers in the lens begin to break down.Could
happen to diabetics if high blood sugar build up in the lens
Effect- Vision becomes cloudy
Solution- Lens replacement surgery

HORMONE CO-ORDINATION
Hormones are chemical substances which are secreted from ductless
glands into the blood.
These glands include:
● Pituitary gland- A ‘master gland’ making hormones such as FSH
and LH
● Thyroid gland- Produces thyroxine which controls metabolic rate
and affects growth
● Adrenal gland- Adrenaline
● Pancreas- Produces insulin which regulates the blood glucose level
● Ovary (women)- Produces estrogen
● Testis (men)- Produces testosterone
 QUESTIONS
1. What are the 2 main divisions of the nervous system
and what structures are they comprised of
● The Central Nervous System (CNS)- The brain and spinal
cord.
● The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)- It is a large network
of nerves running throughout the body carrying information to
 the CNS.The cranial nerves are connected to the brain and the
spinal nerves are connected to the spinal cord.

2. Label and annotate the following diagram of a neuron

(a). What are 3 properties of neurons?

They have a cell body, an axon, and dendrites

(b). What are the 3 types of neurons and what function do

they perform?
● Sensory (Receptor) Neurons- Carries impulses from
receptors to the CNS
● Motor (Effector) Neurons- Carries impulses from the CNS to
effectors
● Relay (Connector) Neurons- Passes signals between neurons

(c). Using the below diagram, explain what happens at the

synapse.
A. Explain/List the steps for the conduction of a nerve
impulse
● Transmission in a neuron starts off with sodium ions flowing in
causing depolarization. This wave-like depolarization travels
down the neuron. Repolarization occurs when potassium ions
flow out and reset the membrane. ATP recharges neurons by
transferring ions.
● Three steps are involved in the conduction of the nerve impulse
which is given as; Polarisation. Depolarisation. Repolarisation.

B. Define Stimulus, receptor, effector, and response.

● Stimulus- Steps on pin, Receptor- Detects the pain, Effector-
response, Response- Movement of muscle

C. Explain a simple reflex arc

● Stimulus- Steps on pin, Receptor- Detects the pain, Sensory
neuron- Carries nerve impulses to the spinal cord (CNS) Motor
neuron- carries impulse to a muscle in the leg (the effector),
Effector- The muscle will contract and pull the foot up and
away from the sharp object (the response), Response- The
lower leg moves

D. What is a reflex action and why is it important?

● An involuntary (or reflex) response does not involve the brain.
Example heartbeat.

E. Distinguish between a reflex action and a voluntary

 action.
Voluntary actions are conscious control while reflex actions are not.

F. Explain the knee jerk reflex (a spinal

reflex) and blinking (a cranial reflex)

Knee-Jerk Reflex:

● Stimulus- Steps on pin

● Receptor- Detects the pain
● Sensory neuron- Carries nerve impulses to the spinal cord
(CNS)
● Motor neuron- carries impulse to a muscle in the leg (the
effector)
● Effector- The muscle will contract and pull the foot up and
away from the sharp object (the response)
● Response- The lower leg moves

Cranial Reflex:

● Stimulus- light intensity

● Receptor- rods and cones of the retina
● Sensory neuron- carries impulse to brain
● Motor neuron- carries impulse back to effector in eye
● Effector- circular muscles in the iris
● Response- Change in the diameter of the pupil
G.What are conditioned reflexes?
● Some reactions have to be learned first and can be performed
without conscious thought. Example, a child learning to walk or
learning to ride a bicycle.

H. Differentiate between voluntary and involuntary actions.

A voluntary action is used involving your brain while involuntary
action doesn't.

Draw a table with the parts of the brain and their functions.
1. How are images formed in the eye (include the role of
the brain)
● As light enters the eye, the cornea and lens bends the light entering
the eye, creating an upside-down image on the retina. It is then taken
to the cerebrum via the optic nerve that will change the image right
side up.

2. What is accommodation and how is it brought about for

distant objects and near objects.
● This is the way the lens brings about fine focusing
● Distant Objects- The suspensory ligaments holding the lens become
tighter, stretching the lens. Ciliary muscles relax
● Near objects- The suspensory ligaments holding the lens become
slacker, removing tension on the lens. Ciliary muscles contracts

3. Explain the pupillary reflex in bright light and dim light.

(use a table)
4. Explain the problem, cause, effect and solution for the
following eye defects: hyperopia, myopia, astigmatism,
glaucoma and cataracts.

● Long sightedness or Hyperopia

● Problem- cannot see near objects clearly
● Cause- eyeball too short or lens not convex enough
● Effect- light focuses at a spot behind the retina causing multiple
spots resulting in blurred vision
● Solution- Convex lens
● Short sightedness or Myopia
● Problem- cannot see far objects clearly
● Cause- eyeball too long or lens too convex
● Effect- light focuses at a spot in front of the retina causing
multiple spots resulting in blurred vision
 ● Solution- Concave lens
● Astigmatism
Problem- Image seem out of focus
Cause- lens has an uneven curve
Effect- One part focuses the light too much, but the other part does
not focus the light enough. Can affect diabetes if new blood vessels
block off the flow of liquid of the eye
Solution- Special lenses must be fitted
● Glaucoma
Problem- Slow deterioration of vision, may lead to blindness
Cause- increased pressure in the eye affecting the optic nerve
Effect- neurons in the optic nerve start to die sending less messages
to the brain
Solution- Treated with drugs
● Cataracts
Problem- lens becomes opaque with age making vision cloudy
Cause- proteins in the lens begin to break down.Could happen to
diabetics if high blood sugar build up in the lens
Effect- Vision becomes cloudy
Solution- Lens replacement surgery

HORMONES
1. What is a hormone?

Hormones are chemical substances which are secreted from ductless

glands into the blood.

2. What are endocrine glands

and give a couple examples
 ● Pituitary gland- A ‘master gland’ making hormones such as FSH
and LH
● Thyroid gland- Produces thyroxine which controls metabolic rate
and affects growth
● Adrenal gland- Adrenaline
● Pancreas- Produces insulin which regulates the blood glucose level
● Ovary (women)- Produces estrogen
● Testis (men)- Produces testosterone

Replicate the table from the notes

Label the exocrine glands illustrated

below
3. Compare nervous control to hormonal control (at least 4
comparisons).
HSB- REPRODUCTION

Human Reproduction

Human reproduction is when an egg cell from a woman and a sperm cell
from a man unite and develop in the womb to form a baby
The Male Reproductive System

Organ Function

Testes Produce sperm cells and the male sex hormone,

testosterone.

Vas Deferens Transports sperm cells from the testes to the urethra.

(sperm duct)

Seminal Produce seminal fluid transport sperm cells.

Vesicles
 (glands)

Prostate Produces fluid that is part of the seminal fluid.

Gland

Penis Delivers sperm cells during sexual intercourse.

Urethra Serves as the passageway for both urine and semen.

Testes-Sperm Duct-Prostate Gland-Penis-Urethra

Testes produces sperm, then it travels through the sperm

duct which carries it to the prostate gland and mixes it with
fluid, then it passes through the penis and out the urethra

Sperm

Sperm develop in the testicles within a system of tiny tubes called the
seminiferous tubules. Each ejaculation contains 20-300 million sperm cells.
To get to the oviduct, the sperm needs to move from the vagina through the
cervix to the uterus. After that, it has to go from the uterus to the oviduct. If
there's an egg cell there, fertilization can occur.

Cancer In Males:-

● Testicular Cancer
This can be detected as new lumps on the testes. It is recommended
between about 15 and 40 to check your testes to detect any lumps or
abnormalities
● Prostate Cancer
It blocks the urethra causing slow but frequent urination. Males with
these symptoms should take a prostate specific antigen (PSA) test
 The Female Reproductive System

Organ Function

Ovaries Produce egg cells (ova/ovum) and the female sex hormones
estrogen and progesterone.

Fallopian Transport the egg cell from the ovary to the uterus and is
Tubes the site where fertilization of the ovum occurs

Uterus Provides a suitable environment for the development of the

fetus during pregnancy.

Cervix Connects the uterus to the vagina and opens during

childbirth.

Urethra Serves as the passageway for urine from the bladder to the
outside of the body.

Vagina Receives the penis during sexual intercourse and is the

birth canal.
Ovaries-Fallopian Tubes-Uterus-Cervix-Urethra-Vagina

The ovaries produce egg cells, which are then carried to the fallopian
tubes where fertilization starts , then is transport throughout the
cervix to the uterus for pregnancy then born out the vagina

Ovum Or Eggs
Ovum is the female reproductive cell or gamete, It is produced by the
ovaries. From the age of puberty an egg should be released every 4 weeks
or so but the development of them stop when women are pregnant or are
taking contraceptive pills

Cancers In Female:-
● Ovarian Cancer- They can start from epithelial cells. Symptoms
can include abdominal pain, bloating, and changes in bowel habits. It
is more common in females over 50 who have had menopause.
● Cervical Cancer- It is cancer of the cervix, the entrance of the
womb. It is caused by HPV which is sexually transmitted. To detect it
females must take a pap smear test.
● Breast Cancer- Can check for lumps using hands or
mammograms. Removal of the breast is one way of treatment and a
breast reconstruction can be done at a later time. Men can also get
breast cancer but it is extremely rare.
● Uterine Cancer- Uterine (womb cancer) is more common in older
women particularly after menopause. This causes few symptoms but
some can experience abnormal vaginal bleeding.
Ovulation Process:-

This diagram shows the key steps in the ovulation process:

● The ovary releases a mature egg cell (ovulation).

● The egg cell travels through the oviduct, which is lined with cilia
(small hair-like projections) that help move the egg.
● The egg cell reaches the uterus.

Now, let's summarize the ovulation process in a table:

Step Description

1. Follicle The pituitary gland releases follicle-stimulating

Development hormone (FSH), which stimulates the development
of a follicle in the ovary. The follicle contains the
egg cell.

2. Ovulation When the egg is mature, a surge of luteinizing

hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland triggers the
follicle to release the egg cell (ovulation).

3. Egg The egg cell is swept into the oviduct, which is

Transport lined with cilia that help move the egg towards the
 uterus.

4. If the egg cell is fertilized by a sperm cell in the

Fertilization oviduct, it will continue to the uterus and implant in
the uterine lining, leading to pregnancy.

For example, in the diagram above, D is follicle development and C is

ovulation

The Menstrual Cycle

The menstrual cycle is the cyclical changes that occur in the female
reproductive system, regulated by the hormones estrogen and
progesterone.

The average menstrual cycle length is 28 days, but can range from 21 to
35 days. The cycle consists of the following phases:

● Menstrual phase: The shedding of the uterine lining (endometrium),

resulting in menstrual bleeding.
● Follicular phase: The development of a follicle in the ovary, which
contains the egg cell. The pituitary gland produces follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH) to help the follicle develop, and the follicle produces
estrogen.
● Ovulation: The release of the mature egg cell from the ovary. This is
triggered by a surge in luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary
gland.
● Luteal phase: The formation of the corpus luteum in the ovary, which
produces progesterone. Progesterone helps maintain the uterine
lining.

If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum breaks down, progesterone
levels drop, and the menstrual phase begins again. If fertilization occurs,
the corpus luteum continues to produce progesterone to sustain the uterine
lining and prevent menstruation.
The Four Hormones That Control The Menstrual Cycle:-
FSH from the pituitary gland helps eggs mature in the ovary and stimulates
estrogen release. LH is released when estrogen peaks, causing ovulation
and progesterone production. Estrogen rises until day 14, thickening the
uterine wall and maturing the egg. Progesterone rises after ovulation,
thickening the lining. A drop in progesterone leads to menstruation.

NOTE: Low progesterone can result in a misscarriage, especially during

the early stages of pregnancy when the embryo is still fragile and
dependent on the proper hormonal environment.

Passage Of Sperm

Passage of Sperm Sperm is made in the testes and travels through the
sperm duct (vas deferens). It is then mixed with fluid from the seminal
vesicles and Cowper's gland, and the mixture goes through the urethra and
is ejaculated during sex.
Pregnancy And Implantation

During sexual intercourse, the penis delivers sperm cells. If a sperm cell
fertilizes an egg released from the ovary, a zygote is formed. The zygote
moves through the fallopian tube and attaches to the uterine lining, a
process called implantation. If successful, the zygote becomes an embryo,
and hormones help it grow.

Stages Of Pregnancy
● One month- After fertilization a human embryo looks a bit like a
tadpole
● Two months- The embryo looks more like a human and is now
called a fetus
● Three months- nerves and muscles of the fetus start to develop
rapidly
● Five months- The fetus has perfectly formed
● Seven months- Development is almost complete
● 9 months- Baby Is Born

Three effects that smoking could have on babies while

pregnant are:
● Reduced oxygen supply: Smoking can reduce the oxygen-carrying
capacity of the mother's blood, leading to a decreased oxygen supply
to the developing fetus.
● Increased risk of low birth weight: Smoking during pregnancy is
associated with an increased risk of the baby being born with a low
birth weight, which can have long-term health consequences.
● Increased risk of congenital abnormalities: Smoking can increase
the risk of the baby developing certain congenital abnormalities, such
as cleft lip or palate, or other developmental issues.

Why an abortion may be considered:

 ● Severe fetal abnormalities or genetic disorders that are incompatible
with life or would result in significant suffering for the child.
● Pregnancy resulting from rape, where the woman may not want to
carry the pregnancy to term.
Why a spontaneous abortion could be considered a positive
occurrence:
A spontaneous abortion, also known as a miscarriage, can be considered a
positive occurrence if it happens naturally before the fetus has developed
to a stage where it could survive outside the womb. This prevents the birth
of a child that may have severe abnormalities or health issues that would
significantly impact their quality of life and cause undue suffering for the
child and the family.
Birth Control:-

Birth Control Method How It Prevents Pregnancy

Natural Methods (e.g., Fertility Prevent pregnancy by avoiding sexual

Awareness, Withdrawal) intercourse during the fertile period or by
withdrawing before ejaculation.

Barrier Methods (e.g., Condoms, Physically block the sperm from reaching
Diaphragms, Cervical Caps) the egg, preventing fertilization.

Hormonal Methods (e.g., Oral Prevent ovulation and thicken the cervical
Contraceptives, Patches, Rings, mucus, making it harder for sperm to enter
Injections, Implants) the uterus.

Surgical Methods (e.g., Tubal Permanently block or cut the vas deferens
Ligation, Vasectomy) (in men) or fallopian tubes (in women) to
prevent the sperm and egg from meeting.

Advantages And Disadvantages

 Birth Control Advantages Disadvantages
Method

Natural - No side effects - Less effective at preventing

Methods pregnancy
- No cost
- Require discipline and careful
monitoring

Barrier - Prevent sexually - Require correct and consistent use

Methods transmitted infections
(STIs) - May reduce sensation or
spontaneity
- No hormonal side
effects

Hormonal - Highly effective at - Potential side effects (e.g., mood

Methods preventing pregnancy changes, weight gain, increased risk
of blood clots)
- Regulate menstrual
cycles - Require regular use or
administration

Surgical - Highly effective at - Invasive procedure with risks of

Methods preventing pregnancy complications

- Permanent solution - Difficult to reverse

CELL DIVISION
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) - Determines the development of
organisms

Chromosome- are thread-like structures made of DNA

Genes- the basic unit of inheritance

Allele- different forms of a gene

Homologous Pairs- are matching pairs of chromosomes, with humans
having 23 pairs (together make 46)

Autosomes- 22 of the 23 pairs of chromosomes that control various

aspects of our body.

Sex Chromosomes- Determines sex of Male (XY) and Females (XX)

Haploid- Half the chromosome number; represented by “n”

Diploid- The whole chromosome number; represented by “2n”

Mitosis
Mitosis is a process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter
cells This method is used in asexual reproduction in which there are an
equal number of chromosomes.

EXAMPLE: SKIN CELLS

These are the stages:-

Interphase- The cell makes copies of the DNA, ready for division
● Prophase- Beginning stage with visible and condensing
chromosomes
● Metaphase- Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
● Anaphase- Chromosomes move away to opposite sides
● Telophase- Chromosomes at opposite ends, new nuclei form,
indicating the formation of two cells with 46 chromosomes each.
Cytokinesis: Actual splitting of the cell, completing the division process.
2 identical daughter cells are formed through cytokinesis. Cytokinesis is
when the daughter cells become physically separated.
Importance Of Mitosis
● Growth
● Repair
● Cancer Research

Meiosis
Meiosis is a process where a single cell divides twice producing four cells
containing half of the genetic information.These cells are our sex cells and
this process only takes place in the reproductive organs where the gametes
are made.

A single diploid cell divides by meiosis to form 4 non-identical haploid cells

EXAMPLE: GAMETES

These are the stages:-

Meiosis I
● Prophase- Condensing chromosomes
● Metaphase- Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
 ● Anaphase- Chromosomes move away to opposite sides
● Telophase- Chromosomes at opposite ends, new nuclei form,
indicating the formation of two cells with 46 chromosomes each.
Meiosis II
● Prophase II- Beginning stage with visible and condensing
chromosomes
● Metaphase II- Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
● Anaphase II- Chromosomes move away to opposite sides
● Telophase II- Chromosomes at opposite ends, new nuclei form,
indicating the formation of two cells with 46 chromosomes each

Importance Of Meiosis:-
● Organisms have correct number of chromosomes
● Allows for sexual reproduction
● Enables genetic diversity
Difference Between Mitosis And Meiosis

VARIATION
Is the differences in phenotypes between individuals within a species.

Why is variation important?

Variation is important because it allows species to adapt to future environmental
changes and avoid inbreeding.

What are 4 sources of Variation and write a couple lines explaining why it is a
source of variation?
● Random assortment- Happens during the first division of meiosis
● Random fertilisation- is when the male gamete and female gametes that fuse to
produce an offspring are selected randomly
● Mutation- A change in genetic material
● Crossing over- the exchange of genetic material between homologous
chromosomes

What are 2 types of variation? Write a few lines explaining each type with respect
to their causes, giving examples of each and drawing a sketch of the type of
graph used to represent the data for each type of variation.

Two types of variation are, continued and discontinued variation. Continued variation
are the same characteristics within a population. For example height and body mass.
Discontinued variation is differences in the characteristics within a population. For
example Eye colour or the ability to roll your tongue

Explain how the environment and the genotype of the organism work together to
produce the phenotype shown by the individual.

The phenotype of an individual results from the interaction between its genetic makeup
(genotype) and external influences from the environment such as quality of food,
exposure to climate and disease and social interaction

Write a few lines to explain the following mutations, making sure to indicate what
type of mutation it
is (chromosomal or gene):

● Down’s syndrome- Chromosomal mutation. Extra copy of chromosomes leads

to intellectual delays, distinct features.
● Klinefelter’s syndrome- Chromosomal mutation. Affects males with XXY
instead of XY, causing infertility and developmental challenges.
● Turner’s syndrome- Chromosomal mutation. Females with only one X
chromosome, resulting in short stature and reproductive issues.
● Albinism- Gene mutation. Lack of melanin production, causing pale skin, hair,
and eye colour.
 ● Sickle cell Anaemia- Gene mutation. Hemoglobin gene variant, leading to
misshapen red blood cells causing anemia and other health issues.

GENETIC ENGINEERING
What Is Genetic Engineering?
It is the process of altering characteristics of an organism by adding genes
from another organism to its DNA.
The foreign DNA could come from the same species or different or lab
made
The Concept Of Genetic Engineering Is As Follows:-
● Identify faulty gene in organism
● Identify healthy gene in another organism
● Using special molecular tools replace the faulty gene with the healthy
one
The term "recombinant DNA" refers to DNA from one organism combined
with DNA from another.
The organisms that contain edited DNA are known as Genetically modified
organisms or GMOS.
Example:
● The human insulin gene has been inserted into bacteria, causing
them to create human insulin that can be collected and purified for
medical use
● Human medicines such as growth hormone, vaccines, protection
from cancer
● Selective breeding and crossbreeding of animals and plants
● Crop plants, such as wheat, have been genetically modified with a
gene that releases a poison that kills insects.
 DIAGRAM OF INSULIN PRODUCTION

● Take the insulin gene from human DNA and Plasmid from Bacteria
● Enzymes causes insulin gene and plasmid to join and is placed into
bacterial cell
● Bacteria containing insulin gene starts reproducing and is collected

DISEASES
Disease- A condition that disrupts the normal functioning of the body, such
as germs, genetics, environmental factors and lifestyle choices
Health- A complete state of physical, mental and social well-being
 Disease Type Examples

Communicable/Pathogenic/Infectious Diseases - Sexually Transmitted

Infections (STIs):
HIV/AIDS, Syphilis,
Gonorrhea, Chlamydia

- Fungal Infections:
Athlete's Foot, Ringworm,
Candidiasis

- Vector-Borne Diseases:
Malaria, Dengue, Zika,
Chikungunya

Non-Communicable Diseases - Nutritional Deficiency

(NCDs)/Chronic/Degenerative/Physiological Diseases: Anemia,
Diseases Scurvy, Rickets, Pellagra

- Inherited Disorders:
Sickle Cell Anemia, Cystic
Fibrosis, Huntington's
Disease

- Lifestyle Diseases:
Hypertension, Diabetes,
Cardiovascular Diseases,
Cancer

- Mental Health Problems:

Anxiety, Neurosis, Stress,
Depression

Communicable/Pathogenic/Infectious Diseases:

● These diseases are caused by pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, or

parasites, and can be transmitted from one person to another.
● Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) are spread through unprotected sexual
contact.
● Fungal infections can be spread through direct contact or exposure to
contaminated surfaces.
● Vector-borne diseases are transmitted by organisms, such as mosquitoes, that
carry and transmit the pathogen.
Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs)/Chronic/Degenerative/Physiological
Diseases:

● These diseases are not caused by pathogens and cannot be transmitted from
person to person.
● Nutritional deficiency diseases are caused by a lack of essential nutrients in the
diet.
● Inherited disorders are genetic conditions passed down from parents to their
offspring.
● Lifestyle diseases are often associated with unhealthy behaviors, such as poor
diet, physical inactivity, and smoking.
● Mental health problems can be influenced by a combination of genetic,
environmental, and psychological factors.

Differentiating Between The Signs And Symptoms Of Diseases:-

Characteristic Definition Examples

Signs Physical observations - Fever (elevated body

in the body that are temperature)
detected by a
healthcare provider. - Rash or skin lesions

- Swollen lymph nodes

- Abnormal breathing
patterns

- High blood pressure

Symptoms Experiences in the - Pain

body that are reported
by the patient and not a - Fatigue
healthcare provider.
- Headache

- Nausea

- Dizziness

- Anxiety
Respiratory Diseases

Disease Causes Signs/Symptoms Treatment Prevention

Asthma - Allergies - Wheezing - Inhalers - Avoid triggers

(e.g. pollen, - Coughing - Use preventative

dust mites) medications
- Chest tightness
- Respiratory - Maintain good
infections - Shortness of lung health
breath
- Exercise

- Cold air

Influenza (Flu) - Influenza - Fever - Oral -Vaccination

virus medications
- Cough

- Sore throat

- Body aches

- Headache

- Fatigue

Bronchitis - Smoking - Cough - Oral - Avoid smoking

medications
- Viral or - Mucus - Good hygiene
bacterial production
infection
- Chest discomfort

- Wheezing

Tuberculosis Caused by a - Coughing up Antibiotics - Vaccination

(TB) bacterium blood

- Persistent cough

- Chest pain
 - Fever

- Night sweats

- Weight loss

Gastrointestinal Diseases

Disease Causes Signs/Symptoms Treatment Prevention

Cholera - A bacteria - Diarrhea - Antibiotics - Improved

hygiene
- Vomiting

- Muscle cramps

- Viruses (e.g. - Diarrhea - Antibiotics - Improved

norovirus) hygiene
Gastroenteritis - Vomiting
- Bacteria (e.g. E. coli)
- Abdominal
- Parasites cramps

- Fever

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

Disease Signs/Symptoms Treatment Prevention

Gonorrhea Painful urination Antibiotics Use of
condoms

Syphilis Painless sores Antibiotics Use of

condoms

HPV (Human Warts on genitals, No cure Use of

Papillomavirus) cervical cancer in condoms
women

Herpes Sores on body No cure Use of

parts condoms

AIDS/HIV Flu-like symptoms, No cure Use of

weakened immune condoms
system,
opportunistic
infections

Sexually Transmitted Infections (Stls) On The Pregnant Mother And The Fetus
Gonorrhea:

● In pregnant mothers, gonorrhea can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease,

increased risk of ectopic pregnancy, and premature rupture of membranes.
● In the fetus, gonorrhea can cause eye infections (ophthalmia neonatorum) and
septicemia (blood infection).
 Syphilis:

● In pregnant mothers, syphilis can cause miscarriage, stillbirth, and increased risk
of premature delivery.
● In the fetus, syphilis can lead to congenital syphilis, which can cause deformities,
blindness, deafness, and mental retardation.

Herpes:

● In pregnant mothers, herpes can cause recurrent genital lesions and increase the
risk of premature delivery.
● In the fetus, herpes can cause congenital herpes, which can lead to skin lesions,
eye infections, and brain damage.

Overall, these STIs can have serious consequences for both the pregnant mother and
the developing fetus if left untreated. Proper screening, treatment, and prevention are
essential to protect the health of the mother and child.

CHRONIC/LIFESTYLE-RELATED DISEASES

Disease Causes Signs/ Treatment Prevention

Symptoms

Obesity (Adult - Excess caloric - Excessive - Dietary - Regular

and Childhood) intake weight gain changes exercise

- Sedentary - Increased body - Increased - Balanced

lifestyle mass index (BMI) physical activity diet

- Genetic factors - Abdominal fat - Medication (in - Limiting

accumulation severe cases) sedentary
- Hormonal activities
imbalances

Diabetes - Insulin - Excessive thirst - Insulin therapy - Maintaining

Mellitus (Type I) resistance and urination a healthy
- Dietary lifestyle
- Fatigue management

- Unexplained - Regular
weight loss monitoring of
blood glucose
- Blurred vision levels
Diabetes - Insulin - Excessive thirst - Lifestyle - Maintaining
Mellitus (Type resistance and urination modifications a healthy
II) (diet and weight
- Insufficient - Fatigue exercise)
insulin - Regular
production - Blurred vision - Oral physical
hypoglycemic activity
- Slow wound agents
healing - Balanced
- Insulin therapy diet
(in severe cases)

Hypertension - Genetic factors - High blood - Lifestyle - Maintaining

pressure readings modifications a healthy
(high blood - Excess sodium (diet and weight
pressure) intake - Headaches exercise)
- Reducing
- Obesity - Dizziness - sodium intake
Antihypertensive
- Sedentary - Chest pain medications - Regular
lifestyle physical
activity
- Stress
- Stress
management

Coronary Heart - High - Chest pain - Lifestyle - Maintaining

Disease cholesterol (angina) modifications a healthy
levels (diet and lifestyle
- Shortness of exercise)
-Atherosclerosis breath - Controlling
- Medications risk factors
- Hypertension - Fatigue (e.g., statins, (e.g.,
antiplatelets) cholesterol,
- Diabetes - Heart attack blood
- pressure,
- Smoking Revascularizatio diabetes)
n procedures
(e.g.,
angioplasty,
bypass surgery)
Secondary - Obesity - High blood - Treating the - Maintaining
Hypertension pressure readings underlying cause a healthy
- Kidney weight
disease - Headaches - Lifestyle
modifications - Treating any
- Adrenal gland - Dizziness (diet and underlying
disorders exercise) medical
- Chest pain conditions
- Sleep apnea -
Antihypertensive
medications

CANCER

Cancer Causes Signs/Symptoms Treatment Risk Reduct

Respiratory - Smoking - Persistent cough - Surgery - Quitting

Tract Cancers smoking
- Exposure to - Coughing up - Chemotherapy
carcinogens blood - Avoiding
(e.g., asbestos, - Radiation exposure t
radon) - Chest pain therapy carcinogen

- Shortness of
breath

Cervical Cancer - Human - Abnormal - Surgery - Regular P

Papillomavirus vaginal bleeding smears and H
(HPV) infection - Chemotherapy testing
- Pelvic pain
- Radiation - HPV
- Painful therapy vaccinatio
intercourse
Breast Cancer - Genetic factors - Lumps or - Surgery - Regular bre
thickening in the self-examinat
- Hormonal breast - Chemotherapy
imbalances - Mammogra
- Changes in - Radiation and clinica
- Exposure to breast shape or therapy breast exam
radiation size
- Hormone
- Nipple discharge therapy
or inversion

Ovarian Cancer - Genetic factors - Abdominal - Surgery - Oral

bloating or contracepti
- Hormonal discomfort - Chemotherapy use
imbalances
- Pelvic pain - Pregnancy
breastfeedi
- Difficulty eating
or feeling full
quickly

Uterine - Estrogen - Abnormal - Surgery - Maintaining

(Endometrial) dominance vaginal bleeding healthy weig
Cancer - Radiation
- Obesity - Pelvic pain therapy - Regular pe
exams
- Diabetes - Difficulty - Hormone
urinating therapy
 Colon Cancer - Diet high in red - Rectal bleeding - Surgery - Consuming
and processed diet high in fi
meats - Change in bowel - Chemotherapy and low in
habits red/process
- Sedentary - Radiation meats
lifestyle - Abdominal pain therapy
- Regular
- Inflammatory - Unexplained colorectal can
bowel diseases weight loss screening

Prostate Cancer - Genetic factors - Difficulty - Surgery - Regular

urinating prostate can
- Older age - Radiation screening (P
- Frequent therapy tests and dig
- Obesity urination rectal exam
- Hormone
- Blood in urine or therapy
semen

VECTORS

Topic Descrip

Definition of Vectors Vectors are organisms that can t

(such as viruses, bacteria, and
another. They are often arthropod
and flie

Examples of Vectors - Rats: Can transmit diseases li

and plag

- Mosquitoes: Can transmit dise

Zika, and yell
 - Houseflies: Can transmit disea
and cho

Transmission of Pathogens Vectors can transmit pathoge

- Mechanical transmission: The

pathogen on its body and tr

- Biological transmission: The pa

within the vector and is then t

Analysis and Interpretation of Data To analyze and interpret data

human health, the followin

- Collect data on the prevalence a

diseases in a given po

- Analyze the data to identify patt

(e.g., geographical distributi
demographic

- Interpret the data to understa

human health, such as the burde
mortality

- Use the data to inform public h

vector control measures, disease
campaig

Mosquito And Housefly Life Cycle

Mosquito Life Cycle:

● Egg: Mosquitoes lay their eggs in stagnant water, such as ponds, puddles, or
artificial containers.
● Larva: The eggs hatch into aquatic larvae, also known as "wigglers," which feed
on organic matter in the water.
● Pupa: The larvae undergo metamorphosis and transform into pupae, which are
non-feeding and remain in the water.
● Adult: The pupae emerge as adult mosquitoes, which then fly away and mate.
Female mosquitoes require a blood meal to produce eggs.

Housefly Life Cycle:

● Egg: Houseflies lay their eggs in decaying organic matter, such as garbage,
manure, or rotting food.
● Larva (Maggot): The eggs hatch into larvae, commonly known as maggots, which
feed on the decaying organic matter.
● Pupa: The larvae undergo a pupal stage, during which they transform into the
adult fly.
● Adult: The adult houseflies emerge from the pupal stage and begin to feed on a
variety of substances, including human food, garbage, and animal waste.

MOSQUITO-BORNE DISEASES

Disease Causative Transmission Signs and Prevention

Agent Symptoms

Malaria Plasmodium Transmitted by the - Fever, chills, - Use of

parasites (P. bite of infected and flu-like insecticide-treate
falciparum, P. female Anopheles symptoms bed nets
vivax, P. ovale, mosquitoes
P. malariae) - Fatigue, - Indoor residua
headache, spraying
nausea
- Prompt
- Severe cases diagnosis and
can lead to treatment
organ failure
and death - Preventive
medication for
high-risk groups
 Dengue Dengue virus Transmitted by the - Sudden high - Mosquito contro
(Strains I-IV) (DENV-1, bite of infected fever, (e.g., eliminating
DENV-2, DENV- Aedes mosquitoes headache, breeding sites,
3, DENV-4) muscle/joint using insecticide
pain
- Personal
- Rash, nausea, protective
vomiting measures (e.g.,
wearing long
- Severe cases sleeves, using
can lead to repellents)
plasma
leakage, organ
impairment, and
bleeding

Zika Zika virus Transmitted by the - Mild fever, - Mosquito contro

bite of infected rash, joint pain, (e.g., eliminating
Aedes mosquitoes; conjunctivitis breeding sites,
can also be using insecticide
transmitted from - Increased risk
mother to child of neurological - Personal
during pregnancy, complications protective
through sexual (e.g., Guillain- measures (e.g.,
contact, and blood Barré wearing long
transfusion syndrome) in sleeves, using
some cases repellents)

- Increased risk - Avoiding trave

of congenital to areas with
abnormalities active Zika virus
(e.g., transmission
microcephaly) during pregnanc
in infants born
to infected
mothers
Chikungunya Chikungunya Transmitted by the - Sudden high - Mosquito contro
virus bite of infected fever, severe (e.g., eliminating
Aedes mosquitoes joint and muscle breeding sites,
pain using insecticide

- Headache, - Personal
rash, and protective
fatigue measures (e.g.,
wearing long
- Joint pain can sleeves, using
persist for repellents)
weeks or
months

The Importance And Methods Of Controlling Vectors Which Affect

Human Health

Topic Explanation

Importance of - Vectors can transmit a wide range of infectious

Vector Control diseases, including malaria, dengue, Zika, chikungunya,
and yellow fever, which can have significant impacts on
human health and well-being.

- Vector-borne diseases can lead to high morbidity and

mortality, especially in developing countries with limited
access to healthcare and resources.

- Effective vector control measures can help reduce the

incidence and spread of these diseases, thereby
improving public health and reducing the burden on
healthcare systems.
 Methods of Physical/Mechanical Control:
Vector Control
- Eliminating breeding sites (e.g., removing stagnant
water, proper waste management)

- Using physical barriers (e.g., screens, bed nets,

protective clothing)

- Applying biological control agents (e.g., predators,

parasites, pathogens)

Chemical Control:

- Applying insecticides (e.g., larvicides, adulticides) to

target vector populations

- Using repellents to deter vector-human contact

Biological Control:

- Introducing natural predators or pathogens that target

the vector species

- Releasing sterile male vectors to reduce population

size

Integrated Vector Management (IVM):

- Combining multiple control methods (physical,

chemical, and biological) for a more comprehensive and
sustainable approach

- Tailoring control strategies to the local context and

vector species

Challenges and - Development of insecticide resistance in vector

Considerations populations

- Potential environmental and health impacts of chemical

control methods

- Ensuring community engagement and participation in

vector control efforts

- Coordinating vector control strategies across different

sectors (e.g., health, environment, agriculture)
 How And Why Personal Hygiene Is Maintained

Personal Explanation
Hygiene Aspect

Elimination of - Body odors are caused by the breakdown of sweat by

Body Odors bacteria on the skin.

- Maintaining good personal hygiene, such as regular

bathing, using deodorants, and changing clothes
frequently, helps eliminate body odors.

- Eliminating body odors promotes social acceptance

and personal confidence.

Social - Good personal hygiene is important for social

Acceptance acceptance and interpersonal relationships.

- Poor hygiene can lead to social stigma, isolation, and

discrimination.

- Maintaining cleanliness and grooming helps individuals

present a positive image and integrate into social
settings.

Prevention of - Ringworm is a fungal infection that can be transmitted

Infections through direct contact with infected individuals or
(Ringworm) contaminated surfaces.

- Practicing good personal hygiene, such as regular

handwashing, avoiding sharing personal items, and
keeping the skin clean and dry, helps prevent the spread
of ringworm and other skin infections.

Prevention of - Dental caries (cavities) are caused by the action of

Dental Caries bacteria in the mouth on sugary foods, leading to the
destruction of tooth enamel.

- Maintaining good oral hygiene, including regular

brushing, flossing, and the use of fluoride, helps prevent
the formation of dental caries and maintain overall dental
 health.

Care of Genitalia - Proper genital hygiene, including regular cleaning and

drying, helps prevent the growth of harmful bacteria and
the development of infections.

- Male circumcision, the surgical removal of the foreskin,

can reduce the risk of urinary tract infections, penile
cancer, and the transmission of sexually transmitted
infections.

IMMUNITY

Type of Explanation
Immunity

Artificial Immunity acquired through artificial means, such as

Immunity vaccines or administration of antibodies.

Artificial - Acquired through the administration of vaccines, which

Active contain weakened or inactivated pathogens or their
Immunity components.

- The immune system recognizes the antigens in the

vaccine and produces antibodies and memory cells,
providing long-term protection against the disease.

Artificial - Acquired through the administration of pre-formed

Passive antibodies, usually from another individual or animal.
Immunity
- Provides immediate, short-term protection against a
specific disease, but does not stimulate the recipient's own
immune system to produce antibodies.

Natural Immunity acquired through natural exposure to pathogens

Immunity or their components.

Natural Active - Acquired through the body's natural response to an

Immunity infection or disease.
 - The immune system recognizes the pathogens, produces
antibodies, and develops memory cells, providing long-term
protection against the disease.

Natural - Acquired through the transfer of antibodies from a mother

Passive to her child during pregnancy or breastfeeding.
Immunity
- Provides temporary, short-term protection for the child,
but does not stimulate the child's own immune system to
produce antibodies.

● Immunity: The body's natural defense against pathogens

● Immunization: The process of making a person immune, usually through the

use of a vaccine.

Vaccine vs. Vaccination:

● Vaccine: Are the biological preparations used to induce immunity. Vaccines

work by stimulating the body's immune system to produce antibodies and
memory cells, which can recognize and respond to the specific pathogen in the
future

● Vaccination: The act of using a vaccine to an individual to induce immunity

against a specific disease.

DRUGS

Drug Examples Effects

Classification

Stimulants - Prescription: - Increased energy,

Amphetamines, alertness, and focus
methylphenidate
- Elevated heart rate,
- Non-prescription: blood pressure, and body
Cocaine, nicotine, ecstasy temperature

- Potential for addiction

and dependence
Depressants - Prescription: - Reduced anxiety,
(Sedative) Benzodiazepines, inhibitions, and muscle
barbiturates, opioid tension
painkillers
- Slowed breathing, heart
- Non-prescription: Alcohol, rate, and brain activity
Cannabis, Heroin
- Risk of overdose and
respiratory depression

Hallucinogens - Non-prescription: LSD, - Altered perceptions,

psilocybin, mescaline, PCP hallucinations, and
distorted sense of time
and reality

- Potential for psychosis

and long-term
psychological effects

Narcotics - Prescription: Oxycodone, - Pain relief, euphoria, and

(Opioids) hydrocodone, codeine sedation

- Non-prescription: Heroin - High risk of addiction,

dependence, and
overdose

Prescription - Opioids, sedatives, - Dependence, overdose,

Drug Misuse painkillers, medicinal and adverse interactions
marijuana with other medications

- Potential for diversion

and illegal use

Antibiotic - Antibiotics prescribed for - Development of

Misuse viral infections, incomplete antibiotic-resistant bacteria
courses
- Disruption of the gut
microbiome and increased
risk of infections

Dependence - Physiological and - Compulsive drug-seeking

and Addiction psychological dependence behavior
on drugs
 - Withdrawal symptoms - Impaired judgment,
upon discontinuation decision-making, and
social functioning

The Social And Economic Effects Of Drug Misuse On The Individual,

Family, And Community, And Their Impact On Humans

Affected Group Social Effects Economic Effects

Individual - Impaired judgment and - Loss of employment and

decision-making financial instability

- Strained relationships and - Increased healthcare cos

social isolation (e.g., treatment, rehabilitat

- Increased risk of criminal - Legal expenses (e.g., fine

behavior and incarceration legal fees)

- Mental health issues (e.g.,

depression, anxiety)

Family - Breakdown of family structure - Financial burden of suppo

and relationships the individual's drug use an
related expenses
- Emotional and psychological
stress on family members - Loss of income and
productivity due to the
- Increased risk of domestic individual's drug-related iss
violence and child neglect
- Increased healthcare cos
- Disruption of family dynamics the family
and support systems

Community - Increased crime rates and - Decreased economic

public safety concerns productivity and tax revenu

- Strain on community resources - Increased costs for law

(e.g., law enforcement, enforcement, judicial syste
healthcare, social services) and social services

- Reduced community cohesion

 and social capital - Reduced property values
investment in the commun
- Normalization of drug use and
its associated behaviors

Impact on Humans - Increased risk of physical and - Significant economic burd

mental health problems healthcare systems, social
services, and the criminal j
- Higher rates of morbidity and system
mortality related to drug use
- Decreased economic gro
- Intergenerational cycles of drug and development due to th
use and its consequences negative impacts of drug m
- Reduced quality of life and - Disproportionate effects o
overall well-being for individuals, vulnerable and marginalize
families, and communities populations

WATER, SEWAGE AND WASTE

The Water Cycle:-
 Process Description

Evaporation - The process by which water is taken into the

atmosphere and turned into water vapor.

Condensation - The process by which water vapor in the atmosphere

cools and forms clouds.
Precipitation - Is when water returns to the earth from the clouds

Run-off - The flow of water from the land into streams, rivers,
and other water bodies, often due to precipitation (e.g.,
rain, snow) that is not absorbed into the ground.

Transpiration - The process by which plants release water vapor into

the atmosphere through their leaves

Respiration - The process by which living organisms release water

vapor as a byproduct of cellular respiration.

Filtration - Water that seeps into the ground can be filtered

through through layers of limestone, a process that helps remove
Limestone impurities and contaminants from the water.

- As the water passes through the porous limestone, it is

purified and can emerge as springs or be extracted as
groundwater.

The Process Of Testing Water For Bacteria

Step Description

Sample - Collect a water sample in a sterile container, ensuring

Collection that the sample is representative of the water source.

Sample - Dilute the water sample, if necessary, to ensure that the

Preparation bacterial count can be accurately determined.

Agar Plate - Prepare a nutrient-rich agar medium in a petri dish,

Preparation which will serve as the growth medium for the bacteria.

Inoculation - Carefully transfer a small volume of the water sample

onto the surface of the agar plate using a sterile pipette or
 loop.

Incubation - Incubate the inoculated agar plate at an appropriate

temperature (usually 37°C) for a specific duration
(typically 24-48 hours) to allow the bacteria to grow and
form visible colonies.

Colony - After the incubation period, count the number of

Counting bacterial colonies that have grown on the agar plate.

Bacterial - Observe the characteristics of the colonies, such as

Identification color, shape, and size, to identify the types of bacteria
present in the water sample.

Interpretation - Interpret the bacterial count and colony characteristics to

of Results determine the quality and safety of the water sample,
based on established standards and guidelines.

Description Of The Processes Involved In Large-scale Water Purification:-

Process Description

Screening - The first step in water purification, Using large screens to

remove large debris and particles are removed from the raw
water

Sedimentation - The process of allowing sediments to settle to the bottom

of the treatment tank.

Filtration - The water is passed through a series of filters to remove

smaller particles, microorganisms, and dissolved impurities.
Chlorination - The addition of chlorine to the water to kill any remaining
microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoa,
ensuring the water is safe for consumption.

REMEMBER IT: SSFC

Methods for Sewage Treatment:
● Biological Filter Method:
● Sewage is passed through a bed of stones or other porous material.
● Microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, grow on the surface of the
filter material and break down the organic matter in the sewage.
● Treated water is collected at the bottom of the filter.
● Activated Sludge Method:
● Sewage is aerated in a tank, allowing microorganisms to break down the
organic matter.
● The microorganisms form a flocculent sludge, which is then separated
from the treated water.
● The sludge is then returned to the aeration tank to continue the treatment
process.

Importance of Screening and Filtration:

● Screening: Removes large solids and debris from the sewage, preventing them
from clogging or damaging the treatment equipment.
● Filtration: Removes smaller particles and suspended solids from the sewage,
improving the effectiveness of the subsequent treatment processes.

Role of Microorganisms in Sewage Treatment:

● Microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, play a crucial role in the breakdown
and removal of organic matter and other contaminants in sewage.
● They use the organic matter as a food source, converting it into simpler
compounds and ultimately into carbon dioxide and water.
● The microorganisms also help to remove nutrients, such as nitrogen and
phosphorus, from the sewage, preventing their release into the environment.
● The presence and activity of these microorganisms are essential for the
successful treatment of sewage using both the biological filter and activated
sludge methods.

The Methods Used For The Treatment Of Sewage:-

Method Description
Biological Filter - Sewage is passed through a bed of stones or other
Method porous material.

- Microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, grow

on the surface of the filter material and break down
the organic matter in the sewage.

- Treated water is collected at the bottom of the filter.

Activated Sludge - Sewage is aerated in a tank, allowing

Method microorganisms to break down the organic matter.

- The microorganisms form a flocculent sludge, which

is then separated from the treated water.

- The sludge is then returned to the aeration tank to

continue the treatment process.

Importance of - Screening: Removes large solids and debris from

Screening and the sewage, preventing them from clogging or
Filtration damaging the treatment equipment.

- Filtration: Removes smaller particles and

suspended solids from the sewage, improving the
effectiveness of the subsequent treatment processes.

Role of - Microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi, play a

Microorganisms crucial role in the breakdown and removal of organic
matter and other contaminants in sewage.

- They use the organic matter as a food source,

converting it into simpler compounds and ultimately
into carbon dioxide and water.

- The microorganisms also help to remove nutrients,

such as nitrogen and phosphorus, from the sewage,
preventing their release into the environment.

- The presence and activity of these microorganisms

are essential for the successful treatment of sewage
using both the biological filter and activated sludge
 methods.

The Methods Of Domestic Refuse Disposal

Method Efficiency Ethical Considerations

Composting - Converts organic waste - Requires space and effort

into nutrient-rich soil from households.
amendment.
- Potential for odor and pest
- Reduces the volume of issues if not managed
waste sent to landfills or properly.
incinerators.

- Promotes sustainable
waste management and
recycling.

Separation - Allows for the recycling - Requires effort and

of Waste and reuse of materials (e.g., education from households
paper, plastic, glass, metal). to sort waste correctly.

- Reduces the amount of - Availability and accessibility

waste sent to landfills or of recycling facilities may be
incinerators. a challenge in some areas.

- Promotes resource
conservation and
environmental sustainability.

Bio-diesel - Converts waste cooking oil - Potential competition with

and other organic waste into food production if large-scale
a renewable fuel source. bio-diesel production uses
edible oils.
- Reduces the reliance on
fossil fuels and the - Concerns about the
environmental impact of sustainability and scalability
waste disposal. of bio-diesel production from
domestic waste.
 Dumping - Requires minimal effort - Leads to the accumulation
and infrastructure from of waste in landfills, which
households. can have negative
environmental and health
- Can be a low-cost option impacts.
for waste disposal.
- Potential for groundwater
contamination, air pollution,
and the spread of diseases.

Burning - Reduces the volume of - Releases harmful air

waste, especially in areas pollutants and greenhouse
with limited landfill space. gases, contributing to
environmental degradation.

- Potential health risks for

nearby communities due to
air pollution.

Garbage - Provides a centralized and - Requires investment in

Collection organized system for waste infrastructure and resources
removal from households. (e.g., collection vehicles,
waste management
- Can facilitate the facilities).
implementation of other
waste management - Potential for inequitable
methods (e.g., recycling, access to garbage collection
composting). services in some
communities.

Dump Vs Landfill
Dump: An uncontrolled site where waste is simply deposited without any measures to
prevent environmental and health hazards.

Landfill: A controlled site designed for the safe and environmentally responsible
disposal of waste, with measures in place to prevent or mitigate environmental and
health impacts. Creating methane and carbon dioxide gas

Measures Used To Control Solid Waste Volume

Measur Description Examples

 e

Reduce Minimizing the amount of waste - Avoiding single-use

generated in the first place. plastics

- Choosing products with

minimal packaging

Reuse Finding new uses for items instead - Repurposing glass jars
of discarding them.
- Donating unwanted items

Recycle Processing waste materials into - Paper and cardboard

new products.
- Plastic bottles and
containers

- Metal cans

- Glass bottles and jars

- Electronic waste

Biodegradable Vs Non-biodegradable
Biodegradable- Materials that can be broken down and decomposed by natural
processes, such as the action of microorganisms.
● Examples:Food waste, Paper and cardboard, Wooden products, Cotton and
other natural fabrics
Non-Biodegradable- Materials that cannot be easily broken down by natural processes
and may persist in the environment for an extended period
● Examples: Plastic products, Glass, Metals, Synthetic fabrics (e.g., polyester,
nylon), Electronic waste

The Impact Of Environmental Issues On Humans

Environmental Impact on Humans

Issue
Food Security - Reduced crop yields due to climate change, soil
degradation, and water scarcity.

- Disruption of food supply chains and distribution

networks.

Land Security - Loss of arable land due to desertification, urbanization,

and environmental degradation.

- Displacement of populations due to natural disasters

and climate-related events.

Health - Increased prevalence of vector-borne diseases (e.g.,

malaria, dengue) due to changes in climate and
ecosystem disruption.

- Respiratory and cardiovascular issues due to air

pollution and climate change.