FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTER

• C – Commonly
• O- Operating
• M - Machine The word computer is derived from the latin word compute. Compute means to calculate.
• P - Particularly The computer was originally defined as a super fast calculator.
• U - Used
• T - for Trade It has also been said that Computer word is derived from a Greek word Computare.
• E - Education
• R - and Research

A computer is an electronic data processing device, which accepts and stores data input, processes the data input, and generates the
output in a required format.

To know about the working of a computer, first need to understand various terms such as Data, Processing and Information. First of all, lets
start with basic terms:-

1. Data : Data is a collection of basic facts and figure without any sequence. This data is also called as raw data. When the data is collected
as facts and figures, there is no meaning to it, at that time, for example, name of people, names of employees etc.

2. Processing : Processing is the set of instructions given by the user to the related data that was collected earlier to output meaningful
information. The computer does the required processing by making the necessary calculations, comparisons and decisions.

3. Information : Information is the end point or the final output of any processed work. This meaningful output data is called information.

4. Program: The set of instructions given to the computer to perform various operations is called as the computer program.

5. Process: A program in execution is called a Process.

** What is Machine Language?

Machine language is a low-level language made up of binary numbers or bits that a computer can understand. It is also known as
machine code or object code and is extremely tough to comprehend. The only language that the computer understands is machine
language.

** A bit (binary digit) is the smallest unit of data that a computer can process and store. A bit is always in one of two physical states,
similar to an on/off light switch. The state is represented by a single binary value, usually a 0 or 1. However, the state might also be
represented by yes/no, on/off or true/false.

** Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz invented binary digits , thus, he is also known as father of Binary.

COMPONANTS OF COMPUTER

All types of computers follow the same basic logical structure and perform the following five basic operations for converting raw input data
into information useful to their users.

Input Unit- This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into the computer. This unit creates a link between the user and
the computer. The input devices translate the information into a form understandable by the computer.

CPU (Central Processing Unit)- CPU is considered as the brain of the computer. CPU performs all types of data processing operations. It
stores data, intermediate results, and instructions (program). It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has the following three components:

▪ ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)- This unit consists of two subsections namely,
1. Arithmetic Section
2. Logic Section

Arithmetic Section- Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the above operations.

Logic Section- Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and merging of data.

▪ Memory Unit- This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to other units of the
computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main memory or the primary storage or Random Access
Memory (RAM). Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two types of memories
in the computer. Functions of the memory unit are −

✓ It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.

✓ It stores intermediate results of processing.

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✓ It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.

✓ All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.

▪ Control Unit- This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any actual data processing
operations.

Functions of this unit are −

✓ It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of a computer.
✓ It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
✓ It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of the computer.
✓ It communicates with Input/output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
✓ It does not process or store data.

• Processor speed is measured in hertz (Hz) and refers to the number of cycles per second that a CPU can execute.tt
• CPU is also known as BRAIN of computer.
• Ist CPU in the world is Intel 4004 (1971)

Output Unit- The output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from the computer. This unit is a link between
the computer and the users. Output devices translate the computer's output into a form understandable by the users.

BASIC ARCHITECTURE OF A COMPUTER:

The von Neumann architecture—also known as the von Neumann model or Princeton architecture—is a computer architecture based on a
1945 description by John von Neumann, and by others, in the First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC. The document describes a design
architecture for an electronic digital computer with these components:

• A processing unit with both an arithmetic logic unit and processor registers
• A control unit that includes an instruction register and a program counter
• Memory that stores data and instructions
• External mass storage
• Input and output mechanisms

Advantages of Computers

1. High Speed
• Computer is a very fast device.
• It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
• The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the Pico second.
• It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man who will spend many months to perform the same
task.

2. Accuracy
• In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
• The calculations are 100% error free.
• Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input is correct. Storage Capability

3. Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.

• A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
• It can store large amount of data.
• It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc.

4. Diligence
• Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of concentration.
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• It can work continuously without any error and boredom.

• It can perform repeated tasks with the same speed and accuracy.
5. Versatility
• A computer is a very versatile machine.
• A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
• This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
• At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next moment it may be playing a card game.

6. Reliability
• A computer is a reliable machine.
• Modern electronic components have long lives.
• Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
7. Automation
• Computer is an automatic machine.
• Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer receives a program i.e., the program is stored
in the computer memory, then the program and instruction can control the program execution without human interaction.

8. Reduction in Paper Work and Cost

• The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work and results in speeding up the
process.
• As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance of large number of paper files gets
reduced.

Computer Applications.

1. Banking and Financial company: Computers are used in bank for electronic money transfer, voucher, ledger, bank sheet, etc.
different systems are used in Financial Company such as ATM (Automatic Teller Machine), EFTS (Electronic Fund Transfer
System) etc which is computer based systems for customer services provided by banks.

2. Education : The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities in the education system. The computer provides a tool in the
education system known as CBE (Computer Based Education). CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
Computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of computer students. It is used to prepare a database about
performance of a student and analysis is carried out on this basis.

3. Healthcare: Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are being used in hospitals to
keep the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, ultrasounds
and CT scans, etc. are also done by computerized machines.

4. Military : Computers are largely used in defence. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military also employs computerized
control systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used are:
• Missile Control
• Military Communication
• Military Operation and Planning
• Smart Weapons
5. Communication : Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or speech that is received and understood
clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant. Some main areas in this category are:
• E-mail
• Chatting
• Usenet
• FTP
• Telnet
• Video-conferencing

6. Government: Computers play an important role in government services. Some major fields in this category are:
• Budgets
• Sales tax department
• Income tax department
• Computation of male/female ratio
• Computerization of voters lists
• Computerization of PAN card
• Weather forecasting

EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER

ABACUS- The abacus is one of the earliest known computation devices.The full form of the abacus is the Abundant Beads, Addition, and
Calculation Utility System. It is a simple calculating device that consists of beads arranged in rods of wires embedded in a wooden frame..
The abacus was developed in China about 5000 years ago. The abacus was so successful that its use spread from China to many other
countries. It is the first mechanical calculator. It does arithmetic calculations.

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Pascal’s calculator called ‘Pascaline’- In the year 1642, Blaise Pascal a French scientist invented an adding machine called Pascal’s
calculator. Though these machines were early forerunners to computer engineering, the calculator failed to be a great commercial
success. It does arithmetic calculations.

Analytical engine or difference engine- Charles Babbage a British mathematician at Cambridge University invented the first analytical
engine (1820-1830) or difference engine (1837). This machine could be programmed by instructions coded on punch cards and had
mechanical memory to store the results. For his contributions in this field Charles Babbage is known as ‘the father of computer.’

• The analytical engine was a proposed digital mechanical general-purpose computer

• Lady Ada Lovelace Augustus, an English mathematician and daughter of the poet Lord Byron, wrote the first algorithm for a
machine in the 1800s and is considered the first computer programmer.

ENIAC (Electronic Numeric Integrator and Calculator) –In 1944 John Mauchley and J. Presper proposed an electronic digital computer
called ENIAC, and completed it in 1946 which is regarded as first successful general digital computer.

EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) – In the mid 1940’s (1944) Dr. John von Neumann designed the Electronic
Discrete Variable Automatic Computer with a memory to store both program and data. This was the first machine which used the stored
program concept. It had five distinct units - arithmetic, central control, memory, input and output. The key element was the central control.
All the functions of the computer were co-ordinate through this single source, the central control. The programming of the computers was
done in machine language.

UNIVAC 1 – Remington Rand designed this computer specifically for business data processing applications. The Universal Automatic
Computer was the first general purpose commercially available computer, was developed by a team of engineers led by J. Presper Eckert
and John Mauchly, makers of ENIAC. Mauchly and Eckert began building UNIVAC I in 1948 and a contract for the machine was signed by
the Census Bureau on March 31, 1951

EDSAC( Electronic delay storage automatic computer)- Ist computer capable of storing instructions and data in memory. The "father" of
British computing, Sir Maurice Wilkes, has died at the age of 97. Sir Maurice was the designer and creator of Edsac, a computer that ran its
first program in May 1949.

GENERATION OF COMPUTER

First Generation Computers - The period of first generation was from 1946-1959.

Main characteristics of first generation computers are:

✓ Main electronic component- Vacuum tube.

✓ Programming language- Machine language.
✓ Main memory- Magnetic tapes and magnetic drums.
✓ Input/output devices- Paper tape and punched cards.
✓ SPEED- milliseconds
✓ Speed and size- Very slow and very large in size (often taking up entire room).
• Examples of the first generation- IBM 650, IBM 701, ENIAC, UNIVAC1, EDVAC etc.

The computers of first generation used vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit).
These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and the installations used to fuse frequently. Therefore, they were very expensive
and only large organizations were able to afford it.

Second Generation Computers - The period of second generation was from 1959-1965.

Main characteristics of second generation computers are:-

✓ Main electronic component- Transistor.

✓ Programming language- Machine language and assembly language.
✓ Memory- Magnetic core and magnetic tape/disk.
✓ Input/output devices- Magnetic tape and punched cards.
✓ Speed- microseconds
✓ Power and size- Smaller in size, low power consumption, and generated less heat (in comparison with the first generation computers).
✓ Examples of second generation- PDP-8, IBM1400 series, IBM 7090 and 7094, UNIVAC 1107, CDC 3600 etc.

Third Generation Computers - The period of third generation was from 1965-1971.

Main characteristics of third generation computers are:

✓ Main electronic component- Integrated circuits (ICs). A single IC has many transistors, resistors, and capacitors along with the
associated circuitry. (Made of silicon) . The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in size, reliable,
and efficient.

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✓ Programming language- High-level language (COBOL, FORTRAN)

✓ Memory- Large magnetic core, magnetic tape/disk
✓ Input / output devices- Magnetic tape, monitor, keyboard, printer, etc.
✓ Examples of third generation- IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP-11, NCR 395, B6500, UNIVAC 1108, etc.
✓ High-level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.

Fourth Generation Computers- The period of fourth generation was from 1971-1980.

Main characteristics of fourth generation computers are:

✓ Main electronic component- Very large-scale integration (VLSI) and the microprocessor (VLSI has thousands of transistors on a single
microchip).
✓ Memory- semiconductor memory (such as RAM, ROM, etc.)
✓ Fourth generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to Personal Computer
(PC) revolution.
✓ In this generation, time sharing, real time networks, distributed operating system were used. All the high-level languages like C, C++,
DBASE etc., were used in this generation.
✓ Input/output devices- pointing devices, optical scanning, keyboard, monitor, printer, etc.
✓ Examples of fourth generation- DEC 10, STAR 1000, PDP 11, CRAY-1(Super Computer), CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Fifth Generation Computers- The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date

Main characteristics of fifth generation computers are:

✓ Main electronic component - Based on artificial intelligence, uses the Ultra Large-Scale Integration (ULSI) technology and parallel
processing method (ULSI has millions of transistors on a single microchip and Parallel processing method use two or more
microprocessors to run tasks simultaneously).
✓ Language - Understand natural language (human language). This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI
(Artificial Intelligence)software. All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net , PROLOG etc., are used in this generation.
✓ Size - Portable and small in size.
✓ Input / output device - Trackpad (or touchpad), touchscreen, pen, speech input (recognize voice/speech), light scanner, printer,
keyboard, monitor, mouse, etc.
✓ Example of fifth generation - Desktops, laptops, tablets, smartphones, etc.
✓ Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates

TYPES OF COMPUTER

There are three major categories based on which computers can be classified. These are:

1. Based on Size
2. Based on Purpose
3. Based on Types

Types of Computer-Based on Types

The three types of computers along with their functions are given below:

• Analog Computer – An analog computer one that uses the continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena to model the
problem being solved. These phenomena may be such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities and they are extremely
complex to be used. Such computers are mostly used for scientific and industrial applications. Examples of Analog computers
include Thermometer, Operational Amplifiers, Electric Integrators, etc.

• Digital Computer – Such computers are capable of solving problems in discrete format. It only operates on data entered in binary
language and can perform the dynamic function of managing large amounts of data and regulating the operations of the machine,
Examples of Digital computers are Desktop, Laptop, Mobile Phones, etc.
• Hybrid Computer – Computers that exhibit features of both Analog and Digital computers are called Hybrid Computers. The
logical operations are solved by the digital aspects and the differential equations are solved using the analog features. Few
important examples of Hybrid Computers include Space Flights, Food processing Plants, etc.

Types of Computers – Based on Size

Described below are the four types of Computers based on their sizes along with their functions:

• Micro Computers – A relatively inexpensive and small computer comprising a microprocessor and a Central Processing Unit
(CPU) is called a Microcomputer. Such computers are made with minimal circuitry mounting over a single circuit board. Examples
include Desktop, Laptop, etc.

• 4TH GEN COMPUTER

• SINGLE USER COMPUTER
• GENERAL PURPOSE COMPUTERS

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• Workstations are computers specifically designed and configured to meet power users' technical computing requirements,
including high performance, data integrity, reliability, and manageability. Workstations are computers specifically designed and
configured to meet power users' technical computing requirements, including high performance, data integrity, reliability, and
manageability.

• Mini Computer – Developed in the mid-1960s, Mini computers are comparatively smaller than mainframe computers. They were
developed keeping in consideration human interaction, control instrumentation and were cost-effective. Minicomputers were
used for scientific and engineering computations, business transaction processing, file handling, and database management.
Thay are also known as Mid – size servers. For example Smartphones, iPads, etc.

• Mainframe Computer – Computers used by large Organisations to manage bulk data are called Mainframe computers. Main
functions of such type include managing customer statistics, census and other heavy data in a single device. For example, the
system used at Trading companies. Other uses: bulk data processing for tasks such as censuses, industry and consumer
statistics, enterprise resource planning, and large-scale transaction processing, railway systems , banking systems etc.

Each user can access this computer through a device called Terminal.

o Dumb terminal: does not have its storage and processing capability.
o Intelligent terminal: have processing capability but not storage.
• Super Computer – Supercomputers are the biggest and fastest computers. They are designed to process huge amount of data. A
supercomputer can process trillions of instructions in a second. It has thousands of interconnected processors.

Supercomputers are particularly used in scientific and engineering applications such as weather forecasting, scientific
simulations, Quantum Mechanics, Climate research and nuclear energy research.
.
➢ Param Shivay, the India’s first supercomputer assembled indigenously, was installed in IIT (BHU), followed by Param Shakti
and Param Brahma at IIT-Kharagpur and IISER, Pune, respectively. Bhatkar is best known as the architect of India's national
initiative in supercomputing where he led the development of Param supercomputers. He developed the first Indian
supercomputer, the PARAM 8000, in 1991 and later the PARAM 10000 in 1998.
➢ Vijay Pandurang Bhatkar, a technocrat is considered the father of the Indian Supercomputer.
➢ The CDC 6600, released in 1964, is generally considered the first supercomputer, designed by Seymour Cray who is considered
the father of Super Computer.
➢ World’s fastest supercomputer- 'Frontier' is capable of more than a billion, billion operations a second, making it the first exascale
supercomputer. Frontier achieved an Rmax of 1.102 exaFLOPS.

Types of Computer – By Purpose

On the basis of purpose, there are just two variety of computers. Those two varieties have been discussed in detail below:
• General Purpose – Based on General Purpose, there are these following functions which a device is expected to perform:

1. Basic Input/Output functions

2. Calculations
3. Data Saving on a smaller scale
4. General performing activities

These may include basic calculators, laptops, desktop computers, mobile phones, etc., which can help people with their basic necessary
functions are included in the General Purpose computer type.

• Special Purpose – When a computer is designed specifically to perform a certain function, such type of computers are known as
Special Purpose computer. These types may include:

1. Thermometers to test temperature

2. Generators to manage electricity
3. Devices used for analysing Climate Change
4. Large computers for IT Companies
5. Machines used at Manufacturing Units and the list goes on and on.

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