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Comparison Between Conductor, Semiconductor and Insulator

Properties Conductor Semiconductor Insulator
Resistivity 10 2  10 8 m 10 5  106 m 1011  1019 m
Conductivity 102  108 mho / m 106  105 mho / m 1019  1011 mho / m
Temp. Coefficient Positive Negative Negative
of resistance (  )
Current Due to free electrons Due to electrons and holes No current

Energy band
diagram
Forbidden energy  0eV  1eV  3eV
gap
Example Pt, Al, Cu, Ag Ge,Si, GsAs, GaF2 Wood, plastic, Diamond,
Mica
Eg

3/2 2kT
 Number of electrons reaching from valence band to conduction band : n  AT e
 Classification of Semiconductors:

 Mass-Action Law : ni2  ne  nh

 For N-type semiconductor ne  N D

 For P-type semiconductor nh  N A

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Conduction in Semiconductor
Intrinsic semiconductor P-type N-type
ne  nh nh  ne ne  nh

J  ne(ve  vh )(Current density) J  e nh vh J  e ne ve

1 1 1
  en[e   h ](Conductivity)   e nh  h   e ne e
  

Intrinsic Semiconductor N-type (Pentavalent impurity) P-type (Trivalent impurity)

Current due to electron and Mainly due to electrons Mainly due to holes
hole
ne  nh  ni nh  ne ( N D  ne ) nh  ne ( N A  nh )

I  Ie  I h I  Ie I  Ih
Entirely neutral Entirely neutral Entirely neutral
Quantity of electrons and Majority Electrons Minority Majority Holes Minority -
holes are equal Holes Electrons

P-N Junction (At equilibrium condition)

Direction of diffusion current : P to N side and drift current : N to P side. If there is no biasing
then diffusion current = drift current. So total current is zero in junction N side is at high
potential relative to the P side. This potential difference tends to prevent the movement of
electron from the N region into the P region. This potential difference called a barrier potential.

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Comparison Between Forward Bias and Reverse Bias
Forward Bias Reverse Bias

1 Potential barrier reduces 1 Potential barrier increases

2 Width of depletion layer decreases 2 Width of depletion layer increases
3 P-N junction provide very small 3 P-N junction provide high resistance
resistance
4 Forward current flows in the circuit 4 Very small current flows
5 Order of forward current is milli 5 Order of current is micro ampere for Ge or
ampere Nano ampere for Si
6 Current flows mainly due to majority 6 Current flows mainly due to minority
carriers carriers
7 Forward characteristic curves 7 Reverse characteristic curve

8 Forward Resistance : 8 Reverse Resistance :

Vt Vr
Rt   100 Rr   106 
I t I r
9 Order of knee or cut in voltage 9 Breakdown voltage
Ge  0.3 V Ge  25 V
Si  0.7 V Si  35 V
Special point : Generally Rr
 10 4 :1 for Si
Rr Rt
 103 :1 for Ge
Rt
Breakdown Are of Two Types
Zener Break down Avalanche Break down
Where covalent bonds of depletion layer, itself Here covalent bonds of depletion layers are
break, due to high electric field broken by collision of “Minorities” which
This phenomena takes place in: aquire high kinetic energy from high
(i) P-N junction having “High doping” electric field
(ii) P-N junction having thin depletion layer This phenomena takes place in:
Here P–N junction does not damage (i) P-N junction having “Low doping”
permanently “In D.C voltage stabilizer (ii) P-N junction having thik depletion
zener phenomena is used” layer
Here P–N junction damage
permanently due to abruptly
increment of minorities during
repeatative collisions.

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Application of Diode
 Zener diode : It is high doped p-n junction diode used as a voltage regulator.
 Photo diode : A p-n junction diode use to detect light signals operated in reverse bias.
 LED : A p-n junction device that emits optical radiation under forward bias conditions.
 Solar Cell : Generates emf of its own due to the effect of sun radiations.

I
 Ripple Factor : r  ac
I dc
 For HWR : r = 1.21
 For FWR : r = 0.48
2
P I dc RL
 Rectifier Efficiency :   dc 
2
Pac I rms ( RF  RL )
40.6 81.2
 For HWR : %  & FWR %
R R
1 F 1 F
RL RL
Modulation Factor Or Index And Carrier Swing (CS)
max . frequency deviation f
 Modulation factor : m  
Modulating frequency fm
f  f max.  f c  f c  f min. ;VFM  VC cos[c t  m f cos m t ]
 Carrier Swing (CS)
The total variation in frequency from the lowest to the highest is called the carrier swing
 CS  2 xf
 Side Bands
FM wave consists of an infinite number of side frequency components on each side of the carrier
frequency
fC , f C  f m , fC  2 f m , fC  3 f m , & so on.

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Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation

1 The amplitude of FM wave is constant, 1 The amplitude of AM signal varies
whatever be the modulation index. depending on modulation index.
2 It require much wider channel (Band width) 2 Band width* is very small (One of the
[7 to 15 times] as compared to AM. biggest advantage).
3 Transmitters are complex and hence 3 Relatively simple and cheap.
expensive.
4 Area of reception is small since it is limited 4 Area of reception is Large.
to line of sight. (This limits the FM mobile
communication over a wide area)
5 Noise can be easily minimised amplitude 5 It is difficult to eliminate effect of noise.
variation can be eliminated by using limiter.
6 Power contained in the FM wave is useful. 6 Most of the power which contained in
Hence full transmitted power is useful. carrier is not useful. Therefore carrier
power transmitted is a waste.
7 The average power is the same as the carrier 7 The average power in modulated wave is
wave. greater than carrier power.
8 No restriction is placed on modulation index 8 Maximum m = 1, otherwise over
(m). modulation (m > 1) would result in
distortion.
9 It is possible to operate several independent 9 It is not possible to operate without
transmitter on same frequency. interference.
MODEM FAX ( Facsimile Telegraphy)
The name modem is a contraction of the FAX is abbreviation for facsimile which
terms Modulator and Demodulator. Modem means exact reproduction. The electronic
is a device which can modulate as well as reproduction of a document at a distance
demodulate the signal. place is called Fax.

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