Formulae (Pure Mathematics)

Basic Algebra & Functions

Reasoning & Logic

Boolean Truth Table Formula

n
2

Plane Geometry

Trigonometry

General Solutions

n
sin(x) → x = nπ + (−1) α

cos(x) → x = 2nπ ± α

tan(x) → x = nπ + α

Degrees & Radians Conversion

180°
degrees → radians : ×
π

π
radians → degrees : ×
180°

Pythagorean Identities
2 2 2 2 2 2
sin θ + cos θ = 1 | tan θ + 1 = sec θ | cot θ + 1 = csc θ
Ratio Identities

sin θ cos θ
tan θ = | cot θ =
cos θ sin θ

Reciprocal Identities

1 1 1
sin θ = | cos θ = | tan θ =
csc θ sec θ cot θ

1 1 1
csc θ = | sec θ = | cot θ =
sin θ cos θ tan θ

Odd-Even Identities

sin(−θ) = −sin θ | cos(−θ) = cos θ | tan(−θ) = −tan θ

csc(−θ) = −csc θ | sec(−θ) = sec θ | cot(−θ) = −cot θ

Sum & Difference Identities

sin(α ± β) = sin α ⋅ cos β ± cos α ⋅ sin β

cos(α ± β) = cos α ⋅ cos β ∓ sin α ⋅ sin β

tan α ± tan β
tan(α ± β) =
1 ∓ tan α ⋅ tan β

sec α ⋅ sec β ⋅ csc α ⋅ csc β

csc(α ± β) =
sec α ⋅ csc β ± csc α ⋅ sec β

sec α ⋅ sec β ⋅ csc α ⋅ csc β

sec(α ± β) =
csc α ⋅ csc β ∓ sec α ⋅ sec β

cot α ⋅ cot β ∓ 1
cot(α ± β) =
cot β ± cot α

Double Angle Identities

2 tan θ
sin(2θ) = 2 sin θ cos θ |
2
1 + tan θ

2 2
⎧cos θ − sin θ

2
2 cos θ − 1
cos(2θ) = ⎨ 2
1 − 2 sin θ

⎩ 1−tan θ
2

2
1+tan θ

2 tan θ
tan(2θ) =
2
1 − tan θ
Circle Theorem

Lines

General Form:

ax + by = c

Slope-Intercept Form:

y = mx + c

Point-Slope Form:

y − y 1 = m(x − x 1 )

To find the slope/gradient (m) of a line:

y 2 −y 1

x 2 −x 1

To find the length of a line: √(x 2

− x 1 ) 2 + (y 2 + y 1 ) 2

To find the midpoint of a line: (

x 2 +x 1 y 2 +y 1
, )
2 2

Properties of Lines

When m 1
= m2 , these two lines are parallel
When m 1
⋅ m 2 = −1 , these two lines are perpendicular

Circles

Centre Radius Form:

2 2 2
(x − a) + (y − b) = r

General Form:
2 2
x + y + px + qy + c = 0

where:
2 2 2
c = a + b − r

p = −2a

q = −2b
To find the centre: (− p

2
,−
q

2
)

To find the radius: √( p

2
)2 + (
q

2
)2 − c

Parametric Equations

Vectors

Magnitude of a Vector

||u|| = √ i + j + k
2 2 2

Scalar (Dot) Product

u ⋅ v = u i v i + u j v j + u k v k = |u||v| cos θ

Properties of Dot Product

2
u ⋅ u = |u|

u ⋅ v = v ⋅ u

u(v + w) = uv + uw

(λv) ⋅ w = λ(v ⋅ w) = v ⋅ (λw)

Cross Product

i j k

u ⋅ v = ui uj uk

vi vj vk

Properties of Dot Product

u ⋅ v = −v ⋅ u

u(v + w) = uv + uw
 (λv) ⋅ w = λ(v ⋅ w) = v ⋅ (λw)

Scalar Projection of u in Direction of v

u ⋅ v
uv =
|v|

Vector Projection of u in Direction of v

u ⋅ v
uv = ( )v
2
|v|

Angle Between Vectors

u ⋅ v
cos θ =
|u||v|

Calculus I

Limits and Continuity

Limit Definition:

lim f (x) = L
x→a

Limit Laws:

Sum Rule: lim x→a [f (x) + g(x)] = lim x→a f (x) + lim x→a g(x)

Difference Rule: lim x→a

[f (x) − g(x)] = lim x→a f (x) − lim x→a g(x)

Product Rule: lim x→a [f (x) ⋅ g(x)] = lim x→a f (x) ⋅ lim x→a g(x)

f (x) lim x→a f (x)

Quotient Rule: lim x→a
g(x)
=
lim x→a g(x)

Power Rule: lim x→a [f (x)]

n
= [lim x→a f (x)]
n

Continuity at a point (a):

f (a) is defined (i.e., a is in the domain of f ).

 lim x→a f (x) exists.
lim x→a f (x) = f (a)

Differentiation

Derivative Definition:

f (x + h) − f (x)
′
f (x) = lim
h→0 h

Derivative Notation: dy

dx
′
or f (x) or ẏ

Constant Rule

d
[c] = 0
dx

Power Rule

d n n−1
[x ] = n ⋅ x
dx

Sum/Difference Rule

d ′ ′
[u(x) ± v(x)] = u (x) ± v (x)
dx

Product Rule

d ′ ′
[u(x) ⋅ v(x)] = u (x) ⋅ v(x) + u(x) ⋅ v (x)
dx

Quotient Rule
′ ′
d u(x) u (x) ⋅ v(x) − u(x) ⋅ v (x)
[ ] =
2
dx v(x) [v(x)]

Chain Rule

d ′ ′
[f (g(x))] = f (g(x)) ⋅ g (x)
dx

Applications of Derivatives

Tangent Line Equation: y = f (a) + f ′

(a) ⋅ (x − a)
 Velocity: v(t) = s (t), where s(t) is the position function.
′

Acceleration: a(t) = v (t) = s ′ ′′

(t)

Optimization

Critical Points

Critical points exist when f ′

(c) = 0 or f ′
(c) is undefined

First Derivative Test

If f ′
(x) > 0 on an interval, then f is increasing on that interval.
If f ′
(x) < 0 on an interval, then f is decreasing on that interval.

Second Derivative Test

If f ′′
(c) > 0 , then f has a local minimum at x = c.
If f ′′
(c) < 0 , then f has a local maximum at x = c.

Antiderivatives and Integration

∫ f (x) dx = F (x) + c

where F (x) is an antiderivative of f (x) and c is the constant of integration.

Power Rule

n+1
n
x
∫ x dx = + C, n ≠ −1
n + 1

Constant Multiple Rule

∫ cf (x) dx = c ∫ f (x) dx

where c is a constant.

Sum/Difference Rule

∫ [f (x) ± g(x)] dx = ∫ f (x) dx ± ∫ g(x) dx

Definite Integrals

Definite Integral:

∫ f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a)

a

where F (x) is the antiderivative of f (x).

Area under the Curve: ∫ represents the area between the curve y = f (x) and
b
f (x) dx
a

the x-axis over the interval (a, b).

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

First Part: If F (x) is any antiderivative of f (x), then:

∫ f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a)

a

Second Part: If F (x) is differentiable on an open interval containing x = c and f (x) is

continuous at x = c, then:
x
d
∫ f (t) dt = f (x)
dx a

Applications of Integration

Area between Curves: ∫ [f (x) − g(x)] dx represents the area between curves y = f (x)
b

and y = g(x) over the interval [a, b].

Volume of Revolution: Use the disk or shell method to find the volume of a solid
obtained by rotating a region around an axis.

L'Hôpital's Rule
′ ′
f (x) f (x) f (x)
If lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0 or ± ∞ and lim exists, then lim = lim
′ ′
x→a x→a x→a g (x) x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

Improper Integrals

∞ b

If ∫ f (x) dx or ∫ f (x) dx is improper, use limits

a −∞
Complex Numbers & Calculus II

Complex Numbers

Polar Form

x + iy = r(cos θ + i sin θ)

Exponential Form

iθ
x + iy = re

De Moivre's Theorem
n n
r(cos θ + i sin θ) = r (cos nθ + i sin nθ)

Differentiation

Function Derivative

n
n−1
x nx

t t
a a ln a

n n−1
(ax + b) na(ax + b)

x x
e e

ax+b ax+b
e ae

ln x 1

a
ln(ax + b)

ax + b

sin x cos x
 Function Derivative

cos x − sin x

2
tan x sec x

sec x sec x tan x

csc x − csc x cot x

cot x − csc
2
x

arcsin x 1

√1 − x 2

arccos x −1

√1 − x 2

arctan x 1

2
1 + x

−1
sec x 1

x√ x 2 + 1

−1
csc x 1

−x√ x 2 + 1

−1
cot x 1

2
1 − x

P roduct Rule ẏ = u̇v + v̇u

Quotient Rule u̇v − v̇u

ẏ =
v2
Partial Fractions

Unrepeated Linear Factors

f (x) A
=
ax + b ax + b

Repeated Linear Factors

f (x) A B Z
= + +...+
n 2 n
(ax + b) ax + b (ax + b) (ax + b)

Unrepeated Quadratic Factors

f (x) Ax + B
=
2 2
ax + bx + c ax + bx + c

Repeated Quadratic Factors

f (x) Ax + B Cx + D
= +
2 2 2 2 2
(ax + bx + c) ax + bx + c (ax + bx + c)

Integration

Integration By Recognition

Function Integral

n+1
n x
∫ x dx + c, n ≠ −1
n + 1

n+1
n 1 (ax + b)
∫ (ax + b) dx [ ] + c, n ≠ −1
a n + 1

1 ln ∥x∥ + c
∫ dx
x

1 1
∫ dx ln ∥ax + b∥ + c
ax + b a

x
x
e + c
∫ e dx
Function Integral

ax+b
1 ax+b
∫ e dx e + c
a

− cos x + c
∫ sin x dx

1
∫ sin (ax + b) dx − cos ax + b + c
a

sin x + c
∫ cos x dx

1
∫ cos (ax + b) dx sin ax + b + c
a

− ln ∥ cos x∥ + c
∫ tan x dx

OR

ln ∥ sec x∥ + c

1
∫ tan (ax + b) dx ln sec (ax + b) + c
a

ln ∥ sec x + tan x∥ + c
∫ sec x dx

tan x + c
2
∫ sec x dx

x
∫ csc x dx ln ∥ tan ( )∥ + c
2

ln ∥ sin x∥ + c
∫ cot x dx
 Function Integral

′
f (x) ln ∥f (x)∥ + c
∫ dx
f (x)

n+1
′ n [f (x)]
∫ f (x)[f (x)] dx + c, n ≠ −1
n + 1

f (x)
′ f (x) e + c
∫ f (x)e dx

1 x
∫ dx arcsin ( ) + c
a
√a 2 − x 2

1 1 x
∫ dx arctan ( ) + c
√a 2 + x 2 a a

Integration By Parts

dv du
∫ u dx = uv − ∫ v dx
dx dx

Trapezium Rule

b
d
∫ f (x) dx ≈ [f (x 0 ) + f (x n ) + 2[f (x 1 ) + f (x 2 ) + ⋯ + f (x n−1 )]]
a
2

NB d = b−a

n
, where d is the width of one interval and n the number of intervals
Reduction Formulae

Reduction Formula for ∫ sin

n
x dx

1 n−1
n − 1
In = cos x sin x + ( )I n−2
n n

Reduction Formula for ∫ cos

n
x dx

n−1
I n = sin x cos x + (n − 1)I n−2 − (n − 1)I n

Reduction Formula for ∫ tan

n
x dx

n−1
tan x
In = − I n−2 , n ≥ 2
n − 1

Sequences, Series & Approximations

Sequences (N/A)

nth Term of Sequence

T n = S n − S n−1

Series

Summation Laws

∑ c = Nc

r=1
 n

∑ cu r = c ∑ u r

r=1

∑(u r + v r ) = ∑ u r + ∑ vr

r=1

Summation of a Series
n
n(n + 1)
∑r =
2
r=1

n
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
2
∑r =
6
r=1

n 2 2
n (n + 1)
3
∑r =
4
r=1

2n 2n n

∑ ur = ∑ ur − ∑ ur

r=n+1 r=1 r=1

Method of Differences

∑ u r = f (n + 1) − f (1)

r=1

Principle of Mathematical Induction: Sequences & Series (N/A)

Binomial Theorem

Combinations

n n!
n
Cr = ( ) =
r (n − r!)r!
Binomial Expansion

n
n
n n−r r
(a + x) = ∑ ( )a x
r
r=0

n
n! n−1
n! n−2 2 n
= a + a x + a x + ⋯ + x
(n − 1!)1! (n − 2!)2!

Extension of Binomial Expansion

n
x
n n
(a + x) = a (1 + )
a

n(n − 1) n(n − 1)(n − 2)

2 3
= 1 + nx + x + x + …
2! 3!

Arithmetic & Geometric Progressions

nth Term of Arithmetic Progression

T n = a + (n − 1)d

Sum of First n Terms of Arithmetic Progression

n
Sn = [2a + (n − 1)d]
2

Proof of Arithmetic Progression

If T n
− T n−1 is a constant then the sequence is an arithmetic progression.

nth Term of Geometric Progression

n−1
T n = ar

Sum of First n Terms of Geometric Progression

n
a(1 − r )
Sn =
1 − r

Sum to Infinity of Geometric Progression

 a
S∞ = , −1 < r < 1
1 − r

For any other value of r, the series is not convergent and S ∞

does not exist.

Proof of Geometric Progression

If Tn

T n−1
is a constant then the sequence is a geometric progression.

Numerical Techniques

Linear Interpolation

a|f (b)| + b|f (a)|

x1 =
|f (a)| + |f (b)|

Newton-Raphson Method

f (x n )
x n+1 = x n −
′
f (x n )

Power Series

Taylor Series

∞ (r)
f (a)
r
f (x) = ∑ (x − a)
r!
r=0

′′ ′′′ (n)
′ 2
f (a) 3
f (a) n
f (a)
= f (a) + (x − a)f (a) + (x − a) + (x − a) + ⋯ + (x − a) + …
2! 3! n!

Maclaurin Series

∞ (n)
f (0)
f (x) = ∑
n!
n=0

2 3 n
′
x ′′
x ′′′
x n
= f (0) + xf (0) + f (0) + f (0) + ⋯ + f (0) + …
2! 3! n!
Counting, Matrices & Differential Equations