Experimental Methods for Engineers

Chapter 1. Measuring System Characteristics

1. Draw a block diagram showing the components of a measuring system.

Explain briefly the function of each component. Give an example of a
measuring system to show these different components.
2. Compare between the following sensors:
-Liquid in glass thermometer - Bourdon tube manometer
-Wire strain gauge -Thermocouple
-Optical pyrometers - Potentiometer (resistive transducer)
-Resistance thermometer devices (RTD)
From the following points of view: (active/passive- contact/contact less-
Indicating/recording/Both)
3. Define the following terms:
a. Sensitivity.
b. Dead band.
c. Resolution.
d. Threshold
4. What is the difference between:
a. Accuracy and precision.
b. Instrument range and scale range.
5. Define the time constant of a system, why is the time constant of a system
important?, Why the forward movement of an instrument may be arranged to
have a small time constant, and the return movement a much larger time
constant.
6. What is the difference between:
a. Static and dynamic characteristics of a measuring system.
b. Systematic and random uncertainty
c. Threshold and Dead Band
d. First order and second order measuring systems (giving examples).
7. Explain with the aid of graphs the transient response of a second order system
showing the effect of the damping ratio on the response
8. A thermometer is initially at a temperature of 21° C and is suddenly placed in
a liquid which is maintained at 149° C. the thermometer indicates 93°C after a
time interval of 3 seconds. Estimate the 'time constant' for the thermometer,
and how much time is required to get a reading of at least 95% from the step
input?
9. A thermometer reading a steady 50 °C is plunged into liquid at 90 °C. The rise
of temperature with time (seconds) is given below:
t (s) 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1.75 2 3 4.0 6.0
T (° C) 55 59 62.5 65.5 68.5 71.2 73.5 76 82.2 85.2 89.4

Plot a graph showing the response of the thermometer and hence, determine the time
constant of the instrument.
Answer: 1.93 seconds
10. A clinical thermometer instruction sheet advises the user to hold the device
1.5 min if he takes the temperature measurements in his/her mouth and 5 min
if she/he measures the temperature under the arm. The times given are
determined assuming that the thermometer is initially at room temperature (20
deg C) and that it reaches 99% of body temperature (37.0 deg C in mouth

1
Experimental Methods for Engineers

method and 36.5 deg C under the arm) after the specified time interval. What
are the time constants in each case?

11. A pressure transducer behaves as a second order system. If the un-damped

natural frequency of free oscillations (fn) is 4000 Hz, and the damping ratio is
75% of critical, what is the error if the transducer is driven from 0≤f≤1900 Hz?

12. A second order transducer with a known natural frequency of 4000 Hz, but
unknown damping ratio is driven to a frequency of 2400 Hz with a harmonic
input. This results in a phase shift of -45o.
1) What error would this transducer exhibit if it was driven to measure a
harmonic signal of 1800 Hz?
2) What would be the phase angle  between the input and the output?

13. An instrument has a damping ratio ζ= 0.8, a natural frequency, ωn of 3333π rad/sec
and static sensitivity of 1.5 V/V. Find the steady response for an input that
oscillates between 12 and 24 volts at a frequency of 300 Hz.
Find ysteady(t).

14. The damped spring-mass system shown in Figure is subjected to a harmonic

disturbing force at the support. Describe with the aid of suitable diagrams the
resulting changes in amplitude ratio and phase between tin mass and the support
as the frequency of the disturbing force is increased from zero. The system has m =
5kg, K = 650N/m and ζ= 0.614. If the support is moved with amplitude 0.5 mm at a frequency
of 2Hz find the amplitude of motion of the mass.

Harmonic disturbing force

Dashpot (damping rotio)

Answer: X = 0.36 mm

The response of the first order system is o   i (1  e t /T )

represented by:
For the second order system: X 1

 
Amplitude ratio xo 2 1/ 2
1   / n 2   4 2  / n 2
 
Phase Shift 2 ( )
n
  tan 1
1  ( n ) 2

2
Experimental Methods for Engineers

Chapter 2. Traceability and Uncertainty

1. Explain the difference between:

1) Uncertainty and accuracy.
2) Systematic errors and random errors

2. What is meant by: Sensitivity; Accuracy; Precision?

3. What are the different types of calibrators? And what are the necessary
conditions for a calibrator?

4. What does the following statement mean?

"The length of this rod is 100 cm  1 cm at a level of confidence of 95%"

5. The systematic uncertainty of a balance is estimated to be ±5g and the random

uncertainty of its measurements is ±25 g. State the repeatability and calculate
the accuracy of the instrument.
Solution:
R =25g
Instrument accuracy (A) = 25.49g.
As the systematic uncertainty and the repeatability are both stated in grams, a
practical statement of accuracy is 26 g.

6. A balance has a range of 0 to 1 kg and its estimated accuracy is 26 g when it is

calibrated against a 1 kg standard mass. Express the accuracy of the balance in
terms of percentage full scale deflection.

7. The diameter of the setting gauge used to calibrate a sensitive comparator was
stated on its calibration certificate to be 60.0072 mm diameter and to have an
accuracy of determination equal to ±0.0008 mm. Although not stated on the
certificate the level of confidence was known to be 'better than 95%'. The sample
standard deviation of ten instrument readings yielded a value (s) equal to
0.35μm. Estimate the uncertainly of the measurement at better than the 95%
confidence level.

8. A balance is calibrated against a standard mass of 250 g. The differences (in

grams) from the 250 g scale readings were as follow:
Reading
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No.

Difference
+10.5 -8.5 +9.5 +9.0 -10.0 +9.0 -9.5 +10.0 +10.0 -8.0
(gram)

 Find the repeatability R at a 95% confidence level.

 What will be the repeatability if only the first five results were taken?
Comment on your result.

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Experimental Methods for Engineers

1/ 2
 N 2 
  x  X  
Given: Sample Standard Deviation S   1  , Population Standard
 N 
 
 
N
Deviation   S . and R=t.σ
N 1

Number Factor t for Confidence Interval of

of
Observations 90% 95% 99%

5 2.13 2.78 4.60

10 1.83 2.26 3.25

9. Define what is meant by 'Traceability' and draw the traceability ladder (or
pyramid).

10. In using a temperature probe, the following uncertainties have been

determined:

Characteristics Value, unit

Hysteresis ±0.1 °C
Linearization error 0.2% of the reading
Repeatability ±0.2 °C
Resolution error ±0.05 °C
Zero offset 0.1 °C

Based on the characteristics of different types of uncertainties, it is required to:

Determine the type of these errors (systematic or random) and the overall
uncertainty due to these effects for a temperature reading of 120 °C.

11. Estimate the compound uncertainty of measurement of the volume of a block

with the dimensions LxWxT , where:
Dimension Nominal size Uncertainty
[mm] [mm]
L 125 ±0.05
W 25 ±0.001
T 1.25 ±0.0005
Which dimension must be measured more accurately in order to decrease the
compound uncertainty of measurement?

4
Experimental Methods for Engineers

12. A method used for checking a large radius is shown in figure 1. The equation
to get the radius may be stated as:
c2 h
R 
8(d  h ) 2
a. Find the value of R and calculate its uncertainty of measurement.
b. Establish what action is required to reduce the uncertainty of
measurement of R by an order of 9.
Given that:
Dimension Nominal size Uncertainty
[mm] [mm]
c 125 ±0.05
d 25 ±0.001
h 1.25 ±0.0005

Figure 1
13. The area of a rectangular piece of land is computed from the measurement of
the length of the two adjacent sides, X and Y. Measurements are made by
using a scaled chain accurate to within 0.5% over its indicated length. The two
sides are measured 10 times with the following results:
-The arithmetic mean values: X =556 m, Y =222 m.
-The samples standard deviations: Sx=5.3 m, SY=2.1 m.
Estimate the area of the land and state the uncertainty of that measurement at
a confidence level of 95%, given that for sample size N=10, the student's
t=2.26.
14. Two resistors are to be combined to form an equivalent resistance of 1000  .
The available resistances are:
-Two common resistors rated 500  50  .
-Two common resistors rated 2000   5%.
What combination of resistors (series or parallel) would provide the smaller
uncertainty in an equivalent 1000  resistance?
R  R2
Note: in series, R total  R1  R 2 , while in parallel R total  1 .
R1  R 2

5
Experimental Methods for Engineers

Chapter 3. Strain Measurement

1. What are the different methods used to measure strain? Give an example of
each method.
2. Define the Strain gauge factor and what are the desirable characteristics for
the strain gauge grid material?
3. A strain gauge having an electrical resistance of 120Ω and a gauge factor of
2.1 is used to test a steel specimen subjected to an axial tensile load.
Calculate the induced strain if the increase in gauge resistance is shown to be
0.134 Ω.
Answer: 532 microstrain
4. A strain gauge is attached to a 10 mm diameter spindle which is subjected to
an axial load. Determine the magnitude of the load in kilonewtons given the
following information: gauge resistance 350 Ω; change in gauge resistance
0.15 Ω; gauge factor 2.02; and modulus of elasticity 207 GN/m2.
Answer: 3.45 kN
5. A component of 250 mm diameter was calibrated by means of the application
of an axial load of 5MN. A strain gauge mounted with its axis parallel to the
direction of the calibration load yielded a reading of 558 microstrain. A
consideration of the results strongly suggests that the gauge factor used
(1.95) was incorrect. Calculate the correct strain reading and, assuming that
the bridge is accurately indicating the value of δR/R, determine the correct
value of the gauge factor. E = 207GN/m2.
Answers: 492 microstrain; 2.21

6. A transducer has a strain bridge consisting of four gauges two of which sense
(ensile strain and two compressive strain. Sketch a bridge arrangement in
which the outputs from all four gauges complement each other and provide for
full temperature compensation.
The output of a Wheatstone bridge circuit is given by;

where ε is the strain, Vo is the bridge output (V),K is the gauge factor, Vs is
the supply to bridge (V) and N is the effective number of active bridge arms.
 Calculate the output voltage from the bridge if the supply is 15 V, the
gauge factor 2.05, the gauge resistance 120Ω and the maximum strain
500 microstrain.
Answer; 15.4 mV.
7. Four strain gauges are used as a four arm bridge on a component subjected
to tensile loading. The gauges are mounted in the Poisson configuration so as
to provide compensation for both bending and temperature effects. Show on a
diagram how the gauges would be mounted to the material and draw a sketch
of the relationship of the gauges in the bridge circuit.
 If the gauges are mounted to a component of rectangular cross-section
15 x 50 mm. Given that the gauge factor for each of the four gauges is
2.12, the maximum output signal from the bridge is limited io 10 mV
and the supply voltage is 10V, find the maximum allowable load on the
component in kilonewtons. E = 200 GN/m2; v = 0.3.
Answer: 181 kN

6
Experimental Methods for Engineers

8. A cantilever has a cross-section 25 x 6mm to which are. mounted two

electrical resistance strain gauges one above the 25 mm side and one below.
Two identical resistors are used to complete the bridge and a bending load of
100N is applied 200mm from the centre line of the gauges.
Utilizing the equation to bending: M/I =σ/y = E/R
And given that I = 450 mm4 and y = 3 mm, calculate the maximum strain this
may be applied to the gauges, if the maximum output from (he bridge is
limited to 6mV, and hence select the most suitable input voltage from the list.
E= 200 GN/m2; K = 2.15. Input voltages: 10; 7.5; 5; 2.5; 1.
Answers: 667 microstrain; 7.5 V

9. An engineering student wishes to use strain gauges bonded to a steel block to

measure temperature changes. Two gauges are bonded to the block and
wired into a Wheatstone bridge. The coefficient of thermal expansion for steel
is Cα =12.6x10-6 strains/degree Celsius. Gauge factors are 3. The input
voltage to the bridge is 12V.
-Knowing that the thermal strain is given by: εthermal= Cα . ∆T.
 Which arms of the Wheatstone bridge will be attached to the
bonded gauges?
 Drive an expression for the bridge output as a function of
temperature change ∆T.
 What will be the steady state bridge output in Volts if the transducer
is subjected to a change in temperature of 15 ْ◌C.

10. The Wheatstone bridge is used to measure the minute resistance changes in
strain gauges when measuring strain. Explain briefly (using sketches when
possible) the following:
 The advantages of using the Wheatstone bridge.
 For the cantilever shown in figure (which is loaded in both the axial and
bending directions simultaneously), Select the suitable Full bridge
arrangement to measure:
 Axial Force, P with temperature compensation.
 Bending Moment, M with temperature compensation.
 Draw the Wheatstone bridge Scheme and deduce the bridge constant
(Number of active gauges) for each of the bridge configurations you
made.
 If we use a Wheatstone bridge with voltage source Vs of 12V, strain
gauges of (R=120 Ω, gauge factor K=2). Estimate the measured circuit
output (Vo) when P=50 KN, and M=400 N.m, given that the cantilever is
a square with dimensions 50x50 mm and is made from steel with
modulus of elasticity E=207 GPa, and Poisson's ratio of 0.3.

Given:

7
Experimental Methods for Engineers

11. A fisherman/engineer wants to build a scale out of an old rod that is sticking out of a
wall. The plan is to use the bar as a cantilever and measure strain at the base.
 What magnitude of strain would be measured for the average fish (10 kg)?
a)Axially b)Laterally at the top surface
 Draw the Wheatstone bridge used to measure strain and select the suitable
strain gauge mounting on the bar to compensate for temperature and get
maximum sensitivity
 If the gauge factor GF=2, excitation voltage = 12 Volts, calculate the output
voltage from the measuring circuit.
Given that:

Length of rod= 1m

Material: Steel, E=200 GPa

Cross-section: Square 20mm

Poisson's ratio ν=0.27

12. The Wheatstone bridge is used to measure the minute resistance changes in strain
gauges when measuring strain. Explain briefly (using sketches when possible):
 The advantages of using the Wheatstone bridge.
 For the Vehicle Scale shown in figure, draw the suitable Full bridge
arrangement to measure the weight of the vehicle and compensate for
temperature and misalignment problems and hence deduce the number of
active gauges.
 If the beam in the base is made from a square channel cross-section 10x10 cm
and a thickness 5 mm (as shown in figure), the gauge factor for each of the
four gauges is 2.12, the maximum output signal from the bridge is limited to
10 mV and the supply voltage is 10V, find the maximum weight that can be
measured using that scale given that:
P
 The normal stress due to axial load is given by:   where P: is the axial
A
load and A:is the cross sectional area.

 The stress strain relation:   where: E = 200 GN/m2; v = 0.3.
E
Vs .N .GF .
 The output of a Wheatstone bridge circuit is given by; Vo 
4
where ε is the strain, Vo is the bridge output (V),GF is the gauge factor, Vs is
the supply to bridge (V) and N is the number of active bridge arms.

Platform
5 mm
Beam

10 cm
Base
Beam Cross‐section
8
Experimental Methods for Engineers

Chapter 4. Displacement Speed, and Vibration Measurement

1. The resistive displacement transducer is a popular transducer, which is used

to measure both linear and rotational displacement. Explain using suitable
sketches the construction of linear and rotational resistive displacement
transducers, and the circuit used for measuring the resistance changes.

2. Explain with the aid of sketches different types of tachometers (only one of
type of each).

3. Why measuring vibration is important? And explain with the aid of simplified
sketches why the vibration signal is normally represented in the frequency
domain rather than the time domain.

4. Explain the mounting and mass considerations that should be considered

during the mounting and selection of an accelerometer.

5. Draw a block diagram showing the vibration measurement chain, and what is
meant by the weakest link in vibration measurement?

6. A stroboscope light is directed on a rotating shaft which contains a single

keyway. The keyway appears to be stationary when the flashing frequency of
the lamp is 800 flashes per minute. The flashing frequency is then increased
slowly and the keyway appears stationary again at a flashing frequency 1000
flashes per minute.
a. Deduce the relation between the rotational speed of the shaft and
the two flashing frequencies of the lamp.
b. Estimate the rotational speed of the shaft.
c. Describe a checking procedure to verify the speed.
d. What would be the rotational speed if the shaft has two opposite
marks instead of one?

7. Explain with the aid of sketches the following tachometers:

a. Centrifugal force tachometer.
b. The vibrating reed tachometer.
c. The eddy current or magnetic drag tachometer.
d. Optical tachometer.

9
Experimental Methods for Engineers

Chapter 5. Force, Torque and Power Measurement

1. What is the difference between absorption and transmission dynamometers?

Which of them is suitable to measure the power during the drilling process of
a steel plate?

2. A hydraulic load cell of the type shown in Fig. 8.8 is required to measure a
maximum load of 500kN. If the effective diameter of the diaphragm is 200 mm
calculate the maximum pressure to be indicated on the Bourdon gauge.
Assuming the scale is linear and operates over an arc of 270° calculate the
sensitivity of the pressure gauge.
Spring Scale
3. A rope brake is used to measure the power of an ω
engine under test. The diameter of the brake
drum is 1 m and the spring balance records a D
load of 4.57 kg when the applied load is 10kg and
Rope
the engine rotates at 3000r/min. Calculate the
power output from the engine under these
Flywheel
conditions.

4. A drill running at 500 r/min advances at a speed of 2mm/s. Calculate the

power Absorbed when a thrust of 300 N was required to produce the linear
motion. Calculate also the power absorbed by the torque exerted on the drill.
The torque is measured by a force, transducer which gives a mean reading of
100 N at a radius of 100 mm from the drill axis.
Answers
 Power absorbed by thrust is 0.6W
 Power absorbed by torque is 523.6 W.

5. Classify the main kinds of dynamometers used for power measurements.

Explain the basic principal functions, advantages and disadvantages for each
kind.

6. Show with the aid of sketches how you would measure the power developed
by an engine using each of the following :
-A mechanical dynamometer
-A hydraulic dynamometer
-An electrical dynamometer

10
Experimental Methods for Engineers

7. A specimen is rotating at 1800 rpm and turned by a cutter as shown in the

Fig. It is required to calculate the total power dissipated at cutting.

Fx Fy

S = 0.2 m/ min
Fz

Fx=470 N, Fy=780N, Fz=690 N, S=0.2 m/min, D=20 mm and n=1800 rpm

11
Experimental Methods for Engineers

Chapter 6. Pressure Measurement

1. A u tube manometer containing mercury is used to measure a differential
pressure of 50 kN/m2. Calculate the difference in levels of the mercury in the
two sides of the manometer assuming the density of air is negligible. Density
of mercury, is 13 600 kg/m3.
Answer: 375 mm
2. for the pressure measurements, explain by net sketches and constitutive
equations:
- Inclined tube barometers - WSG pressure transducer

3. A mercury U-tube manometer is used to measure a differential air pressure. If

the manometer is then used to measure the same pressure difference in an
oil pipe line, calculate the percentage difference in manometer readings given
that:
 The connecting lines to the manometer are completely filled with oil.
 The density of oil is 800 kg/m3.
 The density of mercury is 13600 kg/m3.
 The density of air may be neglected.

4. In an experiment to calibrate a Bourdon tube pressure gauge, measuring

range: 0-50 kg/cm2, using the Dead Weight tester whose piston cross section
area =1cm2 the following readings are obtained :
Ser. No. Weight in kg Pressure Readings in kg/cm2

1 10 10.15 10.20 10.10 10.25

2 20 19.80 19.90 20.00 19.80

3 30 30.10 30.20 30.15 30.25

4 40 39.85 39.75 39.70 39.80

5 50 50.25 50.00 50.15 50.20

Calculate the true pressure neglecting the friction effect, and draw the
correction chart for the tested Bourdon tube pressure gauge. Sketch the Dead
Weight tester and explain the different parts of this calibrating unit.

5. An inclined tube manometer is constructed from an upright metal cylinder

which is connected at the base to a tube inclined at 30° to the horizontal. The
apparatus is filled with water and the upper end of the cylinder is connected to
a gas supply at a pressure of 500 N/m2. If the inclined tube is open to
atmosphere and the ratio of cylinder to tube cross sectional area is 50 to 1,
calculate the distance moved by the liquid level in the inclined tube. The
density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
Answer: 98 mm

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Experimental Methods for Engineers

Applied Pressure

Cylinder
Atmospheric
Pressure
d

H h

θ

6. For the manometer of the previous example calculate the percentage error
involved if the fall in level of the water in the metal cylinder is ignored.
Answer: 4%

7. A cistern manometer containing mercury of density 13600 kg/m3 has a cistern

of area 0.02 m2 and a tube of area 4 x 10-5mm2. Calculate the height of the
Measurement column if the applied differential pressure is 70kN/m2.
Answer: 524 mm

8. Describe the principle and operation of a simple Macleod gauge.

9. The closed limb of a Macleod gauge has a diameter of 1 mm and a volume V

above the level of the opening W (As in Figure) of 250 cm3.when the gauge is
connected to a vacuum source the difference h in mercury level is observed to
be 4 mm. Calculate the pressure of the system under test.
Answer 5.12xl0-5mmHg

10. For each of the following instruments:

 Inclined U-tube manometer.
 Dead-weight pressure tester.
 Pirani Gauge.
a) Draw a scheme showing its main components.
b) Explain briefly its theory of operation?

13
Experimental Methods for Engineers

Chapter 7. Level Measurement

1. Classify the methods used to measure liquid level. What questions do you
need to answer in order to select the suitable level sensor?

2. Floats and displacers are two methods used for measuring of liquid level in
tanks. Explain briefly the difference between them.

3. A pressure gauge is used as an indirect method for measuring of liquid level

in the tank shown in figure. Due to construction requirements the gauge
position is lower than the bottom of the tank by a distance Hs equals to 4
meters. If the tank contains water with a standard density of 1000 kg/m3,
indicate the level of water in the tank if the gauge pressure indicates a reading
of 50 kPa.
a. If the tank was filled with hot water at a specific gravity of 0.95, what
will be the percent relative error in level estimation?
b. Suggest a method to eliminate the error caused by change in liquid
temperature

Tank

L Pressure
Gauge

Hs

H=10m

4. A pressure gauge is used as an indirect method for measuring of liquid level in an

industrial plant. Hydrostatic tank gauging (HTG) was used with three pressure
gauges installed, one at the bottom, the second is 4 meters above the bottom and
the third is at the top of the tank ;as shown in figure.
If the gauge pressure readings of the three gauges from top to bottom are 10, 45 and
80 kPa respectively, it is required to:

a. The advantage of using hydrostatic tank gauging.

b. The density of the process fluid
c. The actual fluid level in the tank
(5 marks)

14
Experimental Methods for Engineers

15
Experimental Methods for Engineers

Chapter 8. Flow Measurement

1. Classify the methods used for flow measurement in pipelines. State examples
for different types.

2. Venturi-tubes, Nozzles, and orifice plates are common flow meters based on
constriction of fluid during flow. It is required to make a comparison between
the three flow meters showing the construction, advantages and
disadvantages of each.

3. Explain with the aid of sketches a measuring instrument that can be used to
measure the following:
o Fluid flow velocity (contact-less).
o Fluid flow rate(Positive displacement type)
o Fluid flow velocity (at certain point)
4. Describe with the aid of sketches, the principle of operation, and construction
of the following velocity meters:
-Rotameter - Hot wire anemometer - Pitot static tube
- Cup anemometer.
5. A Pitot tube used to measure air velocity along a wind tunnel is coupled to a
manometer which shows a difference in head of 3.8 mm mercury at a
particular point in the tunnel. Find the air velocity at this point assuming that
the coefficient of the tube (C= Vactual/Vtheoretical) is 0.98. Take the density of air
as 1.293 kg/m3 and the specific gravity of mercury as 13.6

Pitot tube
Flow Direction

U‐tube Manometer

6. Water flows from a tank over two adjacent notches, one a V-notch, the other a
rectangular notch. The head over each notch is equal and is 2.5 times the
breadth of the rectangular notch. If the discharge from each notch is equal;
determine the angle of the V-notch. The coefficient of discharge for the V-
notch is 0.6 and that for the rectangular notch is 0.63.
Answer: 55°24'

7. In a test on a venturi meter the flow of water is measured by means of a

weighing tank. The meter has a main diameter of 75 mm and a throat
diameter of 37.5 mm, and the pressure difference is measured by a mercury
U-tube, the mercury being in contact with the water. If 1160 kg of water is

16
 Experimental Methods for Engineers

collected in 2 minutes, while the manometer reading remains steady at

320mm of mercury, calculate the coefficient of the meter.
Comment on the result obtained, mentioning the factors which can influence
the value of this coefficient. The density of water is 1000kg/m3.
Answer: Cd = 0.95
8. In a test on a Venturi meter, the flow of water is measured by means of a
weighing tank. The meter has a main diameter of 75mm and a throat diameter
of 37.5 mm and the pressure difference is measured on a mercury U-tube, the
mercury being in contact with water. If 1160kg of water is collected in 2
minutes. What will be the manometer reading (height of mercury column) if
the discharge coefficient of the meter Cd=0.95?
 The density of water is 1000kg/m3
 The manometer limbs are completely filled with water.
Flow Direction

Flow
Collection

9. A sharp edged orifice of 12mm diameter is situated in the base of an

otherwise closed tank. At a given instant the head of water above the orifice is
1.8 m. If the discharge of water is to be 1.5 kg/s find the pressure of air which
must be pumped in above the water. Cd = 0.6.
Answer: 226.7 kN/m2.

10. When water is discharged through a

50mm diameter sharp edged orifice
under a head of 4.6m the measured rate
of flow is found to be 2m3 in 3 minutes.
Determine the discharge coefficient of 4.6 m Orifice
Ф50 mm
the orifice and the discharge when the
head is 6m above the orifice. Discharge
Answers: Q = 0.596; 1.27 x10-3 m3/s

11. Water flows through a Venturi meter which has entry and throat diameters of
120mm and 60mm. The pressure drop between inlet and throat is 80kN/m2
and the coefficient of the meter is 0.98. Calculate the rate of flow through the
meter assuming that the density of water is 1000 kg/m3.
Answer: 0.04 m3/s

17
Experimental Methods for Engineers

12. A Venturi meter has its axis mounted vertically, the inlet and throat diameters
being 150 mm and 75 mm respectively. The throat is 225 mm above the inlet
and the discharge coefficient is 0.96. Petrol of density 780kg/m3 flows through
the meter at the rate of 5.55 x 10-2 m3/s. Calculate:
 The pressure difference between inlet and throat.
 The difference in level which would be registered by a vertical mercury
manometer, the tubes above the mercury being full of petrol.
 The density of mercury is 13 600 kg/m3.
Answers (a) 64.31 kN/m2 (b) 0.498 m

13. Sketch a typical pinion gear movement used in a Bourdon tube gauge and
calculate the angle through which the segment would have to rotate about the
pivot in order that the pointer shaft will revolve through 270o. The gear ratio
between the pinion and segment is 15 to 1.
Answer 18°

14. Water flows from a tank over two adjacent notches, one a V-notch, the other a
rectangular notch. The head over each notch is equal and is 2.5 times the
breadth of the rectangular notch. If the discharge from each notch is equal;
determine the angle of the V-notch. The coefficient of discharge for the V-
notch is 0.6 and that for the rectangular notch is 0.63.
Answer: 55°24'

15. A Venturi meter has its axis mounted vertically,

the inlet and throat diameters being 150 mm and
75 mm respectively. The throat is 225 mm above
the inlet and the discharge coefficient is 0.96.
Petrol of density 780kg/m3 flows through the meter
at the rate of 5.55 x 10-2 m3/s. Calculate:
 The pressure difference between inlet and
throat.
 The difference in level which would be
registered by a vertical mercury
manometer, the tubes above the mercury
being full of petrol.
 The density of mercury is 13 600 kg/m3.

1 1
Z1 . .g   .V12  P1  Z 2 . .g   .V22  P2 Bernoulli's equation
2 2

18
Experimental Methods for Engineers

Chapter 9. Temperature Measurement

1. Explain briefly the theory of operation of resistance thermometers, show the

difference between negative and positive temperature coefficients resistance
thermometers, and why we need to make lead-wire resistance compensation.
Draw one of the circuits used for this purpose.
2. Explain in Detail the Non- electrical methods for Temperature Measuring
Instruments :
a. Liquid in Glass & in metal Thermometers
b. Vapor Pressure & gas Thermometers
c. Bimetal Strip Thermometers
d. Refractory Cones, points & crayons
3. Explain in Detail the electrical methods for Temperature Measuring
Instruments :
a. Resistance Pyrometer
b. Thermocouples
c. Radiation Pyrometers
d. Photoelectric Pyrometers

4. Explain the thermocouple principle, and show typical circuit arrangement to

measure temperature. What is meant by: Un-intended junction, and how can
we avoid the error caused due to its existence (only one method).

5. Explain the thermocouple principle, and show typical circuit arrangement to

measure temperature. How can we increase the sensitivity of measurement?

6. Explain with the aid of sketches the principle of operation of the disappearing
filament optical-pyrometer.

7. If the self heating error is to be limited to 0.5 ̊C for a thermistor with RT=5000
Ω, determine the maximum supply voltage that can be used in the
Wheatstone bridge given that the self heating factor Fsh=0.5 ̊C/mW.

8. A platinum resistance thermometer is calibrated at a standard atmospheric

pressure. At the boiling point of water (100 ̊C) its resistance is found to be
140Ω and at the freezing point of zinc (692.73 K) it is 256 Ω. Estimate the
absolute temperature indicated when its resistance is 300 Ω. State any
assumptions made.
Ans. 813.95 K

9. If the apparent temperature of a body having an emissivity equal to 0.95 is

found to be 1400 oC. Find its absolute temperature.
Ans. 1695 K

10. A thermometer has a characteristic temperature b of 3000 K. If the resistance

is 100 k Ω at 300 K, what will its resistance be at 600 K?
Ans. 674 Ω

19
Experimental Methods for Engineers

11. A 12-bit DAQ is to be employed with a chromel-alumel thermocouple (K type)

such that the full scale deflection of the A/D convertor is 100mV. What is the
temperature resolution obtained for this application?
Given that for K type thermocouple:

Temperature, ̊C E, mV

0 0

100 4.096

Chapter 10. Data Acquisition Fundamentals

1. Define 'Data acquisition', and mention the important parameters that should
be considered when selecting Data acquisition hardware. What is 'aliasing'?
And how can we avoid its occurrence?

2. Define Data Acquisition System (DAQ Sys.), and mention the main features of
Measurand that requires using DAQ system.

3. Computer based DAQ system consists of hardware and software. Explain

briefly with aid of suitable sketches:
a. The main components of the hardware.
b. The different functions of the software.

4. What are the main components of a computer based DAQ system?

5. What is 'aliasing'? Explain it graphically, and how can we avoid its
occurrence?
6. How many bits are required to achieve a resolution of 0.001% of full scale?

20