ZNOTES.

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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE AS LEVEL

COMPUTER SCIENCE
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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CAIE AS LEVEL COMPUTER SCIENCE

1. Information Representation Character Encoding Standards:

ASCII Extended ASCII Unicode

ASCII’s extension - Also Superset for ASCII & extended
Only the English alphabet can
1.1. Data Representation be represented
includes most European
languages’ alphabets
ASCII - recognized by various
global languages
Each character encoding takes It has an excellent range of
ASCII extended to 8 bits, hence
up 7 bits, hence 128 possible characters, using 2 or 4 bytes
256 possible characters
characters per character
The two fundamental characteristics of any number 2 or 4 times more storage
Smaller storage space
space per character
system are:
A base: The number of di!erent digits that a system
can use to represent numbers 1.2. Multimedia - Graphics, Sound
Place value: The specific-value of a digit based on its
position within a number Bitmap Images
Denary - Base 10 Definition: Bitmap images are created by assigning a
Binary Systems - Base 2 solid color to each pixel using bit patterns.
Possible bits (binary digits): 0 and 1 Encoding:
All data and characters are represented in binary Bit patterns are generated by considering each
grid row as a series of binary color codes
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
corresponding to each pixel’s color.
These bit patterns are ‘mapped’ onto the main
For example, 65 in binary is 01000001 memory.
Pixels: The smallest picture element whose color can
be accurately represented by binary code.
Denary vs. Binary prefixes: File Header: Bitmap images contain a file header with
Denary Prefix Factor Value Binary Prefix Factor Value metadata, including image size, number of colors,
kilo- (k) ×103 kibi- (Ki) ×210 etc.
mega- (M) ×106 mebi- (Mi) ×220
giga- (G) ×109 gibi- (Gi) ×230
tera- (T) ×1012 tebi- (Ti) ×240
Image Resolution
Definition: the number of pixels that make up an
image. Example:- 4096x3192 pixels.
E!ect: Higher resolution results in sharper, more
detailed images.

Screen Resolution
Definition: The number of pixels that can be viewed
horizontally and vertically on a device’s screen.
Calculation: N umber of pixels = width × height
(e.g., 1680 × 1080 pixels).

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Colour depth Sound

Definition: The number of bits used to represent the Analogue vs Digital:
colour of a single pixel. Analogue data consists of continuous electrical
Calculation: An image with n bits has 2n colours per signals.
pixel (e.g., a 16-color bitmap has 4 bits per pixel Digital data consists of discrete electrical signals.
Sound Signals: Vibrations through a medium,
because 24 = 16)
inherently analogue due to infinite detail.
E!ect: Increasing color depth improves color quality
Conversion:
but also increases file size.
Analogue signals are converted to digital signals
File Size Calculation:
by sampling.
File Size = Number of Pixels × Color Depth
The sound wave’s amplitude is sampled at set
Convert bits to bytes by dividing by eight if
time intervals.
necessary.
These samples are encoded as a binary number
Applications: Scanned images and general computer
sequence, providing a digital representation of
usage, where small file sizes and easy manipulation
the sound wave
are beneficial.

Sampling Rate
Vector Graphics
Definition: Number of samples taken per unit of time.
Definition: Made up of drawing objects.
E!ect: Increasing the sampling rate improves the
Drawing Objects: Mathematically defined constructs
accuracy of the digitized sound wave representation
(e.g., rectangles, lines, circles).
but increases file size.
Drawing List: A set of commands defining the vector.
Properties: Basic geometric data that determine the
shape and appearance of each object. Sampling Resolution
Encoding: Data is encoded using mathematical Definition: Number of bits used to encode each
formulas to generate properties for drawing lines sample.
and curves to create the image. E!ect: Increasing sampling resolution improves the
Scalability: Objects can be resized without losing accuracy of digitized sound waves but increases file
quality, unlike bitmaps. size.
Applications: Company logos and other graphics that
require scaling.
Bit Rate
Definition: Number of bits used to store 1 second of
sound.
Calculation: Bit Rate = Sampling Rate ∗
Sampling Resolution
Length of Sound: Measured in seconds.

1.3. Compression
Definition: Compression is the process of reducing file
size without significant loss in quality, resulting in:
Reduced time needed to search for data.
Faster transfer of compressed files, using less
bandwidth than uncompressed files.

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Lossless Compression Networking devices: Interconnected devices that

Definition: A type of compression that allows original enable fast data transmission within a network.
data to be perfectly reconstructed from a Networking benefits:
compressed file by utilizing some form of File sharing: Easily share data between di!erent
replacement. interconnected devices.
Examples: Bitmap (.bmp), vector graphic (.svg), .png Resource sharing: Use network-connected output
images, text file compression, database records. devices like printers or share software within the
Run-Length Encoding (RLE): network.
Definition: A form of lossless compression Higher storage: Files can be stored in network-
used for compressing text files and bitmap connected storage mediums.
images. Client-Server Model
Mechanism: Reduces file size by encoding Server-based network: A dedicated server provides
sequences of adjacent, identical elements applications (administration of users, security, and
(characters in text files and pixels in bitmap resources) for the client computer to utilize.
images) into two values: run count and run value. Client-server Applications:
Example: RLE of a bitmap image. Printer: Manages print jobs from client
computers.
File Sharing: Clients access software and user
Lossy Compression
data files stored on the server.
Definition: A type of compression that irreversibly
Proxy server.
eliminates unnecessary data.
Email server: For sending, receiving, and storing
E!ect: File accuracy/quality is lower than with lossless
emails.
compression, but file size is significantly reduced
Database server: Manages DBMS.
(often to about 10% of the lossless size).
Domain controller server:
Examples: Sound files (.mp3), .jpeg images.
Manages user accounts (IDs & passwords).
Mechanism in Sound Files:
The client sends a login request to the server,
Perceptual Coding: Removes parts of the
which processes and grants the request if the
sound that are less audible or discernible to
user ID & password are recognized.
human hearing, as used in .mp3 compression.
Thin Clients Thick Clients
A client that solely runs on the resources
An independent client that does not require
2. Communication provided by the server and has no local
storage.
Only provides input and receives output;
the server to run.
Thick client processes most of the application
processing is done by the server. locally.
Smaller purchase cost: inexpensive, demanding Can function even if no server is connected

2.1. Networks, including the Internet hardware is not required.

Improved security: Cannot run unauthorized,
(works o$ine).
No lag related to network problems.
harmful software.

LAN WAN
A network that connects devices within a small A network that connects devices within a larger Thin Clients vs. Thick Clients
geographical area, often within the same geographical area, such as a city, country, or
building. globally. Peer-to-Peer network model (P2P)
Only private ownership. Private or public ownership.
Transmission medium: Twisted Pair Cables ,
Definition: A decentralized network where each
Transmission medium: PSTN or Satlink.
Coaxial Cables or Wi-Fi.
Higher data transfer rate. Lower data transfer rate.
connected computer stores data and operates
Less congestion. Higher congestion. independently as a ‘peer’, acting as both a client and
a server.
Applications: Internet and Ad hoc networks.

Client-Server Peer-to-Peer
Centralized backup. Lesser initial setup cost.
Lesser network tra%c: Each peer can
Files & resources centralized in server:
simultaneously receive data from di!erent
Prevents illegal resource usage.
sources.
Improved security: Files are stored on a central It can work even if a device goes down, but the
server, which would be regularly scanned for client-server model can’t work if the server
malware. goes down.

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Real-time On-demand
Existing digital files are converted to encoded
Client-Server vs. Peer-to-Peer models The event is captured live via a video camera
bit-streaming format for broadcasting on the
that is connected to a computer.
internet by uploading to a dedicated server.
Network Topologies A link for encoded video is placed on the
Video signal converted to an encoded
Bus streaming video signal.
website, and the user clicks on the link to view
encoded streaming video.
A single line (bus) connects all devices with Encoded video signal uploaded from computer The data is streamed to a bu!er in the user’s
to a dedicated streaming server via cables or computer, and the bu!er stops the video from
terminators at each end. high-speed wireless internet connection. being paused as the bits are streamed.
The server then sends live images to all users As the bu!er is emptied, it’s filled again, thus
Other computers can read data being sent requesting them as a real-time video. providing continuous viewing.
It cannot be paused, fast-forwarded, etc. Can be paused, fast-forwarded, etc.
between any two computers.
Unsuitable for heavy tra%c due to frequent
Ethernet
collisions.
The most common wired medium for data
Star
transmission in LANs or WANs.
Consists of a central server (switch) with all other
Typically used in bus topology; data collisions are
computers connected via dedicated connections.
managed by the CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple
The server can send packets to di!erent devices
Access with Collision Detection) method.
simultaneously and bidirectionally. CSMA/CD Process:
No collisions are possible.
Device checks if the channel is busy before
Mesh
transmitting.
Every device (node) is directly interconnected with If busy, the device waits a random time before
each of the other devices (nodes).
retrying.
Commonly used for wireless networks, such as
During transmission, the device listens for other
the Internet, through the mesh connection of transmissions.
routers. If a collision occurs, transmission is aborted, and
Hybrid
both devices wait random times before retrying.
A combination of two or more topologies.
Bit Streaming
Example: A connection between two or more Sequence of digital signals (bits) transferred over a
LANs of di!erent topologies. communication path at high speeds, requiring a fast
Benefits Drawbacks broadband connection and bu!ers.
Copper Cable
Less expensive and easier to
install. Flexible. Easier to make
Doesn’t perform well with small Bit Streaming Types:
charges. A!ected by electromagnetism.
terminations. Real-time: Live events captured and transmitted
Greater bandwidth, improved security,
Fiber-Optic lightweight, easy to install, and less Needs expensive optical transmitters directly.
Cables signal boosting are required; used in and receivers.
long-distance communications. On-demand: Pre-existing files are converted and
streamed as requested.
Wired Networks Importance of High Broadband Speed/Bit-Rate
Use copper (twisted-pair cable or coaxial cable) or The user has to download and display bits at the
fiber-optic cables. same time.
Cables are connected to an Ethernet port on the Higher quality media requires faster speeds due
network router. to larger data frames as well.
Benefits Drawbacks Real-time streaming needs higher speeds due to
Radio
Can travel over large distances with a
wide range of wavelengths. Relatively
Low frequency means less data can be
transmitted at one time. A!ected by
simultaneous data requests coming from multiple
waves inexpensive. Used for TV signals and
mobile phone communications.
interference from radio stations with
similar frequencies.
di!erent users.
Expensive to build emitting towers.
Larger bandwidth allows more data
Microwaves Physical obstacles can interfere with
transfer.
signals.
Cost-e!ective for long-distance
Susceptible to interference. Expensive
Satellites communication, used in satellite phones
setup.
and radio broadcasts.

Wireless Networks
Use radio waves (including WiFi), microwaves, and
satellites to connect devices to networks without
cables.

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Cloud Computing LAN-Supporting Hardware:

On-demand provision of computing services over the Switch:
internet, including infrastructure, and platforms. Connected to all devices in a LAN.
Infrastructure: Storage capacity and higher Can simultaneously broadcast information to all
processing power. devices.
Platform: Software, testing & debugging Server:
resources. Device/software that provides specific functions
for computers in the network.
Public cloud vs. Private cloud
Network Interface Card (NIC):
Public cloud Private Cloud
Access provided by third-party service Owned and maintained by a single Provides each device (end-system) in the wired
providers, shared among multiple users. organization, providing exclusive access.
Managed by cloud service providers using large Can be managed internally by the organization LAN with a unique MAC address to uniquely
server farms. itself, or outsourced.
identify it on the network.
Benefits Drawback
Allows each device to connect to the network.
Less technical knowledge required, easy to Cannot access the resources/data stored on Wireless Network Interface Card (WNIC):
implement. the cloud if there are bandwidth issues.
Flexibility to scale with organization’s growth
Poor data privacy, since there may be data Provides each end-system of a wireless (WiFi) LAN
leakage in the multi-tenant architecture (public
mindset.
clouds). a unique network address to identify it.
Wireless Access Points (WAP):
Allows devices to connect to the LAN via WiFi
World Wide Web (WWW):
instead of using a cable.
Description: Collection of web pages stored on
Usually built into the router.
websites.
Cables:
Function: Protocols are used to transmit data across
A wired transmission medium that allows
the WWW.
communication in wired networks.
Internet (Interconnected Network):
Bridge:
Description: Massive, open network of networks.
Connects two LANs which work using the same
Protocol: Uses TCP/IP protocol, which uses IP
protocol, which can be two segments of the same
addresses to identify devices connected to the
network.
internet.
Stores network addresses for all devices (end-
Access: Provided by Internet Service Provider.
systems) between the two networks.
Communication Methods: Wired, radio, and
Looks for the receiving device before it sends the
satellite.
message.
Router in a Network:
Repeater:
Function: Connects two networks together which
Connects two cables.
operate under the same protocols (for example, IP). Regenerates the sent data signal over the same
Connections: Allows internal connections between
network before the signal weakens (attenuation)
LANs or external connection from the main LAN to a
to prevent it from being corrupted.
WAN.
Additional Roles: Acts as a gateway and firewall.
Setup: Usually attached to a server or switch in a
LAN.
IP Address Translation: Translates private IP
addresses to public IP addresses and vice versa.

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Internet-Supporting Hardware: IPv4 vs. IPv6

Modems: IPv4 Functionality:
Allows a device to connect to the Internet via a IP Address Structure:
telephone line. Network Identifier (netID): Identifies the
Function: A transmitter uses a modem to convert network to which the host (device) is connected.
digital signals (from the transmitting device) to Host Identifier (hostID): Identifies the host
analogue signals sent down the telephone line. A within the network.
receiver uses a modem on the other end to Classful Addressing: Used for IPv4, where
convert the analogue signals to digital signals so di!erent bit lengths for identification impose
the receiving device can understand the data. restrictions on available addresses.
PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network): Subnetting:
Refers to all telephone networks. Definition: The practice of dividing a network into
Channel: Used between two endpoints for the two or more networks.
call duration via circuit switching. Structure: IP addresses are broken down into
Resilience: Lines are active even during a power three parts by not changing the netID but
outage. partitioning the host ID into a subnet ID and host
Communication: Bi-directional. ID.
Dedicated Lines: Subnet ID: These bits are used to identify
Telecommunication path between endpoints. each subnet within the network.
Not shared with multiple users; it’s Subnet Masks: Numbers that hide (mask) the
bought/leased. netID of a system's IP address and leave only
Function: Able to host websites as well as carry the host part as the machine identifier,
phone calls. Allows continuous, uninterrupted allowing data to be routed within the subnet
access to the Web. to the appropriate host.
Cell Phone Network:
Wireless networks spread over land areas divided
Public and Private IP Addresses:
into (hexagonal) cells.
Public IP:
Base Stations: Each cell is served by at least one
Provided by the ISP.
base station (transceiver), which uses a di!erent
Unique and can be accessed across the internet.
frequency range compared to adjacent cells to
Private IP:
transmit data.
Issued by the LAN’s router.
Capacity: Larger capacity is possible since the
Unique within the LAN and can only be accessed
same frequencies can be used in non-adjacent
cells. within the LAN.
Transmission: Radio waves are usually used for NAT (Network Address Translation): Required
transmission. Can be broadcast in all directions for private IP addresses to access the internet
over a wide area. directly.
Portable Transceivers: Devices like mobile Security: Private IPs are more secure than public
phones can communicate and access the internet IPs since they are not directly accessible on the
via base stations. Internet and are hidden by NAT.
Address Range: The range of IP addresses used
IPv4 IPv6
for private IP addressing can never be assigned to
32-bit address, split into 4 blocks by “.”
The 128-bit address is divided into eight 16-bit public IP addresses.
blocks by “:”
Each block could have a value between 0 and Each block can have 4 hex values ranging from
255 (00 to FF in hex). 0000 to FFFF.
Static Dynamic
IPv6 can be shortened by removing at least (≥)
2 blocks containing only zeroes. For example: IP address never changes. The IP address will change at regular periods.
For example, 255.0.1.255. “2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0070:7334” Static IP addresses are valid when websites Dynamic IP address is relatively more secure,
can be shortened to need to remember a device for a long time, e.g hence used where data privacy is quite
“2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0070:7334" VPNs whitelisting. important.
Maintaining the cost of the dynamic IP address
Faster upload/download speeds.
is a lesser.

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Static vs. Dynamic IP addresses A laser beam and rotating mirrors are used to draw an
image of the page on a photosensitive drum
The image is converted into an electric charge, which
URL (Uniform Resource Locator)
attracts charged toner such that it sticks to the image
Unique reference address for the exact location of an
Electrostatic-charged paper rolled against the drum
internet resource on the WWW Charge pulls toner away from drum and onto paper
Protocol: Enables the browser to know what protocol is
Heat applied in the fuser to fuse toner to the paper
used to access information in the domain.
The electrical charge was removed from the drum, and
Host-name: The domain name.
excess toner was collected
Location of Server: The path indicating the server
location. 3D Printer:
Domain Name Service (DNS)
Definition: A naming system used for computers or The process starts with a saved digital file that holds the
resources having an internet connection. blueprint of the object to be printed
Structure: Consists of a hierarchy of DNS servers The object is then built by sequentially adding layers of a
which have a URL database and their corresponding material (e.g. polymer resin) until the object created
IP addresses. The object is then cured (e.g. resin-made objects are
hardened by UV light)

3. Hardware Microphone:

Incoming sound waves enter the screen and cause

3.1. Computers and Their Components vibrations in the diaphragm
Vibrations cause the coil to move past a magnetic core
A general-purpose computer system comprises a Electrical current is generated, which is then digitized
processor, memory, and I/O functionality.
The following essential features are needed in a Speaker:
computer - Takes electrical signals and translates them into physical
Input: Takes in data from the outside world.
vibrations to create sound waves
Output: Displays data for human understanding.
The electric current in the voice coil generates an
Primary Storage: Main memory storing critical electromagnetic field
program instructions and data. Change in digital audio signal causes current direction to
Secondary Storage: Non-volatile storage for change, which changes field polarity
noncritical data. Electromagnet is either attracted or repelled to a
Removable secondary storage:
permanent magnet, causing a diaphragm that is
File backup and archives attached to the coil to vibrate
Portable transfer of files to a second device Vibration transmitted to air in front of the speaker
Embedded systems: The degree of vibration determines the amplitude and
Miniature computer systems such as frequency of the sound wave produced
microprocessors that are often a part of a more
extensive system. Magnetic Hard Disk:
Each embedded system performs a few specific
functions, unlike general-purpose computers.

Benefits Drawbacks
Di%cult to program functions since there is no
Reliable since there are no moving parts
interface
Require less power Expensive expert help is needed for the repair
Cheap to mass-produce

Principle Operations of Hardware Devices

Laser printer:

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Hard disks have platters whose surfaces are covered Virtual (Reality) Headset:
with a magnetisable material. Virtual headsets consist of 2 lenses, (an LCD) display,
Platters are mounted on a central spindle and rotated at a circuit board with sensors, a cover and foam
high speed padding
The surface of platters is divided into concentric tracks & The display provides a simulation of a 3D
sectors, where data is encoded as magnetic patterns environment generated by a 3D graphics package
Each surface is accessed by read/write heads The user can ‘move’ in the virtual environment by
When writing, current variation in the head causes moving their head or using controllers
magnetic field variation on the disk Bu!ers:
When reading, magnetic field variation from the disk A queue that temporarily stores data to balance
produces current variation in the read head input/output speed of data, while the cache is the
short-term memory storage that stores frequently
Solid State (Flash) Memory: used data.
Random Access Memory vs. Read-Only Memory
Most use NAND-based flash memory
Consist of a grid of columns & rows that has 2 transistors RAM ROM
Volatile memory: loses content when power is Non-volatile memory: does not lose content
at each intersection turned o! when power is turned o!
Two transistors: It can be read and altered It can only be read
Used for storing OS kernel and boot-up
Used to store currently executing program
Floating Gate: stores electrons, and the presence or instructions

absence of charge (electrons) represents either 1 or 0

Control Gate: controls charge (electrons) flow for Types of RAM - Static RAM vs. Dynamic RAM
read/write SRAM DRAM
Doesn’t need to refresh; hence, it uses less
Has to be refreshed; it has slower access times
power and faster access time and needs higher power
Optical Disc Reader/Writer: Only a single transistor & capacitor, hence less
More complex circuitry, hence more expensive
expensive to purchase
Each bit is stored in a flip-flop Each bit is stored as a charge
The disc surface has a reflective metal layer and is spun Has lower data density Has higher data density
The tracking mechanism moves the laser assembly Used in cache memory Used in main memory

The lens focuses laser onto the disc

A laser beam shone onto a disc to read/write Types of ROM – PROM vs. EPROM vs. EEPROM
Tracks have sequences of amorphous and crystalline PROM EPROM EEPROM
states on the metallic layer Programmable ROM Erasable Programmable ROM
Electrically Erasable
Programmable ROM
When reading, the reflected light from the di!erent It can be programmed only
It can be erased by UV light It can be erased by an electrical
exposure and can then be signal and can then be
states on the track is encoded as bit patterns once after it is created
reprogrammed reprogrammed
Data cannot be erased or Chip has to be removed for Can update data without
When writing, the laser changes surface to crystalline deleted reprogramming removing the chip.
and amorphous states along the track, corresponding to
1s or 0s.

Touchscreen:

Considered as both an input & output device

There are two main-types:

Resistive Capacitive
Consists of two charged plates Made from materials that store electric charge
Pressure causes plates to touch, completing When touched, the charge is transferred to the
the circuit finger
Point of contact registered with coordinates
used to calculate the position

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Monitoring and Control Systems

Monitoring System:
Monitors some state external to the computer
system
No changes were made to the environment by
the system, and hence, no feedback
Control System:
Regulates the behaviour of other devices or
systems
Event-driven system: the controller alters the
system's state in response to some event
Time-driven system, where the controller takes
action at a specific point in time OR gate: If either input is high, the output is high (A+B)
Hardware typically used in a system: A B Output
Sensor that measures an (analogue) property and 0 0 0
0 1 1
transmits it to a processing unit, generally as an 1 0 1
electrical or optical signal 1 1 1

Actuators that switch on/o! heavy appliances

(e.g. heater to heat/fan to cool)
ADC that converts analogue signals to digital
signals
Transmission cable to transfer signals
Feedback Systems:
Output from the system a!ects the input of
sensors
Ensures the system operates within the given
criteria
Enabling the system output to a!ect subsequent
system inputs may cause a change in the actions
taken by the system
This enables the system to adjust conditions in a
NOT gate: an inverter (A)
continuous process automatically
A Output

3.2. Logic Gates and Logic Circuits 1

0
0
1

Logic Gates: use one or more inputs and produce a

single logical output
AND gate: If both inputs are high, the output is high
(A•B)

A B Output
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

NAND gate: (A•B)

A B Output
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

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Von Neumann realized data & programs are

indistinguishable and can, therefore, use the same
memory.
Von Neumann's architecture uses a single processor.
It follows a linear sequence of fetch–decode–execute
operations for the set of instructions, i.e. the program.
To do this, the processor uses registers.

Registers

Registers: smallest unit of storage of microprocessor;

allows fast data transfer between other registers
NOR gate: (A+B) General Purpose registers
Used to temporarily store data values which have
A B Output
0 0 1 been read from memory or some processed result
0 1 0 Assembly language instructions can use it
1 0 0
1 1 0 Special Purpose Registers
Some are accessible by assembly language
instructions
Only holds either data or memory location, not both
Particular purpose registers include:
Program Counter (PC): holds the address of the
next instruction to be fetched
Memory Data Register (MDR): holds data value
fetched from memory
Memory Address Register (MAR): Holds the
address of the memory cell of the program which
XOR gate: (A⨁B) is to be accessed
Accumulator (ACC): holds all values that are
A B Output processed by arithmetic & logical operations.
0 0 0
0 1 1 Index Register (IX): Stores a number used to
1
1
0
1
1
0
change an address value
Current Instruction Register (CIR): Once program
instruction is fetched, it is stored in CIR and allows
the processor to decode & execute it
Status Register: holds results of comparisons to
decide later for action, intermediate and
erroneous results of arithmetic performed

The Processor (CPU)

4. Processor Fundamentals
4.1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Architecture
Von Neumann model

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Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): part of the processor Clock Speed
that processes instructions which require some form of Number of pulses the clock sends out in a given time
arithmetic or logical operation interval, which determines the number of cycles
Control Unit (CU): part of the CPU that fetches (processes) the CPU executes in a given time interval
instructions from memory, decodes them & Usually measured in Gigahertz (GHz)
synchronizes operations before sending signals to the If the clock speed is increased, then the execution
computer’s memory, ALU and I/O devices to direct how time for instructions decreases. Hence, more cycles
to respond to instructions sent to the processor per unit time, which increases performance.
Immediate Access Store (IAS): memory unit that the However, there is a limit on clock speed since the
processor can directly access heat generated by higher clock speeds cannot be
System Clock: a timing device connected to a processor removed fast enough, which leads to overheating.
that synchronises all components. Bus Width
Determines the number of bits that can be
Buses
simultaneously transferred
Set of parallel wires that allow the transfer of data Refers to the number of lines in a bus
between components in a computer system Increasing bus width increases the number of bits
Data bus: bidirectional bus that carries data transferred simultaneously, increasing processing
speed and performance.
instructions between processor, memory, and I/O
Cache Memory
devices.
Address bus: unidirectional bus that carries the Commonly used instructions are stored in the cache
address of the main memory location or input/output memory area of the CPU.
device about to be used, from processor to memory If the cache memory size is increased, more
address register (MAR) commonly executed instructions can be stored, and
Control bus the need for the CPU to wait for instructions to be
Bidirectional loaded reduces. Hence, the CPU executes more
used to transmit control signals from the control unit cycles per unit of time, thus improving performance.
Number of Cores
to ensure access/use of data & address buses by
components of the system does not lead to conflict Most CPU chips are multi-core — have more than
one core (essentially a processor)
Performance of Computer System Factors Each core simultaneously processes di!erent
instructions through multithreading, improving
computer performance.

Ports

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Hardware which provides a physical interface between a A signal from a program seeking the processor’s
device with CPU and a peripheral device attention
Peripheral (I/O) devices cannot be directly connected to Handles the interrupt by controlling the processor
the CPU, hence connected through ports. Di!erent ISRs used for di!erent sources of interrupt
Universal Serial Bus (USB): Can connect both input and
output devices to the processor through a USB port. A typical sequence of actions when an interrupt occurs:
High Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) The processor checks the interrupt register for
Can only connect output devices (e.g. LCD) to the interrupt at the end of the F-E cycle for the current
processor through a HDMI port instruction
HDMI cables transmit high-bandwidth and high- If the interrupt flag is set in the interrupt register, the
resolution video & audio streams through HDMI interrupt source is detected
ports If the interrupt is low priority, then an interrupt is
Video Graphics Array (VGA) disabled
Can only connect output devices (e.g. second If interrupting is a high priority:
monitor/display) to the processor through a VGA port All contents of registers of the running process
VGA ports allow only the transmission of video are saved on the stack
streams but not audio components PC is loaded with the ISR and is executed
Once ISR is completed, the processor pops the
Fetch-Execute (F-E) cycle registers’ contents from the stack, and the
interrupted program continues its execution.
Fetch stage
Interrupts re-enabled and
PC holds the address of the next instruction to be Return to the start of the cycle
fetched
The address on the PC is copied to MAR
PC is incremented 4.2. Assembly Language
Instruction loaded to MDR from the address held in
MAR
Instruction from MDR loaded to CIR
Decode stage: The opcode and operand parts of
instruction are identified
Execute stage: Instructions executed by the control unit
sending control signals
Register Transfer Notation (RTN)
MAR [PC]
PC [PC] + 1
MDR [[MAR]]
CIR [MDR]
Decode
Execute
Return to start
Square brackets: value currently in that register
Double square brackets: CPU is getting value stored
at the address in the register

Interrupts

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Op Code Operand Explanation
Addressing
Assembly language: low-level programming language LDM #n Immediate: Load n into ACC
with instructions made up of an op code and an operand LDD Direct: load contents at address into the ACC
Indirect: load contents of address at given address into
Machine code: code written in binary that uses the LDI
ACC
processor’s basic machine operations LDX
Data Movement
Indexed: load contents of given address + IR into ACC

Relationship between machine and assembly language: STO Store contents of ACC into address
Arithmetic Operations
every assembly language instruction (source code) ADD Add contents of register to ACC
translates into exactly one machine code instruction INC Add 1 to contents of the register
Comparing
(object code) CMP Compare contents of ACC with that of given address
Symbolic addressing CMP #n Compare contents of ACC with n
Conditional Jumps
Symbols used to represent operation codes JPE Jump to address if compare TRUE
Labels can be used for addresses JPN Jump to address if compare FALSE
Unconditional Jumps
Absolute addressing: a fixed address in memory JMP Jump to given address
I/O Data
Assembler IN Input any character and store ASCII value in ACC
Software that changes assembly language into OUT Output character whose ASCII value is stored in ACC
Ending
machine code for the processor to understand END Return Control to operating system
The assembler replaces all mnemonics and labels
with their respective binary values (that are #denotes immediate addressing
predefined before by the assembler software) B denotes a binary number, e.g. B01001010 & denotes a
One pass assembler hexadecimal number, e.g. &4A
Assembler converts mnemonic source code into
Modes of Addressing
machine code in one sweep of program
Cannot handle code that involves forward Direct Addressing: loads contents at address into ACC
referencing Indirect Addressing: The address to be used is at
Two pass assembler: software makes 2 passes thru code given address. Load contents of this second address
On the first pass: to ACC
Indexed addressing: form the address to be used as
Symbol table created to enter symbolic addresses
and labels into specific addresses + the contents of the IR (Index Register)
Relative addressing: next instruction to be carried out
All errors are suppressed
On the second pass: is an o!set number of locations away, relative to
address of current instruction held in PC; allows for
Jump instructions access memory addresses via
relocatable code
table
Conditional jump: has a condition that will be
Whole source code translates into machine code
checked (like using an IF statements)
Error reported if they exist
Unconditional jump: no condition to be followed,
Grouping the Processor’s Instruction Set
simply jump to the next instruction as specified

4.3. Bit Manipulation

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Binary numbers can be multiplied or divided by shifting Each bit can represent an individual flag.
Left shift (LSL #n) ∴ by altering the bits, flags could be operated upon.
Bits are shifted to the left to multiply Bit manipulation operations:
E.g. to multiply by four, all digits shift two places to Masking: an operation that defines which bits you
left want to keep and which bits you want to clear.
Right shift (LSR #n) Masking to 1: The OR operation is used with a 1.
Bits are shifted to the right to divide Masking to 0: The AND operation is used with a 0.
E.g. to divide by four, all digits shift two places to right Matching: an operation that allows the accumulator
Logical shift: zeros replace the vacated bit position to compare the value it contains to the given value in
Arithmetic shift: Used to carry out multiplication and order to change the state of the status register.
division of signed integers represented by bits in the Practical applications of Bit Masking:
accumulator by ensuring that the sign-bit (usually the Setting an individual bit position:
MSB) is the same after the shift. Mask the content of the register with a mask
Cyclic shift: the bit that is removed from one end by the pattern which has 0 in the ‘mask out’ positions
shift is added to the other end. and 1 in the ‘retain’ positions.
Set the result with the match pattern by using the
Bit Masking AND command with a direct address.
Testing one or more bits:
Mask the content of the register with a mask
pattern which has 0 in the ‘mask out’ positions
and 1 in the ‘retain’ positions.
Compare the result with the match pattern by
using the CMP command or by “Checking the
pattern”.
Checking the pattern
Use AND operation to mask bits and obtain
resultant.
Now subtract matching bit pattern from resultant.
The final ‘non-zero’ result confirms the patterns
are not the same else vice versa.

5. System Software
5.1. Operating System

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Need for OS Disk Formatter

A set of programs designed to run in the background Prepares a hard disk to allow data to be stored on it
on a computer system which Deletes any existing data on disk
Controls operation of computer system Performs formatting, process where computer ‘draws
Provides a user interface lines’ on disk surface to split it into small areas
Controls how computer responds to user’s Virus checker
requests Checks for and then removes any viruses found
Controls how hardware communicate Constantly checks all incoming and outgoing files
Provides an environment in which application Defragmentation Software
software can be executed Files can be big so have to be stored in multiple
OS hardware is unusable without an OS, as the OS sectors, which can result in fragmentation (contents
acts as an interface since it controls communication of file scattered across >2 non-contiguous sectors)
between user and hardware Fragmentation slows down disk access and thus the
performance of the entire computer.
Key Management Tasks Defragmenting software works by physically
(Main) Memory Management reorganizing disk contents (files) such that they are
stored in contiguous sectors.
Memory protection to ensure 2 programs do not try
This defragmentation reduces number of movements
to use same memory space
of the read/write heads require to access the disk
Paging
contents, hence increasing computer performance
Use of virtual memory
The defragmentation also creates larger contiguous
File Management
free space regions
Provides file naming conventions
Disk contents analysis/disk repair software
Maintains a directory structure
Software utility for visualization of disk space usage
Allocates space to particular files
Gets size for each folder and files, and generates a
Security Management
graphical chart showing disk usage distribution
Proves usernames & passwords
according to folders or other user defined criteria.
Ensures data privacy
Allows disk to report errors (e.g. “bad sector”)
Prevents unauthorized access
Software will attempt to o!er a solution
Carries out automatic backup
File Compression
Hardware (input/output/peripherals) Management
Reduces file size by removing redundant data in files
Installation of appropriate driver software
Causes improvements in the computer’s
Controls access to data sent to and from peripherals
performance by reducing the data that needs to be
Receives & handles interrupts from hardware devices stored
Process Management Back-up Software
Enables multiprogramming and multitasking Makes copy of files on another storage medium in
Resolution of conflicts when 2 or more processes the event of a hard drive failure, user error, disaster
requires the same resource or accident.
E.g. via Round-robin method Should be a regular process
Can provide synchronization between devices
Utility Software
Program Libraries

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Pre-written code that can be linked to a software under Two-step translation

development without any amendments Java and some other high level language programs
Can perform common or complex tasks may require two-step translation, i.e., they will be
Takes the form of classes partially compiled and partially interpreted
Benefits: Java code first translated to bytecode by Java
Saves time: less code needs to be written compiler
Smaller testing time: pre-tested and used by others Bytecode finally interpreted by the Java Virtual
Library file is a complex algorithm which the user Machine to produce machine code
does not need to understand to use it Integrated Development Environment (IDE) features
Dynamic Link Library (DLL) files Coding
Shared library file that contains code and data Context-sensitive prompts: Displays choice of
Code saved separately from the main .EXE file, keywords and available identifiers appropriate at
reducing the .EXE file’s size current insertion point and provides choices in
Code only loaded to main memory when required alphabetical order
DDL file can be made available to several applications Highlights undeclared/unassigned variable
simultaneously, thus reducing strain on memory identifiers
DLL files act as modules in more complex programs, Initial Error Detection
making it easier to install and run updates Dynamic syntax checks: Automatic checking and
highlighting of syntax errors, as soon as line typed
Type checking & parameter checking
5.2. Language Translators
Presentation
Prettyprint: Automatic indentation and color-
Assembler
coding of keywords
Software that translates assembly language
Expand and Collapse code blocks: Saves excessive
statements into machine code (binary) for execution
scrolling if collapsed, and easy to see global
The mnemonics used translates into machine
variable declarations and main program body
opcodes
when collapsed
Process simple because assembly language has a
Debugging
one-to-one relationship with machine code.
Single stepping: Executes program line-by-line to
Compiler and Interpreter
see the e!ect of each statement on variables
Compiler Interpreter Breakpoints: Pauses program at a specific line to
Translates a high-level language program to Translates and executes a high-level language
machine code. program, line-by-line. ensure program operates correctly up to that line
Creates a .exe file which can be easily
distributed.
No .exe file created. Variables/expressions Report Window: Monitors
Once compiled, .exe file does not need to be Execution very slow – translated each time variables for comparing values.
compiled again, resulting in faster execution. program run.
Reports all errors at the end of compilation: Debugging easier/faster, since it stops
di%cult to locate errors∴ development process translating when it reaches an error. This

6. Security, Privacy and Data

long. allows real time error correction.
Can run program any time, even before code
Only be produced when all errors are fixed.
finished.
Used when development is completed. Used during development.

Integrity
6.1. Data Security

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Data Security: ensuring data is protected against loss and User Accounts and Passwords
unauthorized access. Usernames & passwords to deny access to
Data Integrity: making sure that data is valid and does unauthorized users
not corrupt after transmission User-assigned privilege, which accesses to only the
Data Privacy: ability to determine what data is shared user’s workplace, preventing the user to have admin
with a third party rights.
Data Security and Computer System Security Can assign privileges to files so users with low
privileges do not have access.
Data Security System Security
Protection of data on a computer system Protection of the computer system Firewalls
To prevent corruption of data and prevent
To prevent access of viruses to the system and
prevent hackers from entering your computer
Hardware or software that filters information
hackers from using data
system
travelling between the computer system and the
E.g. encryption E.g. ID & Password
internet
Threats to Computer & Data Security* (software) firewall can make decisions about what to
allow and block by detecting illegal attempts by
Malware specific software to connect to the internet
software intentionally designed to damage a Authentication
computer or computer network Process of determining whether someone is who
Includes Virus & Spyware they claim to be.
Virus: Software that replicates itself by inserting a Helps prevent unauthorized access
copy of itself into another piece of software, which Log-on using digital signatures, passwords and
may cause the computer to crash and can lead to biometric scans.
deletion or corruption of data Anti-virus software
Spyware: software that gathers information about Runs in the background to detect & remove viruses.
users' online and o$ine activity, including accessed Checks files for known malicious patterns
sites, applications, and downloaded files. Anti-spyware software: detects & removes spyware.
Risk restriction: Ensure anti-virus and anti-spyware Encryption:
software is installed, regularly updated and run. Conversion of data to code by encoding it
Hacking It doesn’t stop illegal access but appears meaningless
illegal access to a computer system Necessary to use decryption software to decode data
Hackers can obtain user’s confidential data which can Data Security Measures
cause identity theft Encryption
Can lead to the deletion or corruption of data Access Rights to data (authorization): di!erent users
Risk restriction: Use strong passwords and ensure assigned di!erent authorization levels which prevent
firewall them from accessing all data ∴ increases security
Phishing Data Backup
Attempt through emails to obtain user’s confidential An exact copy of an original piece of data in case the
data which can cause identity theft original is lost or corrupted
Risk restriction: Ignore suspicious mails and ensure Within the same computer system or at di!erent site
firewall criteria include SPAM filters, blacklist, etc. Disk-mirroring strategy
Pharming Real-time strategy that writes data to two or more
Redirects user to a fake website that appears disks at the same time.
legitimate to gain confidential data If one fails, the other is still there to be read o! of
Risk restriction: use a reliable ISP; check that links are
genuine and ensure https is present in the URL
6.2. Data Integrity
Computer System Security Measures

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Data validation and data verification help protect the Errors may occur when data moved in system.
integrity of data by checking whether the data entered is Parity Check
sensible and accurate, respectively. All data transmitted as bits
Data Validation: checks if data entered is valid, but not its Number of 1s in a byte must always be either an odd
accuracy number or an even number
Data Validation Methods Parity can be set either as even or odd
Range check: data must be between a set of values E.g. two communicating devices decide there will
Format check: data must follow correct pattern/order always be an odd number of 1s. A byte is received
Length check: data must have exact no. of characters that has even number of 1s so error occurred and
Presence check: checks if some data has been receiving device would ask for it to be sent again
entered Used also when data sent between parts of the CPU
Existence check: data entered must exist Not foolproof: if 2 bits are transposed, data accepted
Limit check: checks whether a value entered is within Checksum Check
acceptable minimum and maximum values. Data sent from one place to another as block of bytes
Check digit: A digit is used as the answer to an rather than individual bytes
arithmetic operation of other digits in data. If not Computer adds together all bytes being sent
matched, then data entered incorrectly Any bits lost at most-significant end as carry ignored
Data Verification: checks data entered is accurate during so answer is an 8-bit number
data entry and data transfer Checksum calculated before and after data sent
Data Entry Verification Methods If two bytes di!erent, error occurred therefore block
Visual Check: Person manually compares original of bytes must be sent again
data with that entered to check if correct
Double Entry: Enter data into computer twice and
compares. 7. Ethics and Ownership
If di!erences found, go back to raw data to fix error

Data Transfer Verification Methods

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Software Licencing
Artificial Intelligence (AI): the ability of a computer to
Free Software Foundation: perform tasks in such a way that is conventionally
A license gives users freedom to run, copy, distribute, associated with human intelligence:
study, change, and improve the software. AI can learn from past mistakes
Condition: any redistributed version of software must they adapt to stop the same problem from
be distributed with original terms of free use, occurring again
modification, and distribution (aka copyleft) they learn to predict what might happen & raise
The Open Source Initiative: alert
The source code of open-source software is readily AI can learn to work more e%ciently
available to users under copyright; it does enable when an action slows the system down, it can
users to re-distribute the software. prevent this from happening again
The concept of an open-source program relies on the when an action increases the speed of the
fact that users can review source code to eliminate system, it can repeat this when necessary to
bugs in it improve e%ciency
Shareware: AI Applications
Demonstration software that is distributed for free Developing autonomous mechanical products
but for a specific evaluation period only Machine learning through data sets
Distributed on a trial basis and with an AI Impacts
understanding that sometime later, a user may be Social
interested in paying for it Replacement of manual labour with automation
Used for marketing purposes could lead to massive unemployment.
Commercial: Requires payment before it can be used, However, it could lead to increased leisure time.
but includes all program's features, with no restrictions Economic: Due to increased innovation and e%ciency
with automation provided by AI, there’d be lower
Artifical intelligence (AI)
manufacturing costs in general
Environmental: Detrimental impact on the
environment due to robot manufacture with limited
resources and its waste disposal

8. Database and Data

Modelling
8.1. File Based System
Data stored in discrete files, stored on computer, and
can be accessed, altered or removed by the user

Disadvantages of File Based System:

No enforcing control on organization/structure of files

Data repeated in di!erent files; manually change each
Sorting must be done manually or must write a program
Data may be in di!erent format; di%cult to find and use
Impossible for it to be multi-user; chaotic
Security not sophisticated; users can access everything

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Entity: object/event which can be distinctly identified

8.2. Database Management Systems Table: contains a group of related entities in rows and
(DBMS) columns called an entity set
Tuple: a row or a record in a relational database
Database: collection of non-redundant interrelated data Attribute: a field or column in a relational database
DBMS: Software programs that allow databases to be Primary key: attribute or combination of them that
defined, constructed and manipulated uniquely define each tuple in relation
Candidate key: attribute that can potentially be a
Features of a DBMS: primary key
Foreign key: attribute or combination of them that
Data management: data stored in relational databases -
relates 2 di!erent tables
tables stored in secondary storage
Referential integrity: prevents users or applications
Data dictionary contains:
from entering inconsistent data
List of all files in database
Secondary key: candidate keys not chosen as the
No. of records in each file
primary key
Names & types of each field
Indexing: creating a secondary key on an attribute to
Data modeling: analysis of data objects used in
provide fast access when searching on that attribute;
database, identifying relationships among them indexing data must be updated when table data changes
Logical schema: overall view of entire database,
includes: entities, attributes and relationships
Data integrity: entire block copied to user’s area when
8.4. Relational Design of a System
being changed, saved back when done
Data security: handles password allocation and
verification, backups database automatically, controls
what certain user’s view by access rights of individuals or
groups of users

Data change clash solutions:

Open entire database in exclusive mode – impractical

with several users
8.5. Normalization
Lock all records in the table being modified – one user
changing a table, others can only read table
Lock record currently being edited – as someone 1st Normal Form (1NF): contains no repeating attribute or
changes something, others can only read record groups of attributes. Intersection of each tuple and attribute
User specifies no locks – software warns user of contains only 1 value. Example:
simultaneous change, resolve manually
Deadlock: 2 locks at the same time, DBMS must
recognize, 1 user must abort task

Tools in a DBMS:

Developer interface: allows creating and manipulating

database in SQL rather than graphically
Query processor: handles high-level queries. It parses,
validates, optimizes, and compiles or interprets a query
which results in the query plan.

8.3. Relational Database Modelling

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2nd Normal Form (2NF): it is in 1NF and every non-primary

CREATE DATABASE ‘Personnel.gdb’
key attribute is fully dependent on the primary; all the
CREATE TABLE Training
incomplete dependencies have been removed. Example:
(EmpID INT NOT NULL,
CourseTitle VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL,
CourseDate Date NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (EmpID, CourseDate),
FOREIGN KEY (EmpID) REFERENCES Employee(EmpID))

8.7. Data Manipulation Language (DML)

Query and maintenance of data done using this language
– written in SQL

Queries:

Creating a query:

3rd Normal Form (3NF): it is in 1NF and 2NF and all non-key SELECT <field-name>
elements are fully dependent on the primary key. No inter- FROM <table-name>
dependencies between attributes. WHERE <search-condition>

MANY-TO-MANY functions cannot be directly normalized SQL Operators:

to 3NF, must use a 2 step process e.g.
= Equals to
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or equal to
<= Less than or equal to
<> Not equal to
becomes: IS NULL Check for null values

Sort into ascending order:

ORDER BY <field-name>
8.6. Data Definition Language (DDL)
Arrange identical data into groups:
Creation/modification of the database structure using GROUP BY <field-name>
this language
written in SQL Joining together fields of di!erent tables:
Creating a database:
INNER JOIN
CREATE DATABASE <database-name>
Data Maintenance:
Creating a table:
Adding data to table:
CREATE TABLE <table-name> (…)
INSERT INTO <table-name>(field1, field2, field3)
Changing a table: VALUES (value1, value2, value3)

ALTER TABLE <table-name> Deleting a record:

Adding a primary key: DELETE FROM <table-name>

WHERE <condition>
PRIMARY KEY (field)
ADD <field-name>:<data-type> Updating a field in a table:

Adding a foreign key: UPDATE <table-name>

SET <field-name> = <value>
FOREIGN KEY (field) REFERENCES <table>(field) WHERE <condition>

Example:

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Computer Science

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