1.

Need for Classification Kingd Cell

om Type
Nutrition Cell Wall Example
Yeast,
🔍 Why do we need classification? Eukary Heterotroph
Fungi Chitin Mushroo
otic (saprophyte)
m
 There are millions of organisms on Earth.
Classification helps us to: Autotroph
 Plant Eukary Mango,
o Identify organisms easily
(photosynthes Cellulose
ae otic Fern
o Understand relationships
is)
between different organisms Anim Eukary Human,
Heterotroph No
o Study evolution and ecological alia otic Dog
roles
o Organize life forms in a systematic
way c) Bentham and Hooker System

 Natural classification based on

2. Three Domains of Life morphological characters
(By Carl Woese)  Focused on flowering plants
 Used in "Genera Plantarum"
Domain Characteristics Examples  Divided plants into:
Primitive, prokaryotic, o Dicotyledons
extreme environments, Halophiles, o Monocotyledons
Archaea o Based on features like flowers,
no peptidoglycan in Thermophiles
cell wall leaves, seed, ovary, etc.
Prokaryotic, cell wall
E. coli,
Bacteria with peptidoglycan,
Streptococcus 4. Salient Features &
ubiquitous
Eukaryotic, true Classification of Non-chordates
Animals, Plants,
Eukarya nucleus, membrane-
Fungi, Protists (Up to Phylum)
bound organelles
Non-chordates = No notochord
3. Systems of Classification
Total 9 phyla
📘 a) Linnaean System (Binomial
Nomenclature) Phylum Features Example
Pores, canal
 Developed by Carolus Linnaeus Porifera system, no Sponge
 Uses two names: Genus + Species tissues
 Written in italic, Genus capitalized Radial symmetry,
Hydra,
Example: Homo sapiens (Human), Cnidaria stinging cells
Jellyfish
Panthera leo (Lion) (cnidocytes)
Comb plates for
b) Whittaker's Five Kingdom Ctenophora movement, Pleurobrachia
bioluminescent
Classification (1969)
Flatworms, Planaria,
Platyhelminthes
acoelomate Tapeworm
Kingd Cell
Nutrition Cell Wall Example Roundworms,
om Type Nematoda Ascaris
pseudocoelomate
Yes Bacteria,
Mone Prokar Autotroph/ Segmented body, Earthworm,
(peptidogl Cyanoba Annelida
ra yotic heterotroph true coelom Leech
ycan) cteria
Amoeba, Exoskeleton, Insects,
Protis Eukary Auto/ No or Arthropoda
Parameci jointed legs Prawn
ta otic heterotroph varied Soft body, hard Snail,
um Mollusca
shell Octopus
 Phylum Features Example
Spiny skin, radial 🐸 2. Amphibia
Starfish, Sea
Echinodermata symmetry, water
urchin
vascular system  Moist skin, no scales
 Live in water and land
 Cold-blooded
5. Salient Features &  Three-chambered heart
Classification of Chordates (Up  Examples: Frog, Toad, Salamander
to Class Level)
🐍 3. Reptilia
🧬 Key Features of Chordates (Present at
some stage in life):  Dry skin with scales
 Lungs for respiration
1. Notochord  Cold-blooded
2. Dorsal hollow nerve cord  Three-chambered heart (except crocodile – 4)
3. Pharyngeal gill slits  Examples: Snake, Lizard, Crocodile
4. Post-anal tail
5. Closed circulatory system
🐦 4. Aves (Birds)
Classification of Chordata
 Feathers, wings, beak
Chordata is divided into 3 subphyla:  Warm-blooded (homeothermic)
 Four-chambered heart
 Lay eggs
 Examples: Pigeon, Owl, Crow
A. Urochordata (Notochord only in larva)

 Marine, sessile as adult 🐶 5. Mammalia

 Example: Ascidia, Herdmania
 Hair/fur, mammary glands
B. Cephalochordata (Notochord  Warm-blooded
throughout life)  Give birth (except Platypus, Echidna lay eggs)
 Four-chambered heart
 Marine, fish-like  Examples: Human, Tiger, Elephant
 Example: Amphioxus (Branchiostoma)

C. Vertebrata (True vertebral column and

skull)

Divided into 7 classes:

🐟 1. Pisces (Fishes) 🌺 6. Morphology and Anatomy

of Flowering Plants
 Aquatic, gills, scales, fins
 Cold-blooded (poikilothermic) 🔸 Morphology (External structure)
 Two-chambered heart
 Examples:
o Cartilaginous: Shark
o Bony: Rohu
1. Root – Anchors plant, absorbs water & Tissue Systems:
minerals
 Epidermal – Outer protective
 Types: Tap root (Dicots), Fibrous root  Ground – Bulk of plant
(Monocots)  Vascular – Xylem & Phloem
 Modifications:
o Storage: Carrot Internal Structure of:
o Prop roots: Banyan
o Climbing roots: Betel  Dicot Root, Stem, Leaf (ring of vascular
bundles)
2. Stem – Supports plant, transports  Monocot Root, Stem, Leaf (scattered bundles)
food/water

 Nodes & internodes

 Modifications:
o Rhizome: Ginger
o Tuber: Potato
o Thorn: Bougainvillea
🪳 7. Structural Organization in
Cockroach
3. Leaf – Photosynthesis
🔸 External Morphology
 Parts: Petiole, lamina
 Venation: Reticulate (Dicots), Parallel  Reddish brown body, 33–55 mm
(Monocots)  Segments: Head, Thorax, Abdomen
 Modification: Cactus spine, Pitcher  Wings (2 pairs), Antennae, Compound eyes
(Nepenthes)

4. Flower – Reproductive part

🔹 Internal Anatomy

🔬 Digestive System
 Whorls: Sepals, Petals, Stamens, Carpels
 Unisexual (Papaya) / Bisexual (Hibiscus)
 Mouth → Pharynx → Oesophagus → Crop →
Gizzard → Midgut → Hindgut
5. Fruit – Mature ovary
 Digestive glands: Hepatic caeca
 Fleshy (Mango) / Dry (Pea pod)
🫁 Respiratory System
6. Seed – Fertilized ovule
 Spiracles (openings) → Tracheae → Oxygen
directly to cells
 Monocot (Maize) / Dicot (Bean)
 No lungs

❤️Circulatory System

🔹 Anatomy (Internal structure)  Open type – Blood flows freely in body cavity
 Heart with 13 chambers
Plant Tissues:
🧠 Nervous System
1. Meristematic – Dividing cells (e.g., root tip)
2. Permanent –  Brain + ventral nerve cord
o Simple: Parenchyma, Collenchyma,  Eyes detect motion, Antennae for smell/touch
Sclerenchyma
o Complex: Xylem (water) and Phloem 🧬 Reproductive System
(food)
 Male: Testes, vas deferens
 Female: Ovaries, oviducts, egg-laying through
ovipositor
 Oviparous – Lay eggs in capsule (ootheca)
2-🌱 Cell and Molecular Biology

🔬 Cell Theory

Proposed by Schleiden (1838) and Schwann

(1839).
Later modified by Rudolf Virchow (1855).

Main postulates:

 All living organisms are made of cells.

  Cell is the basic unit of life.  Nuclear envelope (double membrane)
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.  Nucleoplasm
 Nucleolus (ribosome synthesis)
 Chromatin – DNA + proteins (becomes
chromosomes during cell division)
🦠 Prokaryotic Cell and Its Ultrastructure
5. Chloroplast (in plants):
Found in organisms like bacteria and Site of photosynthesis. Double membrane-bound with
cyanobacteria. inner thylakoids (stacked into grana) and stroma.
Contains DNA and 70S ribosomes.
 No true nucleus – genetic material is
naked, not enclosed in a membrane. 6. Mitochondria:
 No membrane-bound organelles Powerhouse of the cell – site of aerobic respiration.
(mitochondria, ER, etc. absent) Has outer and highly folded inner membrane (cristae).
 Have cell wall, plasma membrane, Contains circular DNA and 70S ribosomes.
ribosomes (70S), and often flagella or
pili. 7. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
 DNA is circular and present in a region
called nucleoid.  Rough ER: Ribosomes present, synthesizes
 Plasmids (extra DNA) may be present. proteins.
 Smooth ER: No ribosomes, synthesizes lipids,
detoxifies drugs.

🧫 Eukaryotic Cell 8. Golgi Bodies (Apparatus):

Modifies, packages, and ships proteins and lipids.
Present in protists, fungi, plants, and animals. Forms lysosomes and secretory vesicles.
These cells have:
9. Ribosomes:
 A true nucleus with a nuclear membrane Sites of protein synthesis.
 Membrane-bound organelles
 80S ribosomes (except in  80S in cytoplasm (eukaryotes)
mitochondria/chloroplasts which have  70S in prokaryotes, mitochondria, and
70S) chloroplasts

🔍 Eukaryotic Cell Organelles & 10. Lysosomes:

Structures Contain digestive enzymes. Break down waste, worn-
out cell parts, or foreign substances (suicide bags).
1. Cell Wall (Plants, Fungi):
Rigid, made of cellulose (in plants). Provides 11. Vacuoles:
structure and protection. Storage sacs. Large in plant cells (filled with cell sap),
smaller in animal cells.
2. Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane):
Made of lipid bilayer with embedded proteins. 12. Centrosome (with Centrioles):
Described by the Fluid Mosaic Model. Present in animal cells. Helps in spindle formation
Functions in selective transport and during cell division.
communication.

3. Cytoskeleton:
Network of microtubules, microfilaments, and
intermediate filaments. 🔄 Cell Cycle and Cell Division
Gives shape, support, and helps in intracellular
transport and cell movement. Cell Cycle: Sequence of events in a cell’s life

4. Nucleus:  Interphase (G₁, S, G₂) – preparation for

Control center of the cell. Contains: division
  M phase – division occurs  Types: mRNA, tRNA, rRNA

1. Amitosis:

Simple division in prokaryotes and some unicellular 🧪 Replication of DNA

eukaryotes. No spindle or chromosome formation.
 Semi-conservative model (proved by
2. Mitosis: Meselson-Stahl)
 Involves helicase, DNA polymerase, ligase
Produces 2 identical diploid daughter cells  Occurs during S phase of cell cycle
Occurs in somatic cells
Phases: Prophase → Metaphase → Anaphase →
Telophase
Used for growth and repair. 📜 Transcription (DNA → RNA)

3. Meiosis:  RNA is synthesized from DNA template

 Enzyme: RNA polymerase
Produces 4 non-identical haploid cells  In eukaryotes: occurs in nucleus
Occurs in reproductive cells (gametes)  Product: pre-mRNA → processed to mature
Includes two successive divisions: Meiosis I and mRNA (by splicing)
Meiosis II
Important for genetic variation and maintaining
chromosome number.
🧬 Genetic Code
🧬 Molecular Basis of  Set of three bases (codon) = one amino acid
Inheritance  Universal, degenerate, and non-overlapping
 Example: AUG = start codon = Methionine
🔍 Search for Genetic Material

 Griffith’s Experiment: Showed transformation

in bacteria 🧫 Translation (mRNA → Protein)
 Avery, MacLeod, McCarty: DNA is the
transforming material  Occurs in ribosomes
 Hershey-Chase Experiment: Proved DNA is  mRNA carries code
the genetic material (using bacteriophage and  tRNA brings amino acids
radioactive labelling)  Amino acids are joined to form polypeptides

🧬 Structure of DNA and RNA ✂️Splicing

DNA:  Removal of introns (non-coding regions)

 Exons (coding regions) joined together to form
 Double helix model (Watson & Crick) mature mRNA
 Sugar: Deoxyribose
 Bases: A–T, G–C
 Anti-parallel strands (5’ → 3’ and 3’ → 5’)
🧪 Gene Expression and Regulation (Lac
RNA: Operon)
 Single-stranded  Discovered in E. coli
 Sugar: Ribose  A model for gene regulation in prokaryotes
 Bases: A–U, G–C
When lactose is absent:

 Repressor binds to operator → genes OFF

When lactose is present:

 Lactose inactivates repressor → genes ON

 Enzymes for lactose breakdown are
transcribed

🔧 DNA Repair

 Cells have enzymes to fix damaged DNA

 Mismatch repair, Excision repair, SOS repair
 Prevent mutations and maintain genome
integrity

🌱 3. Reproduction
Reproduction is the biological process by which living
organisms produce offspring of their own kind to
ensure continuity of species. It can be asexual or
sexual depending on the involvement of gametes.

🔹 Asexual Reproduction
In asexual reproduction, only one parent is involved, ✅ Structure of a Flower
and the offspring are genetically identical to the
parent (clones). It commonly occurs in unicellular Flowers are the reproductive organs of plants.
organisms and lower plants and animals.
 Androecium (male): Composed of stamens
✅ Common types of asexual reproduction: (anther + filament).
Anthers produce pollen grains (male
 Binary Fission: A parent cell splits into two gametes).
equal halves.  Gynoecium (female): Composed of carpels
Example: Amoeba, Paramecium (stigma, style, ovary).
 Sporulation: Organisms produce tiny spores The ovary contains ovules (female gametes).
which germinate into new individuals under
favorable conditions.
Example: Rhizopus (bread mold)
 Budding: A small outgrowth (bud) forms on 🌬️Pollination
the parent’s body and grows into a new
individual. Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma.
Example: Hydra, Yeast
 Gemmule Formation: Internal buds called  Self-pollination: Pollen from same
gemmules form in sponges which can survive flower/plant
harsh conditions and develop later.  Cross-pollination: Pollen from a different
Example: Spongilla plant
 Fragmentation: Body breaks into fragments,
and each piece grows into a new organism. Pollination agents include wind, water, insects, birds,
Example: Planaria, Spirogyra and animals.

🌿 Vegetative Propagation in Plants 🌱 Fertilization

It is a type of asexual reproduction where vegetative
After pollination, the pollen tube grows down the
parts of a plant (root, stem, leaf) give rise to new
style, carrying the male gametes to the ovule.
plants.
Fusion of male and female gametes results in zygote
formation.
 Natural methods:
In flowering plants, double fertilization occurs:
o Roots: Sweet potato
o Stems: Ginger (rhizome), Potato
 One sperm fuses with the egg → zygote
(tuber), Onion (bulb)
 Other fuses with polar nuclei → endosperm
o Leaves: Bryophyllum (leaf buds)
(nutritive tissue)
 Artificial methods:
o Cutting (e.g., Rose)
o Layering (e.g., Jasmine)
o Grafting (e.g., Mango)
🥭 Development of Seeds and Fruits
This method is fast and helps preserve desired traits
of parent plants.  Zygote develops into embryo
 Ovule becomes seed
 Ovary becomes fruit

Types of fruits:
🌸 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering
Plants  True fruits: Develop from ovary only (e.g.,
Mango)
Involves the fusion of male and female gametes to  False fruits: Involve other parts like thalamus
form a zygote, leading to the formation of seeds. (e.g., Apple)
 3. Ovulation – release of egg (around day 14)
4. Luteal phase – corpus luteum forms,
🌬️Seed Dispersal progesterone supports possible pregnancy

Seeds are dispersed to new locations by: If fertilization doesn’t occur, cycle restarts.

 Wind (e.g., Cotton, Dandelion)

 Water (e.g., Coconut)
 Animals (e.g., Xanthium) 🧬 Fertilization to Blastocyst
 Explosion (e.g., Pea)
 Fertilization usually occurs in the fallopian
tube.
 Zygote undergoes cleavage (cell divisions) →
🌿 Apomixis, Parthenocarpy, forms morula → then blastocyst
 Blastocyst implants in the uterine wall
Polyembryony
(implantation)
 Apomixis: Seed formation without
fertilization. Seen in grasses.
 Parthenocarpy: Fruit development without
fertilization; results in seedless fruits (e.g., 👶 Pregnancy and Embryo Development
Banana).
 Polyembryony: More than one embryo in a  The placenta forms for nutrient and gas
single seed (e.g., Orange). exchange between mother and embryo.
 Hormones like hCG, progesterone, and
estrogen maintain pregnancy.
 Human gestation lasts ~9 months.

👩‍⚕️Human Reproductive
System
🤱 Parturition and Lactation
Humans reproduce sexually with internal fertilization.
 Parturition: Process of childbirth, triggered by
hormones like oxytocin.
 After birth, lactation begins – milk is secreted
from mammary glands to nourish the baby.
🔹 Gametogenesis

Formation of gametes:

 Spermatogenesis (in testes): Formation of 🧪 Assisted Reproductive Technologies

sperm (ART)
 Oogenesis (in ovaries): Formation of ova
(eggs) Used to help couples with infertility:

Both processes involve meiosis.  IVF (In Vitro Fertilization): Fertilization

outside the body, embryo transferred to
uterus
 ZIFT (Zygote IntraFallopian Transfer): Zygote
transferred to fallopian tube
🔄 Menstrual Cycle
 GIFT (Gamete IntraFallopian Transfer):
Gametes transferred to fallopian tube
Occurs in females every ~28 days, divided into:
 ICSI (Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection):
Single sperm injected into the egg
1. Menstrual phase – shedding of uterine lining  Artificial insemination: Sperm introduced into
2. Follicular phase – follicle development, female reproductive tract artificially
estrogen rise
🧬 4. Genetics and Evolution
📌 Genetics:

It is the branch of biology that studies heredity (how

traits are passed from parents to offspring) and
variation (differences among individuals).

🔷 Chromosomes: Structure and Types

  Chromosomes are thread-like structures o Translocation: Segment moves to a
made of DNA and proteins (histones), present different chromosome
in the nucleus.
 Each chromosome has a centromere, Example: Down Syndrome occurs due to an extra copy
telomeres at the ends, and chromatids. of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21).
 Types based on centromere position:
o Metacentric: Centromere in middle
o Submetacentric: Centromere slightly
off center
o Acrocentric: Centromere close to one 🌿 Mendelian Inheritance
end
o Telocentric: Centromere at the 👨‍🔬 Gregor Mendel: "Father of Genetics"
terminal end
He worked on pea plants and proposed laws of
Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) — 22 pairs inheritance.
of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes.
 Law of Dominance: One allele can mask the
effect of another (dominant vs recessive)
 Law of Segregation: Alleles separate during
🔗 Linkage and Crossing Over gamete formation
 Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for
 Linkage: Genes that are close together on the different traits are inherited independently
same chromosome are inherited together.
Example: Eye color and wing length in Example: A cross between pure tall (TT) and dwarf (tt)
Drosophila. pea plants gives all tall (Tt) offspring in F1.
 Crossing over: Exchange of genetic material
between homologous chromosomes during
prophase I of meiosis.
It increases genetic variation. 🧬 Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance

 Proposed by Sutton and Boveri

 States that genes are located on
🔄 Recombination chromosomes and are the basis of heredity.

Recombination occurs due to crossing over and

creates new gene combinations in offspring.
This is why siblings look different despite having the 🔁 Deviations from Mendel’s Ratios
same parents.
Sometimes inheritance patterns deviate from classic
3:1 or 9:3:3:1 ratios.

⚠️Mutation and Chromosomal ▪ Incomplete Dominance

Aberrations
Neither allele is completely dominant — the
 Mutation: Sudden change in DNA sequence. It phenotype is blended.
can be: Example: Red flower (RR) × White (rr) → Pink (Rr) in
o Gene mutation: Changes a single gene Mirabilis jalapa
(e.g., Sickle cell anemia)
o Chromosomal mutation: Changes in ▪ Co-dominance
chromosome structure or number
 Chromosomal aberrations: Both alleles express themselves fully.
o Deletion: Loss of a segment Example: Blood group AB (both A and B antigens are
o Duplication: Repetition of a segment expressed)
o Inversion: Reversed segment
▪ Multiple Allelism Example: Industrial melanism in peppered moths
(dark-colored moths survived better in polluted areas)
More than two alleles exist for a trait, though only two
are inherited.
Example: ABO blood group has alleles IA, IB, i
🧬 Neo-Darwinism
▪ Pleiotropy
It is the modern version of Darwin’s theory,
One gene affects multiple traits. combining:
Example: The gene for sickle cell anemia affects
hemoglobin, immunity, and blood circulation.  Natural selection
 Genetic mutations
 Recombination
 Genetic drift
👨‍👩‍👦 Sex-linked Inheritance
This explains variation, inheritance, and evolution at
Traits controlled by genes on sex chromosomes the molecular level.
(mostly X chromosome).

 Example: Hemophilia and Color blindness are

X-linked recessive disorders 📊 Hardy-Weinberg Principle
 These are more common in males, who have
only one X chromosome (XY), whereas It gives a mathematical model to study gene
females are XX. frequencies in a population.

The formula is:

p² + 2pq + q² = 1
⚤ Sex Determination in Humans Where:

 Humans have 46 chromosomes: 44  p = frequency of dominant allele

autosomes + 2 sex chromosomes (XX or XY)  q = frequency of recessive allele
 Females: XX (only X gametes)  p² = % of homozygous dominant individuals
 Males: XY (X and Y gametes)  q² = % of homozygous recessive individuals
 2pq = % of heterozygous individuals
→ The sperm determines the sex of the baby:
If this equilibrium is disturbed, evolution occurs.
 X sperm + X egg → Female (XX)
 Y sperm + X egg → Male (XY)

🔄 Factors Affecting Genetic Equilibrium

🧬 Evolution 1. Mutation: Introduces new alleles

2. Gene Flow (Migration): Movement of genes
between populations
🧫 Darwinism 3. Genetic Drift: Random changes in small
populations (e.g., Founder effect)
Charles Darwin proposed Natural Selection as the 4. Natural Selection: Survival of the fittest
mechanism of evolution: 5. Non-random mating: Preference for certain
traits alters gene frequency
 Individuals with favorable traits survive and
reproduce
 Over time, traits that aid survival become
common
🧍‍♀️5. Human Health and Causat
Disease ive Type missio
Trans
Sympt
Control/
Preventio
Diseases Agent n
oms
n
fort
Health is a state of complete physical, mental, Prolong
and social well-being — not just the absence of ed
disease. Contam
Salmon fever, Vaccinatio
Diseases can be infectious (caused by pathogens) Typhoi Bact inated
ella weakne n,
or non-infectious (caused by genetic or lifestyle d erial food/w
typhi ss, antibiotics
factors). ater
stomac
h pain
🦠 Pathogens and Parasites Causing Strepto
Human Diseases coccus Difficul
pneum ty
Droplet
Pathogens are disease-causing organisms — Pneum oniae, Bact breathi Antibiotics
s, direct
viruses, bacteria, protozoa, fungi, or worms. onia Haemo erial ng, , hygiene
contact
Here's a summary of common diseases and their philus chest
causes: influen pain
zae
Causat Trans Control/ Runny
Sympt Airborn
Disease ive Type missio Preventio Comm nose, Rest,
oms Rhino e
Agent n n on Viral sneezin fluids,
virus droplet
Fever Cold g, sore hygiene
Female Mosquito s
Plasmo with throat
Anophe nets, anti-
Malari dium Proto chills Entam Contam Diarrhe
les malarials Boiled
a (protoz zoan (cyclic) Amoeb oeba Proto inated a,
mosqui (e.g., water,
oa) , iasis histolyt zoan water/f abdomi
to quinine) hygiene
fatigue ica ood nal pain
High Skin Red
fever, No Tricho
contact circular Antifungal
Aedes rashes, stagnant Ringw phyton Fung
Dengu or patches creams,
Dengue Viral mosqui bleedin water, orm (fungus al
e virus surface , cleanliness
to bite g mosquito )
s itching
(severe repellent
)
Vector
Chikun Aedes Joint
Chikun control,
gunya Viral mosqui pain,
gunya fluid
virus to bite fever
intake 🧫 Immunology Basics
Wuche
Mosquito
reria Swolle Immunity is the ability of the body to resist or fight
Culex control,
Filaria bancro Wor n limbs infections.
mosqui anti-
sis fti m (elepha
to helminthic
(helmi ntiasis)  Innate immunity: Present from birth, non-
s
nth) specific. Example: Skin, mucus, phagocytes.
Droplet Fever,  Acquired immunity: Develops after infection
Vaccinatio
COVI SARS- s, air, cough, or vaccination; specific.
Viral n, masks,
D-19 CoV-2 surface breathl
hygiene
s essness Types:
Ascari Ascaris Wor Contam Vomiti Hygiene,
asis lumbri m inated ng, deworming  Active Immunity: Body produces its own
coides food/w abdomi antibodies (e.g., through vaccination).
(round ater nal  Passive Immunity: Ready-made antibodies are
worm) discom given (e.g., from mother’s milk or antiserum).
 No cure, but antiretroviral therapy (ART) slows down
progression.
💉 Vaccines

Vaccines are biological preparations containing

weakened or killed pathogens that stimulate the 👧 Adolescence, Drug and Alcohol Abuse
immune system to produce antibodies without
causing disease. Adolescence is a phase of rapid physical and mental
growth (~12–18 years). Young people are more
 Example: BCG (for TB), MMR, Polio, Hepatitis vulnerable to peer pressure and emotional changes,
B, Covaxin (COVID) making them susceptible to risky behavior like
substance abuse.

❌ Drug Abuse:
💊 Antibiotics
 Includes use of harmful substances like heroin,
These are chemicals produced by microbes to kill or cocaine, cannabis.
stop the growth of bacteria.  Causes severe mental, physical, and
emotional damage.
 Example: Penicillin, discovered by Alexander  Long-term effects include addiction,
Fleming. depression, organ damage, and even death.
 Antibiotics are ineffective against viruses.
❌ Alcohol Abuse:

 Affects the brain and liver, impairs judgment.

 Can lead to addiction (alcoholism) and
🧬 Cancer
violence.
Cancer is uncontrolled growth of cells that can spread
Prevention and Control:
to other tissues (metastasis).
 Strong family and peer support
 Caused by mutations in DNA, exposure to
 Awareness programs
carcinogens (like tobacco, radiation), viruses
 Seeking help through counseling and
(like HPV).
rehabilitation
 Types: Benign (localized) and Malignant
(spread).
 Treatments: Surgery, Chemotherapy,
Radiation therapy

🦠 HIV and AIDS

 HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) causes

AIDS (Acquired ImmunoDeficiency
Syndrome).
 The virus attacks T-helper cells, weakening the
immune system.

Transmission:

 Unprotected sex
 Infected blood transfusion
 Sharing needles
 From infected mother to child