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100% found this document useful (4 votes)
208 views61 pages

Quantum Computing by Practice 2nd Edition Vladimir Silva instant download

The document is a promotional listing for the book 'Quantum Computing by Practice: Python Programming in the Cloud with Qiskit and IBM-Q, Second Edition' by Vladimir Silva, which covers quantum computing concepts and practical applications. It includes links to additional resources and related books on quantum computing and related fields. The book is aimed at developers and those interested in learning about quantum programming and its applications in cloud computing.

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Quantum
Computing
by Practice
Python Programming in the Cloud
with Qiskit and IBM-Q

Second Edition

Vladimir Silva
Quantum Computing
by Practice
Python Programming in the Cloud
with Qiskit and IBM-Q
Second Edition

Vladimir Silva
Quantum Computing by Practice: Python Programming in the Cloud with Qiskit and
IBM-Q, Second Edition
Vladimir Silva
CARY, NC, USA

ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-9990-6 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-9991-3


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9991-3

Copyright © 2024 by Vladimir Silva


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Natasha, Alfredo, Sonia, and Ivan.
Table of Contents
About the Author��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xiii

About the Technical Reviewer���������������������������������������������������������������������������������xv


Introduction�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xvii

Chapter 1: Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality������������������������������������� 1


Enter Max Planck, the Father of Quantum Mechanics������������������������������������������������������������������ 2
Planck Hits the Jackpot, Einstein Collects a Nobel Prize�������������������������������������������������������������� 4
The Nature of Light Before Planck������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 4
After Planck, Physics Will Never Be the Same������������������������������������������������������������������������� 5
Quantum Mechanics Comes in Many Flavors������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 9
Copenhagen Interpretation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 9
Many Worlds Interpretation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 21
Supplementary Interpretations���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 23
From Quantum Mechanics to Quantum Fields: Evolution or Revolution������������������������������������� 28
We Are All Made of Quantum Fields, but We Don’t Understand Them����������������������������������� 31
The Recipe to Build a Universe���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 32
The Fantastic Four Forces of Nature: Enter the Higgs Field�������������������������������������������������� 33
Standard Model and the Super-Equation of Physics������������������������������������������������������������� 35
Chasing the Unexplained������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36
Dark Energy Will Determine the Ultimate Fate of the Universe��������������������������������������������� 39
Beyond the Standard Model�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 40
Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 42

v
Table of Contents

Chapter 2: Richard Feynman, Demigod of Physics, Father of the Quantum


Computer���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 49
Mysteries of QFT: The Plague on Infinities���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 50
Electron Scattering According to QED����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 51
Perturbation Theory: If You Can’t Do Something Perfectly, Maybe Near Enough Is Good
Enough���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 53
Tackling Those Pesky Infinities with Renormalization����������������������������������������������������������� 53
Renormalization: Electrons Do Not Have Infinite Mass���������������������������������������������������������� 55
QFT’s Holy Trinity: Perturbation Theory, Renormalization, and Feynman Diagrams�������������� 56
Feynman Diagrams: Formulas in Disguise���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 57
Feynman Approach to Quantum Mechanics: The Path Integral��������������������������������������������� 57
Unraveling the Impossible: Feynman Diagrams to the Rescue��������������������������������������������� 58
A Few Simple Diagram Rules Are All That Is Needed������������������������������������������������������������ 60
The Strangeness of Virtual Particles�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 64
The Power of Feynman Diagrams to Simplify QFT-­QED Calculations������������������������������������ 65
Antimatter As Time Reverse Matter and the Mirror Universe������������������������������������������������������ 67
The Foundations of Quantum Theory Rest on Symmetries��������������������������������������������������� 68
Broken Symmetries Threaten to Break All of Physics Along with Them�������������������������������� 74
Particles in a Rewinding Universe����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 80
CPT Is Safe: The 70-Year Rollercoaster Ride for the Symmetries of Nature�������������������������� 81
Exercises������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 82

Chapter 3: Behold, the Qubit Revolution����������������������������������������������������������������� 87


Your Friendly Neighborhood Quantum Computer������������������������������������������������������������������������ 87
Two-Photon Quantum Interference���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 93
Mathematics Behind Photonic Interference�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 95
Output States of the Control-Z Gate�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 97
Lowering Error Rates������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 99
Superconducting Loops vs. Linear Optics��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 100
Superconducting Loops������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 100
Breaking Out of the Lab: IBM-Q Qubit Design���������������������������������������������������������������������� 102
Pros and Cons of Superconductor Loops���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 109

vi
Table of Contents

The Many Flavors of the Qubit�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 110


Exercises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 116

Chapter 4: Enter IBM Quantum: A One-of-a-Kind Platform for


Quantum Computing in the Cloud������������������������������������������������������������������������� 119
Getting Your Feet Wet with IBM Quantum��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 120
Quantum composer������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 120
Quantum Gates�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 121
Quantum Backends Available for Use���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 123
Entanglement: Bell and GHZ States������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 128
Two Qubit Entanglement with Bell States��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 128
Three Qubit Entanglement with GHZ States Tests��������������������������������������������������������������� 133
Super Determinism: A Way Out of the Spookiness. Was Einstein Right All Along?�������������� 136
Remote Access via the REST API���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 139
Authentication��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 140
List Available Backends������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 141
Get Backend Parameters����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 143
Get the Status of a Processor’s Queue�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 146
List Jobs in the Execution Queue���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 147
Get Account Information������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 149
List User’s Experiments������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 150
Run a Job on Hardware������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 152
Get the API Version�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 154
Exercises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 155

Chapter 5: Mathematical Foundation: Time to Dust Up That Linear Algebra�������� 159


Qubit 101: Vector, Matrices, and Complex Numbers����������������������������������������������������������������� 160
Transpose of a Matrix MT����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 161
Conjugate Transpose or Adjoint Mϯ�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 162
Complex Numbers: The Mathematical Magic Hats�������������������������������������������������������������� 162
Euler’s Identity: A Wonderful Masterpiece�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 164
Tensor Product of a Matrix ⊗��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 165

vii
Table of Contents

Postulates of Quantum Mechanics������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 167


Postulate 1: State and Vector Space������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 167
Postulate 2: Observables and Operators����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 167
Postulate 3: Measurement��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 168
Postulate 4: Collapse of the Wave Function������������������������������������������������������������������������� 168
Postulate 5: Unitary Transformations����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 169
Linear Algebra and Quantum Mechanics Cheat Sheet�������������������������������������������������������������� 169
Algebraic Representation of the Qubit�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 172
Dirac’s Ket Notation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 172
Superposition Is a Fancy Word�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 174
Kets Are Column Vectors����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 174
Orient Yourself in the Bloch Sphere������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 174
Changing the State of a Qubit with Quantum Gates������������������������������������������������������������������ 176
NOT Gate (Pauli X)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 177
Truly Quantum: Super Positions with the Hadamard Gate��������������������������������������������������� 178
Measurement of a Quantum State Is Trickier Than You Think��������������������������������������������� 179
Generalized Single Qubit Gates������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 180
Unitary Matrices Are Good for Quantum Gates�������������������������������������������������������������������� 181
Other Single Qubit Gates����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 182
Qubit Entanglement with the Controlled-NOT Gate������������������������������������������������������������� 182
Universal Quantum Computation Delivers Shortcuts over Classical Computation�������������������� 184
Gate Identity Cheat Sheet��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 184
Quantum Gate vs Boolean Gate Cheat Sheet���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 186
Exercises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 187

Chapter 6: Qiskit, Awesome SDK for Quantum Programming in Python�������������� 189


Installing Qiskit������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 189
Setting Up in Windows�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 190
Setting Up in Linux CentOS�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 191
Credentials Configuration���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 195

viii
Table of Contents

Your First Quantum Program����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 196


Quantum Lab: A Hidden Jewel Within the Cloud Console���������������������������������������������������� 199
SDK Internals: Circuit Compilation��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 201
Running in a Real Quantum Device������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 206
Result Visualization Types��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 213
Noise Models and Fake Providers��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 218
Exercises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 222
Extended Qiskit Exercises��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 223

Chapter 7: Start Your Engines: From Quantum Random Numbers to


Teleportation and Super Dense Coding����������������������������������������������������������������� 229
Quantum Random Number Generation������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 229
Random Bit Generation Using the Hadamard Gate�������������������������������������������������������������� 230
Putting Randomness Results to the Test����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 235
Super Dense Coding������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 237
Circuit for composer������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 239
Running in Python��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 240
Looking at the Results��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 242
Quantum Teleportation�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 244
Circuit for composer������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 246
Running in Python��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 247
Looking at the Results��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 252
Exercises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 254

Chapter 8: Game Theory: With Quantum Mechanics, Odds Are Always


in Your Favor�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 259
Counterfeit Coin Puzzle������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 260
Counterfeit Coin, the Quantum Way������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 262
Step 1: Query the Quantum Beam Balance������������������������������������������������������������������������� 262
Step 2: Construct the Quantum Balance������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 265
Step 3: Identify the False Coin��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 266
Generalization for Any Number of False Coins�������������������������������������������������������������������� 270

ix
Table of Contents

Mermin-Peres Magic Square���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 271


Mermin-Peres Magic Square Exercise�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 272
Quantum Winning Strategy�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 273
Shared Entangled State������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 273
Unitary Transformations������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 275
Measure in the Computational Basis����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 281
Answers for the Mermin-Peres Magic Square Exercise������������������������������������������������������ 286

Chapter 9: Quantum Advantage with Deutsch-Jozsa, Bernstein-Vazirani, and


Simon’s Algorithms���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 289
Phase Kickback������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 291
Kickback with Arbitrary Phases������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 293
Deutsch-Jozsa�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 294
Bernstein-Vazirani (BV)������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 299
Simon’s Algorithm��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 302
Rules for Simon Oracle Construction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 307
Dissecting Simon’s Oracle��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 307
Extended Practice Exercises����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 310

Chapter 10: Advanced Algorithms: Unstructured Search and Integer


Factorization with Grover and Shor���������������������������������������������������������������������� 313
Quantum Unstructured Search�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 314
Phase Inversion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 315
Inversion About the Mean���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 316
Practical Implementation���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 318
Generalized Circuit�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 321
Integer Factorization with Shor’s Algorithm������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 324
Challenging Asymmetric Cryptography with Quantum Factorization���������������������������������� 325
Period Finding��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 326
Shor’s Algorithm by ProjectQ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 330

x
Table of Contents

Chapter 11: Quantum in the Real World: Advanced Chemistry and


Protein Folding����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 339
The Significance of Eigenvalues����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 339
Eigenvalues in a Quantum Computer���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 342
Why Use a Quantum Computer������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 343
Molecule Ground States������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 344
The Lattice��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 344
The Heisenberg Spin ½ Hamiltonian����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 346
The VQE������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 350
The Results�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 352
Protein Folding�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 355
The Protein Folding Problem����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 356
Protein Folding Using a Quantum Computer����������������������������������������������������������������������� 357
Exciting Times Lie Ahead���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 364

Appendix: Exercise Answers�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 367

Index��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 399

xi
About the Author
Vladimir Silva was born in Quito, Ecuador. He received a System’s Analyst degree from
the Polytechnic Institute of the Army in 1994. In the same year, he came to the United
States as an exchange student pursuing an M.S. degree in Computer Science at Middle
Tennessee State University. After graduation, he joined IBM as a software engineer. His
interests include Quantum Computing, Neural Nets, and Artificial Intelligence. He also
holds numerous IT certifications including OCP, MCSD, and MCP. He has written many
technical books in the fields of distributed computing and security. His previous books
include Grid Computing for Developers (Charles River Media), Practical Eclipse Rich
Client Platform Projects (Apress), Pro Android Games (Apress), and Advanced Android 4
Games (Apress).

xiii
About the Technical Reviewer
Jason Whitehorn is an experienced entrepreneur and soft-
ware developer and has helped many companies automate
and enhance their business solutions through data synchro-
nization, SaaS architecture, and machine learning. Jason
obtained his Bachelor of Science in Computer Science from
Arkansas State University, but he traces his passion for de-
velopment back many years before then, having first taught
himself to program BASIC on his family’s computer while
still in middle school.
When he’s not mentoring and helping his team at work, writing, or pursuing one of
his many side-projects, Jason enjoys spending time with his wife and four children and
living in the Tulsa, Oklahoma, region. More information about Jason can be found on his
website: https://jason.whitehorn.us.

xv
Introduction
The Quantum Computing Revolution
I wrote this book to be the ultimate guide for programming a quantum computer in the
cloud. IBM has made their quantum rig (known as the IBM Quantum) available not
only for research but for individuals, in general, interested in this exciting new field of
computing.
Quantum computing is gaining traction and now is the time to learn to program
these machines. In years to come, the first commercial quantum computers should be
available, and they promise significant computational speedups compared to classical
computers. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the field of cryptography where the
quantum integer factorization algorithm can outperform the best classical solution by
orders of magnitude, so much so that a practical implementation of this algorithm will
render current asymmetric encryption useless.
All in all, this book is a journey of understanding. You may find some of the concepts
explained throughout the chapters difficult to grasp; however, you are not alone. The
great physicist Richard Feynman once said: “If somebody tells you he understands
quantum mechanics, it means he doesn’t understand quantum mechanics.” Even the
titans of this bizarre theory have struggled to comprehend what it all means.
I have tried to explore quantum computation to the best of my abilities by using real-
world algorithms, circuits, code, and graphical results. Some of the algorithms included
in this manuscript defy logic and seem more like voodoo magic than a computational
description of a physical system. This is the main reason I decided to tackle this subject.
Even though I find the mind-bending principles of quantum mechanics bizarre, I’ve
always been fascinated by them. Thus, when IBM came up with its one-of-a-kind
quantum computing platform for the cloud and opened it up for the rest of us, I jumped
to the opportunity of learning and creating this manuscript.
Ultimately, this is my take on the subject, and I hope you find as much enjoyment
in reading it as I did writing it. My humble advice: Learn to program quantum
computers; soon they will be ever present in the data center, doing everything from
search and simulations to medicine and artificial intelligence. Here is an overview of the
manuscript’s contents.
xvii
Introduction

Chapter 1: Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks


of Reality
It all began in the 1930s with Max Planck’s reluctant genius. He came up with a new
interpretation for the energy distribution of the light spectrum. He started it all by
unwillingly postulating that the energy of the photon was not described by a continuous
function, as believed by classical physicists, but by tiny chunks, which he called quanta.
He was about to start the greatest revolution in science in this century: quantum
mechanics. This chapter is an appetizer to the main course and explores the clash
of two titans of physics: Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr. Quantum mechanics was a
revolutionary theory in the 1930s, and most of the scientific establishment was reluctant
to accept it, including the colossus of the century: Albert Einstein. Fresh from winning
the Nobel Prize, Einstein never accepted the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics.
This caused a rift with its biggest champion: Niels Bohr. The two greats debated it out
for decades and never resolved their differences. Ultimately, quantum mechanics
has withstood 70 years of theoretical and experimental challenges, to emerge always
triumphant. Read this chapter and explore the theory, experiments, and results, all
under the cover of the incredible story of these two extraordinary individuals.

Chapter 2: Richard Feynman, Demigod of Physics,


Father of the Quantum Computer
In the 1980s, the great physicist Richard Feynman proposed a quantum computer. That
is a computer that can take advantage of the principles of quantum mechanics to solve
problems faster. The race is on to construct such a machine. This chapter explores, in
general terms, the basic architecture of a quantum computer: qubits – the basic blocks
of quantum computation. They may not seem like much but they have almost magical
properties: Superposition, believe it or not, a qubit can be in two states at the same time:
0 and 1. This is a concept hard to grasp at the macroscale where we live. Nevertheless,
at the atomic scale, all bets are off. This fact has been proven experimentally for over
70 years. Thus, superposition allows a quantum computer to outmuscle a classical
computer by performing large amounts of computation with relatively small numbers
of qubits. Another mind-bender is qubit entanglement: entangled qubits transfer states,
when observed, faster than the speed of light across time or space! Wrap your head

xviii
Introduction

around that. All in all, this chapter explores all the physical components of a quantum
computer: quantum gates, types of qubits such as superconducting loops, ion traps,
topological braids, and more. Furthermore, the current efforts of all major technology
players in the subject are described, as well as other types of quantum computation such
as quantum annealing.

Chapter 3: Behold, the Qubit Revolution


In this chapter, we look at the basic architecture of the qubit as designed by the
pioneering IT companies in the field. You will also learn that although qubits are mostly
experimental and difficult to build, it doesn’t mean that one can’t be constructed with
some optical tools and some ingenuity. Even if a little crude and primitive, a quantum
gate can be built using refraction crystals, photon emitters, and a simple budget. This
chapter also explores superconducting loops as the de facto method for building qubits
along with other popular designs and their relationship to each other.

Chapter 4: Enter IBM Quantum: A One-of-a-Kind


Platform for Quantum Computing in the Cloud
In this chapter, you will get your feet wet with the IBM Q Experience. This is the first
quantum computing platform in the cloud that provides real or simulated quantum
devices for the rest of us. Traditionally, a real quantum device will be available only for
research purposes. Not anymore, thanks to the folks at IBM who have been building this
stuff for decades and graciously decided to open it up for public use.
Learn how to create a quantum circuit using the visual composer or write it down
using the excellent Python SDK for the programmer within you. Then execute your
circuit in the real thing, explore the results, and take the first step in your new career as a
quantum programmer. IBM may have created the first quantum computing platform in
the cloud, but its competitors are close behind. Expect to see new cloud platforms soon
from other IT giants. Now is the time to learn.

xix
Introduction

Chapter 5: Mathematical Foundation: Time to Dust


Up That Linear Algebra
Matrices, complex numbers, and tensor products are the holy trinity of quantum
computing. The bizarre properties of quantum mechanics are entirely described by
matrices. It is the rich interpretation of matrices and complex numbers that allows for a
bigger landscape resulting in an advantage over traditional scaler-based mathematics.
Quantum mechanics sounds and looks weird but at the end is just fancy linear algebra.

Chapter 6: Qiskit, Awesome SDK for Quantum


Programming in Python
Qiskit stands for Quantum Information Software Kit. It is a Python SDK to write quantum
programs in the cloud or a local simulator. In this chapter, you will learn how to set up
the Python SDK on your PC. Next, you will learn how quantum gates are described using
linear algebra to gain a deeper understanding of what goes on behind the scenes. This
is the appetizer to your first quantum program, a very simple thing to familiarize you
with the syntax of the Python SDK. Finally, you will run it in a real quantum device. Of
course, quantum programs can also be created visually in the composer. Gain a deeper
understanding of quantum gates, the basic building blocks of a quantum program. All
this and more is covered in this chapter.

Chapter 7: Start Your Engines: From Quantum


Random Numbers to Teleportation and Super
Dense Coding
This chapter is a journey through three remarkable information-processing capabilities
of quantum systems. Quantum random number generation explores the nature of
quantum mechanics as a source of true randomness. You will learn how this can be
achieved using very simple logic gates and the Python SDK. Next, this chapter explores
two related information processing protocols: super dense coding and quantum
teleportation. They have exuberant names and almost magical properties. Discover
their secrets, write circuits for the composer, execute remotely using Python, and finally
interpret and verify their results.

xx
Introduction

Chapter 8: Game Theory: With Quantum Mechanics,


Odds Are Always in Your Favor
Here is a weird one: this chapter explores two game puzzles that show the remarkable
power of quantum algorithms over their classical counterparts – the counterfeit coin
puzzle and the Mermin-Peres Magic Square. In the counterfeit coin puzzle, a quantum
algorithm is used to reach a quartic speed up over the classical solution for finding a fake
coin using a balance scale a limited number of times. The Mermin-Peres Magic Square
is an example of quantum pseudo-telepathy or the ability of players to almost read each
other’s minds, achieving outcomes only possible if they communicate during the game.

Chapter 9: Quantum Advantage with Deutsch-Jozsa,


Bernstein-Vazirani, and Simon’s Algorithms
This chapter looks at three algorithms of little practical use but important, because they
were the first to show that quantum computers can solve problems significantly faster
than classical ones: Deutsch-Jozsa, Bernstein-Vazirani, and Simon’s algorithms. They
achieve significant performance boost via massive parallelism by using the Hadamard
gate to put the input in superposition. They also illustrate critical concepts such as
oracles or black boxes that perform some transformation on the input, and phase
kickback, a powerful technique used to alter the phase of inputs so they can cancel
each other.

Chapter 10: Advanced Algorithms: Unstructured


Search and Integer Factorization with Grover
and Shor
This chapter showcases two algorithms that have generated excitement about the
possibilities of practical quantum computation: Grover’s Search, an unstructured
quantum search algorithm capable of finding inputs at an average of the square root of
N steps. This is much faster than the best classical solution at N/2 steps. It may not seem
that much, but when talking about very large databases, this algorithm can crush it in
the data center. Expect all web searches to be performed by Grover’s in the future. Shor’s

xxi
Introduction

Integer Factorization: the notorious quantum factorization that experts say could bring
current asymmetric cryptography to its knees. This is the best example of the power
of quantum computation by providing exponential speedups over the best classical
solution.

Chapter 11: Quantum in the Real World: Advanced


Chemistry and Protein Folding
Quantum is already working hard to make a difference in the fields of Chemistry and
Medicine. This chapter showcases two amazing real-life experiments that illustrate
its power: ground states are important in molecular chemistry, with most elements
modeled using lattices where vertices represent interacting atoms. In this chapter, you
will learn how to minimize the energy Hamiltonian of a molecule to reach its ground
state using lattices. Next, proteins are the fundamental building blocks that power all
life. Reliably predicting protein structures is extremely complicated and can change
our understanding of nature. In this experiment, you will learn about protein amino
acids, peptides, chains, nomenclature, and more; and best of all, you will learn how its
structure can be predicted using a quantum computer.

xxii
CHAPTER 1

Quantum Fields:
The Building Blocks
of Reality
The beginning of the 20th century, more specifically 1930s Europe, witnessed the
dawn of arguably one of the greatest theories in human history: quantum mechanics.
After almost a century of change, this wonder of imagination has morphed and taken
many directions. One of these is quantum field theory (QFT) which is the subject of this
chapter. If you enjoy physics and wish to understand why things are the way they are,
then you must get your feet wet with QFT. It has been called the most successful theory
in history, riding high since the 1950s and giving rise to the standard model of particle
physics. This is the modern view of how nature works at the smallest scale, being proven
right time and again by countless experiments and instruments like the Large Hadron
Collider (LHC). All in all, the story of how QFT came to be, and the Masters of Physics
behind it, is a tale of wonder, furious rivalry but ultimate collaboration.
Our story begins in 1900 when Lord Kelvin stood in front of the British Science Royal
Society and enunciated: “There is nothing else to be discovered in physics” – a powerful
statement at the time but clearly wrong in hindsight. Perhaps, we should thank the lord
for such a bold proclamation because it is statements like that that drive others to prove
them wrong. This was put to the test 30 years later in Germany.
Around the 1930s, the great German physicist Max Plank (1858–1947) was working
on the black-body radiation problem, more specifically in the ultraviolet catastrophe.
To understand this problem, let’s backtrack to the physics of how materials glow in
multiple colors at different temperatures. In 1900 British physicist Lord Rayleigh derived
an approximation to predict that process. To accomplish his task, Rayleigh used the
so-called black body, a simple object that would absorb and emit light but not reflect it.

1
© Vladimir Silva 2024
V. Silva, Quantum Computing by Practice, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9991-3_1
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Note that the term black doesn’t mean its color is black but that it simply absorbs and
emits light but does not reflect it, so when observed, you’ll see its glow or radiation.
Rayleigh’s work is known as the Rayleigh-Jeans law for spectral radiation of a black body
as a function of its wavelength λ (lambda) and its temperature in Kelvin degrees (K) (see
Equation 1.1):

2cK BT
B T   (1.1)
4 

where

• c = speed of light (299792458 m/s)

• KB, the Boltzmann constant = 1.38064852 × 10-23 m2 kg s-2 K-1

• λ = wavelength

• T = temperature in Kelvin degrees

Enter Max Planck, the Father of Quantum Mechanics


The Rayleigh-Jeans law works great for higher wavelengths (in the infrared spectrum
outside of visible light) but gives infinite values in the visible spectrum. Figure 1-1 shows
a graph of the Rayleigh-Jeans spectral radiance for wavelengths of visible and infrared for
a black body at 5000 degrees Kelvin. This is what is known as the ultraviolet catastrophe:
the infinite values of radiation of light in the visible spectrum as predicted by classical
physics. This is simply not possible; if this was true, then we’ll all get cooked up by simply
getting close to a candle light! Max Planck realized this and found a solution in the 1930s
earning him a Nobel Prize and a place in history.

2
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Figure 1-1. Graph of the Rayleigh-Jeans law vs. Planck’s solution for the
ultraviolet catastrophe

Planck altered Rayleigh’s original derivation by changing the formula to match


experimental results as shown in Equation 1.2.

2cK BT
B T   (1.1)
4 

2hc 2 1
B   ,T   hc
(1.2)
5
e  K BT
 1

where h is Planck’s constant = 6.62 × 10-34 m2kg/s.


He made an incredible assumption for the time: energy can be emitted or absorbed
c
in discrete chunks which he called quanta: E  hv  h where v is the frequency. Note

c
that frequency equals the speed of light divided by the wavelength v  . This may

seem trivial nowadays, but in the 1930s was ground-breaking; not even Planck fully
understood what he had unleashed. He gave birth to a brand new theory: quantum
mechanics.

3
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

 lanck Hits the Jackpot, Einstein Collects


P
a Nobel Prize
So at the time, Planck didn’t realize how huge his postulate of energy quanta was, as he
admitted that his solution for the ultraviolet catastrophe was simply a workaround for
the maths of the Rayleigh-Jeans law to make it fit well-known experimental results. To
grasp the power of this postulate, one must look at the view of the nature of light pre-post
Planck’s era.

The Nature of Light Before Planck


Since the 19th century, it was well accepted that light behaved like a wave. Scottish
physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1979) provided a description of the fundamental
properties of such waves (see Figure 1-2).

Figure 1-2. The nature of light in the 19th century

• A fundamental property of a light wave is its wavelength or


lambda (λ).

• Look at the right side of Figure 1-2: At very short wavelengths, we


have lots of waves; the reverse is also true at higher wavelengths. This
is the frequency (v), a second fundamental property of light waves.

It seems logical to assume that at high frequencies (short wavelengths), the energy of
the wave is higher (as there is more stuff flowing in) and that at lower frequencies (higher
wavelengths) the energy decreases. Therefore the energy (E) is directly proportional to

4
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

its frequency (v) and inversely proportional to its wavelength (λ). This knowledge gave
rise to the standard spectrum of light in the 19th century:

• On the left side of the spectrum (at the shortest wavelengths between
1 picometer and 0.01 nanometers [nm]), sit the gamma rays: very
dangerous, the usual result of a supernova explosion, they are the
most energetic. A gamma-ray burst from a supernova can destroy
everything in its path: all life on Earth, for example, even the solar
system. You don’t want to be in the crosshairs of a gamma-ray burst!

• Next, at a wavelength of 0.01–10nm, sit the well-known x-rays: very


helpful for looking inside of things: organic or inorganic, but still
dangerous enough to cause cancer over persistent exposure.

• At a wavelength of 10–400 nm, we have ultraviolet light (UV): this


is the radiation from the sun that gives life to our Earth but can be
harmful in high doses. Lucky for us, the ozone layer on Earth keeps
the levels in balance to make life possible.

• At a tiny sort after the UV range sits the visible light spectrum that
allows us to enjoy everything we see in this beautiful universe.

• Next, infrared at wavelengths up to 1050 nanometers. It is used


in industrial, scientific, military, law enforcement, and medical
applications. In such devices as night vision goggles, heat sensors,
and others.

• Finally, radio waves above the infrared range. These are used by most
human technology to send all kinds of information such as audio,
video, TV, radio, cell phones, you name it.

After Planck, Physics Will Never Be the Same


In the 1930s Planck turned the classical understanding of the nature of light upside
down. Even though his postulate of energy quanta was dubbed lunacy by most physicists
and remained unnoticed for years, it will take another giant of the century, Albert
Einstein, to seize on this discovery and come up with a brand new interpretation of light.
Thus, the photon was born.

5
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

This is not well known to most people, but Einstein didn’t win a Nobel Prize for
his masterpiece on The Theory of Relativity, but for his work on the quantum nature
of light and the photoelectric effect. Using Planck’s idea, Einstein imagined light as
discrete waves (particles) which he called photons. He used this to solve a paradox in the
photoelectric effect unknown at the time (see Figure 1-3).

Figure 1-3. A fresh idea on the photoelectric effect earned Einstein the Nobel Prize
in Physics in 1921

As its name indicates, the photoelectric effect seeks to describe the behavior
of electrons over a metal surface when light is thrown in the mix. To this end, the
experiment in Figure 1-3 was devised:

• Start with two metal plates. Let’s call them the emitter and the
collector. Both are attached via a cable to a battery. The negative
end of the battery is connected to the emitter, and the positive to the
collector.

6
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

• As we all know, electrons have a negative charge; thus, they flow


to the emitter while the positive charge gathers in the collector.
Remember also that opposite charges attract.

• The idea is to measure the kinetic energy of the electrons when they
flow from the emitter to the collector when a light source is thrown
into the emitter. To achieve this accurately, a vacuum is set among
the two.

• If light flows as a wave as classical physics demands, then when


the light hits the electrons, they will become energized and escape
the surface of the emitter toward the collector. Furthermore, as the
intensity (the amount) of light is increased, more electrons will get
energized and escape in larger quantities. This increase in charge can
be measured by the gauge as shown.

However, this is not what happens. Two things were observed in reality:

1. The increase in charge (the kinetic energy of the electrons) does


not depend on the intensity of the light but on its frequency.

2. Even stranger, not all frequencies energize the electrons to


escape the emitter. If we were to draw the kinetic energy (KE)
as a function of the frequency (f ) (see the lower right side
of Figure 1-3), then there is a point in the curve (threshold
frequency) after which the electrons escape. Values below
this threshold and the electrons remain unchanged. This is a
puzzle indeed!

Einstein proposed a solution to this puzzle: by postulating that energy behaves as


a particle, he solved the paradox of item 2 of the list. Imagine that you are at the county
fair looking to win a prize by knocking down pins with a ball. If you throw marbles at the
pins, they won’t budge; however, throw a baseball, and the pins will be knocked down
earning you that desired prize. This is what Einstein thought occurred in this situation.
Low frequency photons don’t have enough energy to power up the electrons to escape
the emitter. Increase the frequency of the light; it increases the energy of the electrons
so they escape generating a current that can be measured. From this, a mathematical
model can be derived (see Figure 1-4).

7
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Figure 1-4. Equation for the photoelectric effect

Figure 1-4 shows a graph of the kinetic energy of the electron (EK) as a function
of the light frequency (f ). At low frequencies, no electrons escape until the threshold
frequency is reached. Now, extend the line as shown by the dotted track in the figure,
and we have a straight line graph (note that the point at which the dotted track intersects
the Y axis is named by the Greek letter φ (Phi)). This is the energy needed to liberate the
electron. Thus, this line graph can be described by the algebraic equation Y = mx + c
where m is the gradient and c is the Y-intercept.
Now instead of Y, substitute the kinetic energy, with the gradient m being Planck’s
constant (h), the frequency (f) instead of x, and c being the energy needed to liberate or –φ.
Therefore, our line graph equality becomes Ek = hf − φ.
This is the equation for the photoelectric effect: the energy leftover after the electron
is liberated equals the energy given by the photon minus the energy needed to liberate it.

Tip Incidentally, the first scientist to think of light as a particle was Isaac Newton.
He thought light traveled in small packets which he called co-puzzles. He also
thought these packets had mass; something that is incorrect. Unfortunately, this
idea never took off and lay dormant until it was revived by the Planck-Einstein
revolution of the 1930s.

8
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Quantum Mechanics Comes in Many Flavors


There is little doubt that the 1930s were the golden age of physics in the 20th century.
Nobel prizes were awarded like candy, and it seemed that nothing could stop humanity
in its quest to unravel the secrets of nature. Since then, quantum mechanics has stood
tall for almost a century of endless theoretical and experimental challenges. All in all, it
has seen a good deal of change over the years. These are the so-called interpretations of
quantum mechanics, and they come in really bizarre flavors.

Copenhagen Interpretation
This is the earliest consensus about the meaning of quantum mechanics, and was born
out of the golden age of physics with contributions from Max Planck, Niels Bohr, Werner
Heisenberg, and others in Copenhagen during the 1920s.

The Revolution Begins with Planck, Bohr, and Schrödinger


Max Planck’s postulate of energy quanta started the revolution with contributions
by Einstein on the duality and/or quantum nature of light. That is, the idea that light
behaves as both a wave and a particle.
Danish physicist Niels Bohr (1885–1962) funded the Institute of Theoretical Physics
in Copenhagen in the 1920s to work on the brand-new field of atomic research. At the
time, the atom was thought to look like a tiny solar system with a nucleus at the center
made of protons, neutrons, and electrons orbiting around. This was known as the
Rutherford model, but it had a terrible problem: electric charge! If the negatively charged
electrons orbit around the positively charged nucleus, then as opposite charges attract,
the electrons will eventually collapse into the nucleus destroying all matter in existence.
Bohr foresaw this situation and used Planck’s idea of energy quanta to theorize that
electrons jump from one orbit to another by gaining or losing energy; something that
he called a quantum jump. This idea later became known as the Bohr atom, but it had
a weird characteristic: electrons didn’t simply travel from one orbit to another. They
instantaneously disappear from one orbit and reappear in another. This did not sit well
with another colossus of physics: Erwin Schrödinger.
Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961) is the father of the famous wave
function ѱ (Cyrillic - Psi). Schrödinger was looking to describe the energy of a physical
system; he came up with what is now considered the most powerful tool in physics in the
last century (see Figure 1-5).
9
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality

Figure 1-5. Schrödinger wave function ѱ is the cornerstone of quantum mechanics

Schrödinger detested Bohr’s interpretation of the atom famously stating that “If I am
to accept the quantum jump, then I am sorry I ever got into the field of atomic research.”
As a matter of fact, his wave function was an attempt to defeat Planck-Bohr-Einstein. He
wanted to throw away the nascent theory of energy quanta and return to the continuous
classical model of wave physics, even pushing the idea that all reality can be described
entirely by waves. So why is ѱ used nowadays everywhere in quantum mechanics?
Thank this to our next physicist: Max Born.
German-Jewish physicist Max Born (1882–1970) took Schrödinger’s wave function
in an entirely new direction. Born proposed a probabilistic interpretation of ѱ, that
is, the state of a particle exists in constant flux, and the only thing we can know is the
probability of the particle at a given state. Born postulated that this probability is
P = ѱ2. Needless to say, Schrödinger didn’t like this at all as he thought his wave function
was being misused. He took a swing at Born with his now famous thought experiment:
the quantum cat. But before we check if the cat in the box is dead or alive and why,
consider this witty story: In the quintessential American cartoon Futurama (by Matt
Groening – creator of The Simpsons), our hero Fry enrolls in the police academy in
New-NewYork on Earth in the year 3000. One day while on patrol, Fry chases a bandit
carrying a mysterious box in the trunk of his car. Once in custody, the bandit is revealed
to be Werner Heisenberg. Fry looks at the box with a face full of trepidation and asks:
“What’s in the box?” To which Heisenberg replies, “a cat.” “Is the cat dead or alive?” asks
Fry. Heisenberg replies: “the cat is neither dead nor alive but in a superposition of states
with a probability assigned to each.” Long story short, Heisenberg the bandit is arrested
as a major violator of the laws of physics. This was a funny tale for the physics buff.
Nevertheless, it shows the quantum cat has become folklore, and the prime example
used to explain the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics.

10
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normal tone of a broken scale of red, for the tint in that scale we must mix
with the standard red a lighter gray and for the shade a darker gray.
When a comparatively small quantity of neutral gray is combined with a pure
color the result is a "gray color," as above described, because the color is quite
definitely retained, but more or less modified by the gray. On the other hand, if
a relatively small quantity of color is added to a neutral gray, the resulting color
is properly called a "colored gray," because it is still a gray modified by color,
and in this class we have warm grays, cool grays, etc., according to the color
combined with the gray. The gray colors are quite generally termed "broken
colors" and this seems a very useful practice, because it avoids the confusion
of the somewhat similar terms "gray color" and "colored gray."
By reference to the Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales on Page 41 it will be seen
that we have only twelve scales and but three tones in each scale, instead of
eighteen scales and five tones, as in the pure scales, for which there is a good
reason.
For educational purposes in the elementary grades, which is the only place
where there is a legitimate use for colored papers, the steps in gradation of
hue or tone must not be too short, and if the saturation or intensity of the
normal colors in the several scales is reduced by adding gray, as in the broken
colors, there is not the possibility for as many steps in either hues or tones
without leaving those colors adjacent to each other too nearly alike. Therefore
in the broken colors there are but thirty-six, instead of ninety, as in the pure
scales.
The distinction between pure colors with tints and shades, and broken colors in
various tones, should be made very plain to the children whenever the subject
is brought to their notice, because it is a vital point in the classification of
colors. Educationally this is one of the most objectionable features in the old
red, yellow and blue theory of color composition, because no distinction is
observed between pure and broken colors in classification. In the Bradley
colored papers the distinction is made very decided for educational purposes,
so that no one would for a moment tolerate the mixture of the normal colors
from the pure scales with the normal colors from the broken scales in the
formation of a spectrum.
This may be illustrated by a selection as follows: First lay in order the normal
spectrum colors with the pure colors found in the first section of the sample
book, thereby forming the central vertical column of Fig. 10. Then substitute
for the orange, green and violet, those colors selected from the collection of
broken colors, and the result will seem to render the operation absurd, but it is
the same in principle as the results produced in the attempt to form a spectrum
by the combination of three primary pigments, red, yellow and blue, because
so produced the orange, green and violet, show by disk analysis from 54 to 80
per cent of black and white and are therefore as much broken as the
corresponding colors in the papers of the broken scales, but not exactly the
same in tone.

Engine Colored Papers.


Those papers which are termed "Engine Colored Papers" are so named from
the process of manufacture as distinguished from "coated papers" which
comprise the first three sections of the book. In coated papers a white paper is
covered with a coating of colored pigment "fixed" with a small amount of white
gum, gelatine or glue, and in this way the pure color of the pigment is
obtained. In the engine colored papers the color is mixed with the paper pulp
in the process of making the paper. In a paper mill the tub or vat in which the
pulp is kept stirred up and perfectly mixed is called the engine, and hence this
technical term has been applied to such papers as are colored in the pulp. In
this class of papers both sides are alike, and for this reason in some of the
folding exercises these papers are preferred, also because they are thinner and
tougher. Heretofore, it has been impossible to obtain engine colored papers in
"families" or scales, but in this assortment the numbers from one to six, furnish
six scales of three tones each, comprising the normal tones with tints and
shades. Following these from seven to sixteen are a collection of unclassified
colors including grays which are much used. All these can be analyzed and
classified by the color wheel. Black and white complete this class. It is
impossible to make any close approximation to a black in this class of papers,
as when they are compared with the coated blacks the result is a very gray
black, or very dark gray. All the colors in these papers from No. 1 A to No. 13
are quite light broken spectrum colors, but less broken than the coated papers
designated as broken spectrum colors.
While great care has been bestowed on the original selection of the colors of
all these above-described papers and every effort is constantly exercised to
keep them the same from year to year, the subject is materially complicated by
the guarantee required of the manufacturers that no arsenic colors shall be
used in the preparation of any of the papers. This guarantee is strictly insisted
on, because, while the writer has never been able to learn of any authentic
case where a child has been injured by the use of plated or glazed papers, he
believes that the opinions of parents and teachers should be respected in the
matter, although the arsenic colors are often the most permanent and the
aniline substitutes which are necessarily used belong to a class which is the
most fugitive of all colors.
The line of colored papers now in use is the result of many experiments on the
part of the writer and careful tests by experienced teachers for several years,
and in its present condition affords but small indication of the time and care
which has been expended on it. This has been inevitable, because the peculiar
system on which the colors are based has been one of growth and the papers
have been designed to afford the necessary material colors for this special
scheme of instruction.
In preparing the tints and shades in the papers many experiments have been
made to determine the true effect of light and shadow on each normal color,
and then to imitate these effects in the papers.
All this is independent of the professional tricks which artists use to heighten
their effects, some of which are legitimate, while others may be questionable
on sound principles.
It is a common habit with artists to introduce very warm effects into all sunlight
by the use of orange or yellow in the warm colors. This extreme tendency has
been intentionally avoided in the preparation of these papers, however
desirable or allowable it may be considered in heightening effects. So also in
the shades as in the tints, the aim has been to keep all the tones of one color
in the same scale, even though artists often run the various tones of the same
piece of color into two or three analogous scales.
It is the object of color education to train the eye to see color wherever or
however it may be produced, either by actual color reflection or contrasted
effects, and in order that these effects may be understood as explained under
Simultaneous Contrasts it is necessary that the prepared material be truthful to
nature, the more so because these effects are sometimes greatly exaggerated
by artists.

Water Colors.
When the subject of color was introduced into the curriculum of the common
schools of this country, the use of paints was a novelty. So little was known
regarding the possibilities of water colors as a means of education, that the
teachers may be excused for having had grave doubts about the practicability
of the scheme. Very few teachers in the lower grades of schools had received
at that time any definite instruction in the harmonies of colors or the
manipulation of pigments; and what little thought had been given to the
subject was based on the three-color theory of Brewster, which was the only
one available at that time.
During the intervening years much has been done to make entirely feasible the
introduction into school and kindergarten of this pleasing and educating
occupation.
Color standards have been adopted, which are nothing less than selections
from the solar spectrum itself, and the manufacture of pigments has improved
so much that it may almost be said to be a new industry. In the training of
teachers, also, color instruction is now given an important place, so that the
kindergartner and primary teacher can give the attention that it deserves to a
subject which is so interwoven with all that is beautiful in the material world
around us.
Passing from one form of color work to another, it is exceedingly important that
children of any grade should find the same principles obtaining in each step of
the way, and also that the knowledge gained in the earliest stages of the work
should be available in the higher forms. This is particularly true of color
instruction as it is now found in the best schools, and the principal reason why
water colors are so much better adapted to use in the schools to-day than in
former years, is because paints are now made to correspond in color with the
standards with which the children have become familiar in the colored papers
and other material of the kindergarten.
At present it is generally conceded that these six colors, Red, Orange, Yellow,
Green, Blue and Violet, which stand out so prominently in the solar spectrum,
are pre-eminently adapted to serve as standards and as the basis of an
alphabet of color. There should, therefore, be no question as to the adoption of
these same colors as the palette of paints for the earliest color work, even with
the babes in the kindergarten, when anything beyond the colored papers and
the usual kindergarten occupations is wanted.
Not very long ago it was the practice to give the child a box of colors and let
him paint at random without any definite instruction as to the relation which
each color should bear to the others. In fact, with the usual cheap box of
paints then in the market there was no decided correlation of the colors nor
any educational selection, both of which we have to-day.
Water colors are now furnished which so closely approach the standards of the
colored papers that they are of the greatest assistance in developing the
æsthetic taste and judgment of the pupils, and it is remarkable how early in
the training of children paints can be used with advantage.
In some of the previous pages of this book we have treated of the false theory
of Sir David Brewster, who supposed that there were three primary colors in
the solar spectrum and that all the other colors were produced by the
overlapping or mixing of these in pairs.
This error, being applied to pigments, has worked much harm and has greatly
retarded the progress of color study. Even now some teachers recommend the
use of the red, yellow and blue palette on the ground of simplicity and
economy.
All the recent scientific writers on color treat this three-color scheme as already
exploded, because the simplest as well as the most complex experiments with
colored light prove its falsity. Nevertheless, the fact that yellow and blue, which
with light make very nearly white, do in the mixture of pigments produce a
green, has deceived many persons. But the best green that can be so procured
is a very broken color and not to be successfully compared with the beautiful
and brilliant green of the spectrum. Why then, should we not have in our
paints imitations of the solar green, orange and violet as well as the red, yellow
and blue? It is not well to sacrifice so much for alleged simplicity, and as for
economy, it will take but a moment's reflection to see that it would take no
more paint to cover a given surface with six colors than with three.
Oil colors, of course, are out of the question and pastels almost equally so, for
although full colors may be produced in both these mediums, they are not
suited to the use of young children, and at best are neither neat nor
convenient, while colored pencils are not sufficiently satisfactory in results.
Therefore water colors seem to be better adapted to primary work than any
other pigmentary material.
Of necessity the pupil must later be able to recognize any pigment he may
meet and to classify it according to its color value and also to give it a definite
name, other than the one by which it is sold.
More than one professional artist has already worked successfully from nature
in oil colors with a palette consisting of only close approximations to the six
standard colors with white and a few grays. A person whose color perception
has been trained by the use of the color disk in six standard colors with colored
papers to correspond, will undoubtedly be able to more truthfully reproduce
the colors which he sees in nature, on the canvas or paper by means of such a
pallette than if he had been taught by any other system and used the ordinary
pigments.

Color Blindness.
The subject of color blindness has received much attention because of its
practical importance in the affairs of our daily lives. The use of colored lights as
signals on ships and railroads has necessitated very strict regulations regarding
the employment of persons whose color vision is defective, and therefore in
some states specialists have been employed by the state authorities to
examine from time to time the school children regarding their perception of
colors.
Possibly this condition of things may not at present be considered a serious
reflection on the methods of color instruction, or lack of such instruction in our
schools because it has become so common as to attract little attention. But if it
were necessary for the same course to be pursued in any other department of
our public education that fact would not fail to occasion very uncomplimentary
remarks regarding the methods employed.
For example, if a state official were necessary to determine whether pupils are
deaf or not after they have been through our grammar schools, and
preliminary to accepting positions of responsibility, it would seem that
something was wrong, and yet after a child has had instruction in color
according to a logical system there should be no more necessity for an
examination regarding his ability to properly distinguish colors than there
should regarding his ability to hear.
Color blindness has quite generally been divided into three classes, red, green,
and violet blindness, those afflicted with red blindness being most numerous,
and the cases of violet blindness being very rare, if indeed there are any which
may properly be so called.
This classification, known as the Holmgren system, seems to have been based
on the Young-Helmholtz theory that all color perceptions are the result of three
primary effects in the eye, namely, red, green and violet, rather than on any
analytical classification of actual experiments concerning color blindness.
Color tests should be so arranged as to detect either a defect in the brain
which renders it difficult for the pupil to remember the names of the several
colors, or in the eye, by which he cannot see a difference between two
dissimilar colors.
A person totally color blind would see in the solar spectrum a band of gray in
various tones, and hence if a red and a green should seem to be of the same
tone of gray he would call both either red or green, and after much experience
would come to give color names to various tones of gray.
Such cases, however, are exceedingly rare, if in fact they exist. Other scientists
and physiologists have doubted the truth of the claims made by both Holmgren
and Helmholtz, and some have made extended experiments regarding color
blindness which seem to oppose the Holmgren theory. In view of these
conditions it does not seem necessary for a teacher in the elementary grades
to attempt to grasp the situation very fully, and much less to aid in the solution
of the problem. Very fortunately this is unnecessary, because in all the scientific
tests proposed for adults nothing is accomplished which any primary school
teacher will not be easily able to determine during the first two or three years
of ordinary school work, if the modern system of color instruction is pursued.
There is no better material than colored papers for testing the color
perceptions, and the exercises of selecting, matching and arranging the
spectrum colors by means of the small color tablets generally in use in the first
years of school are the very best that can be devised without regard to any of
the abstract theories concerning either the cause or the possible classification
of color blindness.
For some reason the most common form of color blindness occasions a
confusion between red and green, as for example, we are told, by some
people, that in picking wild strawberries in a field the fruit can be distinguished
from the leaves and grass only by the shape, and the green fruit from the ripe
by the touch or taste.
If a teacher discovers that a child is unable to readily give the name of a color
it may not indicate want of color vision, but merely inability to remember
names, and therefore various tests which will naturally suggest themselves can
be made to aid in reaching a decision on this point. Should the results of the
tests seem to indicate some defect in color vision, the nature of the trouble
should be sought and memoranda made from time to time for future reference,
and if the final result shows a radical lack of color perception the parents
should be informed of the fact and a physician consulted.
It is probable that the number of color blind women is very much less than that
of men, and much time has been spent in debating the matter, but some doubt
remains as to whether this opinion does not obtain because the girls are
brought so much more intimately into relation with colored materials in
selecting their articles of dress, and consequently come to know the names of
colors much better, and in fact enjoy a much better color education than the
men. A more correct decision regarding this question can better be reached
when both the boys and girls receive a systematic color education and their
color sense is more equally cultivated.

Outline of a Course in Color Instruction.

HE course of color instruction suggested in the preceding pages is not


arbitrarily divided into lessons or even years, because the conditions in
the city and rural schools in the various states of this country are so
varied that no uniform allotment or division of time can be suggested which will
be satisfactory to all.
The number of hours that can be devoted to any subject must be determined
by those who prepare the school programme and the progress must be more
or less rapid, with instruction correspondingly superficial or complete at each
stage, according to the time allowed, the preparation of the teacher and the
natural ability of the pupils.
The teaching of color is usually classed with drawing because both relate
directly to art, but inasmuch as color enters into our every day experiences so
much more largely than the graphic arts there seems to be good reason for
teaching it very fully where little attention is given to drawing.
Every competent teacher can and will become expert and even enthusiastic in
teaching color, if she fully understands the system which it is the object of the
foregoing pages to explain.
The following brief outline suggests the order in which the facts concerning
color may be presented and the material which can be used in an elementary
course, beginning with the first primary grade pupils, who for the most part
have not had kindergarten training.
As a part of the material the Bradley Educational Colored Papers, cut to tablets
each 1 x 2 inches, are prepared and put up in four small envelopes which are
enclosed in one larger envelope. On the larger envelope these words are
printed: "The Bradley Paper Tablets for Primary Color Education, Selections 1,
2, 3, 4 for Complete Course." The four small envelopes are labeled in this way:
"Selection No. 1, eighteen pieces from Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, the
Normal Spectrum Colors." "Selection No. 2, forty pieces from Chart of Pure
Spectrum Scales, Tint No. 1 and Shades No. 1, with White, Black and Neutral
Grays." "Selection No. 3, forty-two pieces comprising complete Chart of Broken
Spectrum Scales and Warm, Cool and Green Grays." "Selection No. 4, thirty-six
pieces from Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, Tints No. 2 and Shades No. 2."

The Solar Spectrum.


MATERIAL.

A Glass Prism, the cost of which need not exceed a few cents, as almost any
lamp or gas pendent in the form of a prism will serve the purpose. By the use
of such a prism a small spectrum can be shown on the wall of any schoolroom
having a sunny exposure during any part of the day. This spectrum will make
plain the fact that sunlight is composed of many colors.

METHOD.

Show to the pupils the best solar spectrum that can be produced under the
controlling conditions.
Call attention to the six colors, red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet, and
the order of their arrangement in the spectrum.
Present the colors separately as far as possible, selecting the best conditions
available for each one.

Pigmentary Spectrum Colors.


MATERIAL.

Neutral gray or white card to cover desk top for a background.


Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales.
Colored Paper Tablets, Selection No. 1, embracing the six standards and the
intermediate spectrum hues, eighteen pieces.
Color Wheel or Tops.
METHOD.

Ask the pupils to separate the six standards from the twelve spectrum hues.
Standards to be arranged in spectrum order.
Teach the names of the standards.
Test natural color perceptions by the attempts of the pupils to lay the spectrum
in the eighteen papers.
Explain the intermediate hues by the color disks, and drill with the tablets.
Continue the practice of having the pupils lay the entire spectrum with the
papers until it is familiar to them.

PRACTICAL OCCUPATIONS.

Pasting simple designs in either of the six standard colors, on white or gray
background, with ready-cut papers. Marking forms from tablets and cutting and
pasting them on backgrounds.

Study of Tones.
MATERIAL.

Folding models to show light and shade. Crumpled satins and plushes.
Standard color disks with white and black, on wheel or tops.
Paper tablets, Selection No. 2, Tints No. 1, Shades No. 1, White, Black and
Neutral Grays.

METHOD.

Ask each pupil to lay spectrum in eighteen normal colors. Lay tints and shades
of the six standards.
Have the children complete tints and shades No. 1 of entire spectrum circuit.
Illustrate neutral grays by white in shadow with folding model, also with white
and black disks combined.
Begin to classify into families the miscellaneous color material brought by the
pupils.
PRACTICAL OCCUPATIONS.

Pasting of ready-cut papers in standard and shade on a background of the tint


of same scale.
Paste designs in three tones of one scale on white or neutral gray background.
Mat weaving in tones of one scale.
Mat weaving in neutral gray and one or two tones of one color.

Broken Colors.
MATERIAL.

Disks on wheel or top. Paper tablets, Selection No. 3. Chart of Broken


Spectrum Scales.

METHOD.

Illustrate broken colors by disk combinations.


Let the pupils lay paper tablets to form Chart of Broken Scales.
Compare this chart with the Chart of Pure Scales laid with the papers.
Classifying of miscellaneous materials with reference to pure and broken colors.
Analysis of samples of pure and broken colors in cloths and flowers.

PRACTICAL OCCUPATIONS.

Paper cutting and pasting to be continued.


Following the broken colors in three tones which form the Chart of Broken
Spectrum Colors, the three kinds of colored grays, warm, cool and green, may
be considered preparatory to their use in contrasted effects.

Complete Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales in Five


Tones.
MATERIAL.
Paper tablets, Selection No. 4. Chart of Spectrum Scales in five tones may be
introduced for observation when the children are able to lay it with their
papers.

METHOD.

Continue the study of tones with pure spectrum scales in five tones, as was
done in the first three tones.
From the Chart of Spectrum Scales the study and classification of harmonies
can begin in a simple way.
From this time on free-hand paper cutting and pasting may be introduced at
pleasure, employing the colored papers in five tones when required.

Advanced Study of Harmonies.


By taking advantage of the instruction imparted in a course of color study such
as has been outlined in the preceding pages the pupil will be able to advance in
his ability to perceive colors and to make definite analyses of colors in natural
and manufactured material. In this way the advanced study of harmonies can
be greatly facilitated so that it will be possible for the student to apprehend
and appreciate many delicate and subtle color effects in art and nature never
before imagined. In fact the foundation of color study will have been laid in
such a logical and fascinating manner that its further advance will be but a
pleasure to the pupil and teacher, so that no arbitrary plan will be necessary,
because so many lines of work will suggest themselves to all who are
interested in the subject.

Water Colors.
This outline would not be complete without a reference to water colors, but
this is not the place to give definite instructions as to their use. Kindergartners
and primary teachers are now generally competent to direct the children in this
work, if they will avail themselves of such aid as is furnished by recently
published books on the subject.
Non-poisonous paints, cheap and still of fair quality, can now be obtained in
standard colors and put up in various forms. The moist paints in collapsible
tubes are the most convenient as well as the most economical for school use.
This form should be accompanied by a small mixing palette containing several
compartments, which can be bought at so small a price that each pupil can
have one. The paint in the tubes can then be dealt out only as required for
each day's use.

MATERIAL FOR COLOR INSTRUCTION.


Where the price is preceded by a star the article is too large to be sent by mail.
In other cases where no postage is given the goods are sent postpaid on
receipt of price.

WATER COLORS.

In ordering it will be necessary to give only the number of the box.

No. Price. Postage.


1. An enameled box containing eight pans
of semi-moist
$ .35
colors, six Standards and two Grays,
one brush, per box
2. An enameled box containing ten pans
semi-moist
colors, six Standards, Black, White, Cool .50
Gray
and Warm Gray, one brush, per box
3. Same box as above, containing five
pans semi-moist
.30
colors. Red, two Yellows, Blue and Gray,
one brush, per box
4. Enameled box containing four pans
semi-moist
.20
colors, Red, Yellow, Blue and Gray, one
brush, per box
5. Same as above, Red, two Yellows and
.20
Blue, per box
6. A decorated box containing eight cakes
of dry
.25
colors, six Standards and two Grays,
one brush, per box
7. A decorated box containing four large
cakes of
.20
dry colors. Red, Yellow, Blue and Gray,
one brush, per box
8. Same box as above. Red, two Yellows
and Blue, two brushes, .20
per box
9. Nine tubes moist colors in strong paper
box.
.90
Six Standards, Warm Gray, Cool Gray
and Black, per set
10. Photograph Colors. A box of eight
colors, the
six Standards and a Chinese White
and a Brown,
.25
with one brush. These colors are
expressly prepared
for coloring photographs, half tone
prints, maps, etc.
Bradley's School Colors, moist in Tubes.
The most economical form for school use.
These colors are so prepared that they
remain moist out of the tube. The set
comprises the following colors: Carmine,
Crimson Lake, Vermilion, Gamboge,
Chinese Yellow, Hooker's Green, No. I, .10
Hooker's Green, No. II, Ultramarine,
Prussian Blue, Sepia, Warm Sepia, Burnt
Sienna, Payne's Gray, Ivory Black, Chinese
White and the six Standards, with Warm,
Cool and Neutral Gray, Black and White,
per tube
Little Artist's Complete Outfit, comprising
a Mixing Palette with its seven
compartments filled with semi-moist .15.03
colors and a brush, the whole enclosed in
a strong cardboard case

ACCESSORIES
Standard Mixing Palette, with seven
compartments for paints and two for
.60.25
mixing. Almost indispensable in using tube
colors. Extra deep, per doz.
Water Cups. An enameled metal cup,
.60.13
practically indestructible, per doz.
Camel's Hair Brushes, Quill, per doz. .30.02
Camel's Hair Brushes, Long Handles, per
.60.03
doz.
Japanese School Brushes, per doz. .60.05
Artists' Camel Hair Brushes, No. 6,
.75 .03
Wooden Handles, per doz.
Milton Bradley Co.'s Water Color Pads—
Made of extra quality paper for water
color work.
No. 1, Pad of 50 sheets, 6x9, each .10.09
No. 2, Pad of 25 sheets, 9x12, each .10.10

APPARATUS

High School Color Wheel, with Disks in


*10.00
box
One set of Disks for above, in box *2.00
Primary School Color Wheel, with Disks *3.00
One set of Disks for above in portfolio .75 .06
Color Top, by mail, each .06
Color Top, by mail, per doz. .50
No. 1 Prism, at buyer's risk .10
No. 2 Prism, at buyer's risk .15
No. 3 Prism, at buyer's risk .30
Rainy Day Spectrum, made from colored
papers, mounted on cardboard, 1" x 13", .10.04
each
Large Spectrum, 5" x 30", mounted on
.25.04
cloth, each
Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, No. 1 X,
on cardboard, 9" x 24", hinged and folded. .50.10
Ninety papers one inch square, each
Chart of Pure Spectrum Scales, No. 2 X.
Size, 12"x48", folded and hinged. Ninety .75 .15
papers two inches square, each
Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales, No. 1.
Size, 9"x12", with paper 1-1/2 inches
.50.10
square, comprising twelve scales of three
tones each
Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales, No. 2.
Size, 12"x48", with the same papers as .75 .15
No. 1, three inches square, each
Chart of Complementary Colors. On
*.50
cardboard 18 inches square, each
Standard Color Chart. On two cards 11x28
inches, hinged and eyeleted for hanging.
This is a combination chart comprising
"Spectrum Standards," "Pure Spectrum
1.25 .15
Scales," "Complementary Contrasts,"
"Broken Spectrum Scales," and "Grays."
Printed suggestions for using the charts
on the back, each

BOOKS ON COLOR.

Water Colors in the Schoolroom, by Milton


.25
Bradley, boards
A new book of practical suggestions,
valuable to every one
who would undertake to teach the
use of water colors.
Elementary color, by Milton Bradley, cloth .75
Gives the principles on which the
Bradley System is based
and an explanation of the use of the
Glass Prism, Color Wheel,
Maxwell Disks, Color Top, Colored
Papers, Color Charts and Water Colors.
The Little Artist by Marion Mackenzie,
.75 .15
cloth
A practical book of water color work
for children,
with 12 beautiful, colored plates. Size
of book, 12x14 inches.
Color in the Kindergarten, by Milton
.25
Bradley, paper covers
A manual of the theory of color and
the use of
color material in the Kindergarten.
A Class Book of Color, by Prof. Mark M.
Maycock. 1.00
Teachers' Edition, cloth
Pupils' Edition, boards .50
A very complete teachers' handbook
in color.
Practical Color Work, by Helena P. Chace,
.25
paper
A handbook for the educational use of
colored
papers in teaching color in primary
and ungraded schools.
The Color Primer, by Milton Bradley, paper.
.10
Teachers' Edition, 80 pages
Pupils' Edition, 24 pages .05
Simple and direct teachings.

MISCELLANEOUS MATERIAL.

Paper Tablets, Set No. 1, 1x2 in. .02


Paper Tablets, Set No. 2, 1x2 in. .02
Paper Tablets, Set No. 3, 1x2 in. .03
Paper Tablets, Set No. 4, 1x2 in. .04
Sample Book, one by four inches,
.05.01
containing the full assortment
Package, 4x4 papers, 100 pieces .20.04
Package, 5x5 papers, 100 pieces .30.05
Fun, Physics and Psychology in Color.
A box of material for simple experiment, .25.07
each
Complementary Color Contrasts. A box of
large material for popular experiments .75 .20
in color vision, each
The Dunn and Curtis Illustrative Sewing
Cards, in color.
Two sets: A. Literature Illustration.
B. Cards for Special Occasions.
Set of eight cards .25
Dozen of any Design .40

MILTON BRADLEY COMPANY,

Springfield, Mass.
Footnotes:
[A] The Principles of Harmony and Contrasts of Colours and their
Application to the Arts. By M. E. Chevreul. Translated from the
French by Charles Martel. Third Edition. London. George Bell and
Sons. 1890.
[B] The Theory of Color in its relation to Art and Art Industry. By
Dr. William Von Bezold. Translated from the German by S. K.
Koehler with introduction and notes by Edward C. Pickering.
Boston; L. Prang & Company, 1876.
[C] Tablets of paper instead of cardboard are recommended
because in primary instruction the standards or types of color
presented to the child ought to be the purest possible expressions
of the colors represented, and a piece of color material cannot
meet this requirement after having been used one year by a child.
The necessary expense of cardboard tablets practically precludes
a new supply each year. But the papers can finally be used to
form, by pasting, some chart or combination which the pupil may
be allowed to own as a sample of his work.
[D] A Nomenclature of Colors for Naturalists and Compendium of
useful Knowledge for Ornithologists by Robert Ridgway, Curator,
Department of Birds, National Museum. Boston, Little, Brown &
Co., 1886.
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