3.

4 MICROWAVE DIODES

3.4.1 PIN DIODE

The PIN diode found its first applications in 1952 as a low frequency high power
rectifier. It was also used in a number of microwave applications

A PIN diode is a diode with a wide, undoped intrinsic semiconductor region between a p-
type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor region.

The p-type and n-type regions are typically heavily doped because they are used for ohmic
contacts

Layers

P-type layer

Intrinsic layer

N-type layer

Figure 3.24 Structure of PIN Diode

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 The intrinsic region comprises of the undoped, or virtually undoped semiconductor, and
in most PIN diodes it is very thin - of the order of between 10 and 200 microns.

PIN diodes are widely made of silicon upto 1980 later gallium arsenide

Working of PIN Diode

In any PN junction, the P region contains holes

Similarly the N region has been doped to contain excess electrons

The region between the P and N regions contains no charge carriers as any holes or electrons
combine

If the diode is forward biased, the carriers enter the depletion region (including the intrinsic
region) and as the two carrier types meet, current starts to flow.

The carrier concentration, i.e. holes and electrons is very much higher than the intrinsic level
carrier concentration.

Due to this high level injection level, the electric field extends deeply (almost the entire
length) into the region.

This electric field helps in speeding up of the transport of charge carriers from p to n region,
which results in faster operation of the diode, making it a suitable device for high frequency
operations.

When forward-biased, it acts like a current-controlled variable resistance.

When reverse-biased, the pin diode acts like a nearly constant capacitance

PIN diode characteristics

33
 Due to the intrinsic layer -high reverse breakdown voltage, and a low level of
capacitance, and there are also other properties such as carrier storage when it is forward
biased that enable it to be used for certain microwave applications.

Biasing:

Unbiased : Diffusion of electron across the junction and depletion region is formed

Forward Bias: Injected Carrier concentration- the electric field extends deeply-speeding
up the device-suitable for high frequency application

Reverse Bias:

As the reverse bias voltage is increased the depletion layer thickness increases. Device behaves
as variable capacitor. At a voltage called swept voltage the device behaves as a constant
capacitor

PIN Diode VI Characteristics

34
 Figure 3.25 The forward series resistance characteristics

The pin diode is used as a dc-controlled microwave switch operated by rapid changes
in bias or as a modulating device that takes advantage of the variable forward-resistance
characteristic.

A high-frequency signal can be modulated (varied) by a lower-frequency bias variation.

A pin diode can also be used in attenuator applications because its resistance can be
controlled by the amount of current.

PIN diode uses and advantages

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 High voltage rectifier: The PIN diode can be used as a high voltage rectifier. The
intrinsic region provides a greater separation between the PN and N regions, allowing
higher reverse voltages to be tolerated.

RF switch: The PIN diode makes an ideal RF switch. The intrinsic layer between the P
and N regions increases the distance between them. This also decreases the capacitance
between them, thereby increasing he level of isolation when the diode is reverse biased.

Photodetector: As the conversion of light into current takes place within the depletion
region of a photdiode, increasing the depletion region by adding the intrinsic layer
improves the performance by increasing he volume in which light conversion occurs

3.4.2 AVALANCHE TRANSIT TIME DEVICES

The process of having a delay between voltage and current, in avalanche together with transit
time, through the material is said to be Negative resistance. The devices that helps to make a
diode exhibit this property are called as Avalanche transit time devices.

Examples:

IMPATT, TRAPATT, and BARITT diodes

IMPATT Diode

This is a high-power semiconductor diode, used in high frequency microwave

applications. The full form IMPATT is IMPact ionization Avalanche Transit Time diode.

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 Figure 3.26 Structure of IMPACT DIODE

The IMPATT microwave diode uses avalanche breakdown combined and the charge carrier
transit time to create a negative resistance region which enables it to act as an oscillator.

37
 Figure 3.27 Constructional Detail of IMPATT

The IMPATT diode has a very similar I-V characteristic to any other form of PN junction
diode.

It conducts in the forward direction once the turn on voltage has been reached.

In the reverse direction it blocks current flow, until the diode breakdown voltage is
reached.

At this point avalanche breakdown occurs and current flows in the reverse direction.

Figure 3.28 IMPATT diode VI characteristics

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 Figure 3.29 IMPATT diode doping profile

Due to the heavy doping in the p-region the depletion region will be mostly in the n
region

In the electric field distribution of IMPATT

(1) charge multiplication in

RB

(2) drift

Operation:- A very high voltage 400 kV/cm is applied to the IMPATT diode, resulting in a
very high current. A normal diode would easily break down under this condition, but IMPATT
diode is constructed such that it will withstand these conditions repeatedly. Such a high
potential gradient back biasing the diode causes a flow of minority carriers across the junction.

If it is now assumed that oscillations exist, we may consider the effect of a positive swing
of the RF voltage superimposed on top of the high dc voltage. Electron and hole velocity has
now become so high that these carriers form additional holes and electrons by

39
knocking them out of the crystal structure, by so called impact ionization. We have two steps
to understand the operation-
Step I-These additional carriers continue the process at the junction and the voltage will
be exceeded during the whole of the +ve RF cycle. The avalanche current multiplication will
be taking place during this entire time. Since avalanche is a multiplication process, it is not
instantaneous or we can say it is a cumulative process. This process takes time such that the
current pulse maximum, at the junction, occurs at the instant when the RF voltage across the
diode is zero and going negative. A 900 phase difference between voltage and current has been
obtained.
Step II- The current pulse in the IMPATT diode is situated at the junction. However it
does not stay there because of the reverse bias, the current pulse flows to the cathode, at a drift
velocity depending on the presence of the high dc field. The time taken by the pulse to reach
the cathode depends on this velocity and on the thickness of the highly doped n+ layer. The
thickness of the drift space is adjusted such that time taken for current pulse to arrive at the
cathode corresponds to further 900 phase difference.

Thus voltage and current are 1800 out of phase and a dynamic RF negative resistance has
been proved to exist. In summary, negative resistance phenomenon is taken into account by
using
1. The impact multiplication avalanche effect, which causes the minority current to
lag the microwave output voltage by 900. phase shift
2. The effect of transit time through the drift region, this results in the external
current lagging the microwave voltage by a further 900 phase shift.

TRAPATT Diode
An TRAPATT diode (Trapped Plasma Avalanche Triggered Transit-Time), is a very high
efficiency microwave generator, capable of operating from several hundred MHz to several
GHz. It is derived from the IMPATT diode and is closely related to it.The basic operation of
the TRAPATT oscillator is a semiconductor p-n junction diode reverse biased

40
to current densities well in excess of these encountered in normal avalanche operation.

Make use of transit time along with the effect of avalanche

Frequency of operation 1-3Khz

Noise figure 60dB

It works with low power dissipation

It works based on plasma avalanche trigger

The available structures are p+nn+ or n+ p p+

It provides high efficiency than IMPATT diode

Figure 3.30 TRAPATT diode Structure

The N type layer is sandwiched between the p+ and n+ layer(high doped material)

P+ is highly doped than N and doping concentration is also high

Charges are drifted and plasma is trapped

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 Storing the plasma as well as drifting the charges

A plasma is generally a mix of these positively charged ions and

negatively charged electrons.

A source is connected and pulse signal is initiated for

Generation of plasma and extraction of plasma

Figure 3.30 TRAPATT operating characteristics

AB-charging phase

BC- plasma formation

CD creation of dense charge particles

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DE plasma extraction

EF- residual extraction

FG-charging phase

Plasma extraction

Highly energized charged particles drifted

Residual extraction

Dense charge particles will get drifted

A: At A, charge carriers due to thermal generation results in charging of the diode like a
linear capacitance.

A-B: At this point, the magnitude of the electric field increases. When a sufficient number
of carriers are generated, the electric field is depressed throughout the depletion region
causing the voltage to decrease from B to C.

C: This charge helps the avalanche to continue and a dense plasma of electrons and holes
is created. The field is further depressed so as not to let the electrons or holes out of the
depletion layer, and traps the remaining plasma.

D: The voltage decreases at point D. A long time is required to clear the plasma as the total
plasma charge is large compared to the charge per unit time in the external current.

Tha avalanche zone will quickly sweep across most of the diode and the transit time of the
carriers is represented as

The transit time calculated here is the time between the injection and the collection. The
repeated action increases the output to make it an amplifier, whereas a microwave low pass
filter connected in shunt with the circuit can make it work as an oscillator.
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 Applications

There are many applications of this diode.

Low power Doppler radars

Local oscillator for radars

Microwave beacon landing system

Radio altimeter

Phased array radar, etc.

TEXT BOOK / REFERENCE BOOKS

1. Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 2012.
2. India,
2008.
3. Kulkarni M., "Microwave and Radar Engineering", 4th Edition, Umesh Publication, 2010.
4. 2010.
5. 2007.
6.
2001.

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 PART: A
1. Write the classification of microwave tubes
2. Name the two configuration of klystron
3. Define reflex klystron.
4. What are modes available in avalanche device?
5. What is transit time?
6. Why the output cavity is called as catcher cavity
7. What is drift space?
8. Define bunching
9. Define velocity modulation
10. Mention the disadvantage of IMPATT diodes
11. What is negative resistance in Gunn diode?

PART: B

1. Draw and explain the operation of Reflex klystron oscillator

2. Explain the construction and working of cylindrical
magnetron and derive Hull cutoff condition
3. Explain why the Gunn diode in not a high power and/or high
efficiency mode.
4. Explain the operation and salient features of PIN diode switch
5. What are avalanche transit time device? Explain the
operation, construction and applications of IMPATT.
6. Compare IMPATT &TRAPATT