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Quantum
Computing
by Practice
Python Programming in the Cloud
with Qiskit and IBM-Q
—
Second Edition
—
Vladimir Silva
Quantum Computing
by Practice
Python Programming in the Cloud
with Qiskit and IBM-Q
Second Edition
Vladimir Silva
Quantum Computing by Practice: Python Programming in the Cloud with Qiskit and
IBM-Q, Second Edition
Vladimir Silva
CARY, NC, USA
v
Table of Contents
vi
Table of Contents
vii
Table of Contents
viii
Table of Contents
ix
Table of Contents
x
Table of Contents
Index��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 399
xi
About the Author
Vladimir Silva was born in Quito, Ecuador. He received a System’s Analyst degree from
the Polytechnic Institute of the Army in 1994. In the same year, he came to the United
States as an exchange student pursuing an M.S. degree in Computer Science at Middle
Tennessee State University. After graduation, he joined IBM as a software engineer. His
interests include Quantum Computing, Neural Nets, and Artificial Intelligence. He also
holds numerous IT certifications including OCP, MCSD, and MCP. He has written many
technical books in the fields of distributed computing and security. His previous books
include Grid Computing for Developers (Charles River Media), Practical Eclipse Rich
Client Platform Projects (Apress), Pro Android Games (Apress), and Advanced Android 4
Games (Apress).
xiii
About the Technical Reviewer
Jason Whitehorn is an experienced entrepreneur and soft-
ware developer and has helped many companies automate
and enhance their business solutions through data synchro-
nization, SaaS architecture, and machine learning. Jason
obtained his Bachelor of Science in Computer Science from
Arkansas State University, but he traces his passion for de-
velopment back many years before then, having first taught
himself to program BASIC on his family’s computer while
still in middle school.
When he’s not mentoring and helping his team at work, writing, or pursuing one of
his many side-projects, Jason enjoys spending time with his wife and four children and
living in the Tulsa, Oklahoma, region. More information about Jason can be found on his
website: https://jason.whitehorn.us.
xv
Introduction
The Quantum Computing Revolution
I wrote this book to be the ultimate guide for programming a quantum computer in the
cloud. IBM has made their quantum rig (known as the IBM Quantum) available not
only for research but for individuals, in general, interested in this exciting new field of
computing.
Quantum computing is gaining traction and now is the time to learn to program
these machines. In years to come, the first commercial quantum computers should be
available, and they promise significant computational speedups compared to classical
computers. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the field of cryptography where the
quantum integer factorization algorithm can outperform the best classical solution by
orders of magnitude, so much so that a practical implementation of this algorithm will
render current asymmetric encryption useless.
All in all, this book is a journey of understanding. You may find some of the concepts
explained throughout the chapters difficult to grasp; however, you are not alone. The
great physicist Richard Feynman once said: “If somebody tells you he understands
quantum mechanics, it means he doesn’t understand quantum mechanics.” Even the
titans of this bizarre theory have struggled to comprehend what it all means.
I have tried to explore quantum computation to the best of my abilities by using real-
world algorithms, circuits, code, and graphical results. Some of the algorithms included
in this manuscript defy logic and seem more like voodoo magic than a computational
description of a physical system. This is the main reason I decided to tackle this subject.
Even though I find the mind-bending principles of quantum mechanics bizarre, I’ve
always been fascinated by them. Thus, when IBM came up with its one-of-a-kind
quantum computing platform for the cloud and opened it up for the rest of us, I jumped
to the opportunity of learning and creating this manuscript.
Ultimately, this is my take on the subject, and I hope you find as much enjoyment
in reading it as I did writing it. My humble advice: Learn to program quantum
computers; soon they will be ever present in the data center, doing everything from
search and simulations to medicine and artificial intelligence. Here is an overview of the
manuscript’s contents.
xvii
Introduction
xviii
Introduction
around that. All in all, this chapter explores all the physical components of a quantum
computer: quantum gates, types of qubits such as superconducting loops, ion traps,
topological braids, and more. Furthermore, the current efforts of all major technology
players in the subject are described, as well as other types of quantum computation such
as quantum annealing.
xix
Introduction
xx
Introduction
xxi
Introduction
Integer Factorization: the notorious quantum factorization that experts say could bring
current asymmetric cryptography to its knees. This is the best example of the power
of quantum computation by providing exponential speedups over the best classical
solution.
xxii
CHAPTER 1
Quantum Fields:
The Building Blocks
of Reality
The beginning of the 20th century, more specifically 1930s Europe, witnessed the
dawn of arguably one of the greatest theories in human history: quantum mechanics.
After almost a century of change, this wonder of imagination has morphed and taken
many directions. One of these is quantum field theory (QFT) which is the subject of this
chapter. If you enjoy physics and wish to understand why things are the way they are,
then you must get your feet wet with QFT. It has been called the most successful theory
in history, riding high since the 1950s and giving rise to the standard model of particle
physics. This is the modern view of how nature works at the smallest scale, being proven
right time and again by countless experiments and instruments like the Large Hadron
Collider (LHC). All in all, the story of how QFT came to be, and the Masters of Physics
behind it, is a tale of wonder, furious rivalry but ultimate collaboration.
Our story begins in 1900 when Lord Kelvin stood in front of the British Science Royal
Society and enunciated: “There is nothing else to be discovered in physics” – a powerful
statement at the time but clearly wrong in hindsight. Perhaps, we should thank the lord
for such a bold proclamation because it is statements like that that drive others to prove
them wrong. This was put to the test 30 years later in Germany.
Around the 1930s, the great German physicist Max Plank (1858–1947) was working
on the black-body radiation problem, more specifically in the ultraviolet catastrophe.
To understand this problem, let’s backtrack to the physics of how materials glow in
multiple colors at different temperatures. In 1900 British physicist Lord Rayleigh derived
an approximation to predict that process. To accomplish his task, Rayleigh used the
so-called black body, a simple object that would absorb and emit light but not reflect it.
1
© Vladimir Silva 2024
V. Silva, Quantum Computing by Practice, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9991-3_1
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality
Note that the term black doesn’t mean its color is black but that it simply absorbs and
emits light but does not reflect it, so when observed, you’ll see its glow or radiation.
Rayleigh’s work is known as the Rayleigh-Jeans law for spectral radiation of a black body
as a function of its wavelength λ (lambda) and its temperature in Kelvin degrees (K) (see
Equation 1.1):
2cK BT
B T (1.1)
4
where
• λ = wavelength
2
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality
Figure 1-1. Graph of the Rayleigh-Jeans law vs. Planck’s solution for the
ultraviolet catastrophe
2cK BT
B T (1.1)
4
2hc 2 1
B ,T hc
(1.2)
5
e K BT
1
3
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality
It seems logical to assume that at high frequencies (short wavelengths), the energy of
the wave is higher (as there is more stuff flowing in) and that at lower frequencies (higher
wavelengths) the energy decreases. Therefore the energy (E) is directly proportional to
4
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality
its frequency (v) and inversely proportional to its wavelength (λ). This knowledge gave
rise to the standard spectrum of light in the 19th century:
• On the left side of the spectrum (at the shortest wavelengths between
1 picometer and 0.01 nanometers [nm]), sit the gamma rays: very
dangerous, the usual result of a supernova explosion, they are the
most energetic. A gamma-ray burst from a supernova can destroy
everything in its path: all life on Earth, for example, even the solar
system. You don’t want to be in the crosshairs of a gamma-ray burst!
• At a tiny sort after the UV range sits the visible light spectrum that
allows us to enjoy everything we see in this beautiful universe.
• Finally, radio waves above the infrared range. These are used by most
human technology to send all kinds of information such as audio,
video, TV, radio, cell phones, you name it.
5
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality
This is not well known to most people, but Einstein didn’t win a Nobel Prize for
his masterpiece on The Theory of Relativity, but for his work on the quantum nature
of light and the photoelectric effect. Using Planck’s idea, Einstein imagined light as
discrete waves (particles) which he called photons. He used this to solve a paradox in the
photoelectric effect unknown at the time (see Figure 1-3).
Figure 1-3. A fresh idea on the photoelectric effect earned Einstein the Nobel Prize
in Physics in 1921
As its name indicates, the photoelectric effect seeks to describe the behavior
of electrons over a metal surface when light is thrown in the mix. To this end, the
experiment in Figure 1-3 was devised:
• Start with two metal plates. Let’s call them the emitter and the
collector. Both are attached via a cable to a battery. The negative
end of the battery is connected to the emitter, and the positive to the
collector.
6
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality
• The idea is to measure the kinetic energy of the electrons when they
flow from the emitter to the collector when a light source is thrown
into the emitter. To achieve this accurately, a vacuum is set among
the two.
However, this is not what happens. Two things were observed in reality:
7
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality
Figure 1-4 shows a graph of the kinetic energy of the electron (EK) as a function
of the light frequency (f ). At low frequencies, no electrons escape until the threshold
frequency is reached. Now, extend the line as shown by the dotted track in the figure,
and we have a straight line graph (note that the point at which the dotted track intersects
the Y axis is named by the Greek letter φ (Phi)). This is the energy needed to liberate the
electron. Thus, this line graph can be described by the algebraic equation Y = mx + c
where m is the gradient and c is the Y-intercept.
Now instead of Y, substitute the kinetic energy, with the gradient m being Planck’s
constant (h), the frequency (f) instead of x, and c being the energy needed to liberate or –φ.
Therefore, our line graph equality becomes Ek = hf − φ.
This is the equation for the photoelectric effect: the energy leftover after the electron
is liberated equals the energy given by the photon minus the energy needed to liberate it.
Tip Incidentally, the first scientist to think of light as a particle was Isaac Newton.
He thought light traveled in small packets which he called co-puzzles. He also
thought these packets had mass; something that is incorrect. Unfortunately, this
idea never took off and lay dormant until it was revived by the Planck-Einstein
revolution of the 1930s.
8
Chapter 1 Quantum Fields: The Building Blocks of Reality
Copenhagen Interpretation
This is the earliest consensus about the meaning of quantum mechanics, and was born
out of the golden age of physics with contributions from Max Planck, Niels Bohr, Werner
Heisenberg, and others in Copenhagen during the 1920s.
Schrödinger detested Bohr’s interpretation of the atom famously stating that “If I am
to accept the quantum jump, then I am sorry I ever got into the field of atomic research.”
As a matter of fact, his wave function was an attempt to defeat Planck-Bohr-Einstein. He
wanted to throw away the nascent theory of energy quanta and return to the continuous
classical model of wave physics, even pushing the idea that all reality can be described
entirely by waves. So why is ѱ used nowadays everywhere in quantum mechanics?
Thank this to our next physicist: Max Born.
German-Jewish physicist Max Born (1882–1970) took Schrödinger’s wave function
in an entirely new direction. Born proposed a probabilistic interpretation of ѱ, that
is, the state of a particle exists in constant flux, and the only thing we can know is the
probability of the particle at a given state. Born postulated that this probability is
P = ѱ2. Needless to say, Schrödinger didn’t like this at all as he thought his wave function
was being misused. He took a swing at Born with his now famous thought experiment:
the quantum cat. But before we check if the cat in the box is dead or alive and why,
consider this witty story: In the quintessential American cartoon Futurama (by Matt
Groening – creator of The Simpsons), our hero Fry enrolls in the police academy in
New-NewYork on Earth in the year 3000. One day while on patrol, Fry chases a bandit
carrying a mysterious box in the trunk of his car. Once in custody, the bandit is revealed
to be Werner Heisenberg. Fry looks at the box with a face full of trepidation and asks:
“What’s in the box?” To which Heisenberg replies, “a cat.” “Is the cat dead or alive?” asks
Fry. Heisenberg replies: “the cat is neither dead nor alive but in a superposition of states
with a probability assigned to each.” Long story short, Heisenberg the bandit is arrested
as a major violator of the laws of physics. This was a funny tale for the physics buff.
Nevertheless, it shows the quantum cat has become folklore, and the prime example
used to explain the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics.
10
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normal tone of a broken scale of red, for the tint in that scale we must mix
with the standard red a lighter gray and for the shade a darker gray.
When a comparatively small quantity of neutral gray is combined with a pure
color the result is a "gray color," as above described, because the color is quite
definitely retained, but more or less modified by the gray. On the other hand, if
a relatively small quantity of color is added to a neutral gray, the resulting color
is properly called a "colored gray," because it is still a gray modified by color,
and in this class we have warm grays, cool grays, etc., according to the color
combined with the gray. The gray colors are quite generally termed "broken
colors" and this seems a very useful practice, because it avoids the confusion
of the somewhat similar terms "gray color" and "colored gray."
By reference to the Chart of Broken Spectrum Scales on Page 41 it will be seen
that we have only twelve scales and but three tones in each scale, instead of
eighteen scales and five tones, as in the pure scales, for which there is a good
reason.
For educational purposes in the elementary grades, which is the only place
where there is a legitimate use for colored papers, the steps in gradation of
hue or tone must not be too short, and if the saturation or intensity of the
normal colors in the several scales is reduced by adding gray, as in the broken
colors, there is not the possibility for as many steps in either hues or tones
without leaving those colors adjacent to each other too nearly alike. Therefore
in the broken colors there are but thirty-six, instead of ninety, as in the pure
scales.
The distinction between pure colors with tints and shades, and broken colors in
various tones, should be made very plain to the children whenever the subject
is brought to their notice, because it is a vital point in the classification of
colors. Educationally this is one of the most objectionable features in the old
red, yellow and blue theory of color composition, because no distinction is
observed between pure and broken colors in classification. In the Bradley
colored papers the distinction is made very decided for educational purposes,
so that no one would for a moment tolerate the mixture of the normal colors
from the pure scales with the normal colors from the broken scales in the
formation of a spectrum.
This may be illustrated by a selection as follows: First lay in order the normal
spectrum colors with the pure colors found in the first section of the sample
book, thereby forming the central vertical column of Fig. 10. Then substitute
for the orange, green and violet, those colors selected from the collection of
broken colors, and the result will seem to render the operation absurd, but it is
the same in principle as the results produced in the attempt to form a spectrum
by the combination of three primary pigments, red, yellow and blue, because
so produced the orange, green and violet, show by disk analysis from 54 to 80
per cent of black and white and are therefore as much broken as the
corresponding colors in the papers of the broken scales, but not exactly the
same in tone.
Water Colors.
When the subject of color was introduced into the curriculum of the common
schools of this country, the use of paints was a novelty. So little was known
regarding the possibilities of water colors as a means of education, that the
teachers may be excused for having had grave doubts about the practicability
of the scheme. Very few teachers in the lower grades of schools had received
at that time any definite instruction in the harmonies of colors or the
manipulation of pigments; and what little thought had been given to the
subject was based on the three-color theory of Brewster, which was the only
one available at that time.
During the intervening years much has been done to make entirely feasible the
introduction into school and kindergarten of this pleasing and educating
occupation.
Color standards have been adopted, which are nothing less than selections
from the solar spectrum itself, and the manufacture of pigments has improved
so much that it may almost be said to be a new industry. In the training of
teachers, also, color instruction is now given an important place, so that the
kindergartner and primary teacher can give the attention that it deserves to a
subject which is so interwoven with all that is beautiful in the material world
around us.
Passing from one form of color work to another, it is exceedingly important that
children of any grade should find the same principles obtaining in each step of
the way, and also that the knowledge gained in the earliest stages of the work
should be available in the higher forms. This is particularly true of color
instruction as it is now found in the best schools, and the principal reason why
water colors are so much better adapted to use in the schools to-day than in
former years, is because paints are now made to correspond in color with the
standards with which the children have become familiar in the colored papers
and other material of the kindergarten.
At present it is generally conceded that these six colors, Red, Orange, Yellow,
Green, Blue and Violet, which stand out so prominently in the solar spectrum,
are pre-eminently adapted to serve as standards and as the basis of an
alphabet of color. There should, therefore, be no question as to the adoption of
these same colors as the palette of paints for the earliest color work, even with
the babes in the kindergarten, when anything beyond the colored papers and
the usual kindergarten occupations is wanted.
Not very long ago it was the practice to give the child a box of colors and let
him paint at random without any definite instruction as to the relation which
each color should bear to the others. In fact, with the usual cheap box of
paints then in the market there was no decided correlation of the colors nor
any educational selection, both of which we have to-day.
Water colors are now furnished which so closely approach the standards of the
colored papers that they are of the greatest assistance in developing the
æsthetic taste and judgment of the pupils, and it is remarkable how early in
the training of children paints can be used with advantage.
In some of the previous pages of this book we have treated of the false theory
of Sir David Brewster, who supposed that there were three primary colors in
the solar spectrum and that all the other colors were produced by the
overlapping or mixing of these in pairs.
This error, being applied to pigments, has worked much harm and has greatly
retarded the progress of color study. Even now some teachers recommend the
use of the red, yellow and blue palette on the ground of simplicity and
economy.
All the recent scientific writers on color treat this three-color scheme as already
exploded, because the simplest as well as the most complex experiments with
colored light prove its falsity. Nevertheless, the fact that yellow and blue, which
with light make very nearly white, do in the mixture of pigments produce a
green, has deceived many persons. But the best green that can be so procured
is a very broken color and not to be successfully compared with the beautiful
and brilliant green of the spectrum. Why then, should we not have in our
paints imitations of the solar green, orange and violet as well as the red, yellow
and blue? It is not well to sacrifice so much for alleged simplicity, and as for
economy, it will take but a moment's reflection to see that it would take no
more paint to cover a given surface with six colors than with three.
Oil colors, of course, are out of the question and pastels almost equally so, for
although full colors may be produced in both these mediums, they are not
suited to the use of young children, and at best are neither neat nor
convenient, while colored pencils are not sufficiently satisfactory in results.
Therefore water colors seem to be better adapted to primary work than any
other pigmentary material.
Of necessity the pupil must later be able to recognize any pigment he may
meet and to classify it according to its color value and also to give it a definite
name, other than the one by which it is sold.
More than one professional artist has already worked successfully from nature
in oil colors with a palette consisting of only close approximations to the six
standard colors with white and a few grays. A person whose color perception
has been trained by the use of the color disk in six standard colors with colored
papers to correspond, will undoubtedly be able to more truthfully reproduce
the colors which he sees in nature, on the canvas or paper by means of such a
pallette than if he had been taught by any other system and used the ordinary
pigments.
Color Blindness.
The subject of color blindness has received much attention because of its
practical importance in the affairs of our daily lives. The use of colored lights as
signals on ships and railroads has necessitated very strict regulations regarding
the employment of persons whose color vision is defective, and therefore in
some states specialists have been employed by the state authorities to
examine from time to time the school children regarding their perception of
colors.
Possibly this condition of things may not at present be considered a serious
reflection on the methods of color instruction, or lack of such instruction in our
schools because it has become so common as to attract little attention. But if it
were necessary for the same course to be pursued in any other department of
our public education that fact would not fail to occasion very uncomplimentary
remarks regarding the methods employed.
For example, if a state official were necessary to determine whether pupils are
deaf or not after they have been through our grammar schools, and
preliminary to accepting positions of responsibility, it would seem that
something was wrong, and yet after a child has had instruction in color
according to a logical system there should be no more necessity for an
examination regarding his ability to properly distinguish colors than there
should regarding his ability to hear.
Color blindness has quite generally been divided into three classes, red, green,
and violet blindness, those afflicted with red blindness being most numerous,
and the cases of violet blindness being very rare, if indeed there are any which
may properly be so called.
This classification, known as the Holmgren system, seems to have been based
on the Young-Helmholtz theory that all color perceptions are the result of three
primary effects in the eye, namely, red, green and violet, rather than on any
analytical classification of actual experiments concerning color blindness.
Color tests should be so arranged as to detect either a defect in the brain
which renders it difficult for the pupil to remember the names of the several
colors, or in the eye, by which he cannot see a difference between two
dissimilar colors.
A person totally color blind would see in the solar spectrum a band of gray in
various tones, and hence if a red and a green should seem to be of the same
tone of gray he would call both either red or green, and after much experience
would come to give color names to various tones of gray.
Such cases, however, are exceedingly rare, if in fact they exist. Other scientists
and physiologists have doubted the truth of the claims made by both Holmgren
and Helmholtz, and some have made extended experiments regarding color
blindness which seem to oppose the Holmgren theory. In view of these
conditions it does not seem necessary for a teacher in the elementary grades
to attempt to grasp the situation very fully, and much less to aid in the solution
of the problem. Very fortunately this is unnecessary, because in all the scientific
tests proposed for adults nothing is accomplished which any primary school
teacher will not be easily able to determine during the first two or three years
of ordinary school work, if the modern system of color instruction is pursued.
There is no better material than colored papers for testing the color
perceptions, and the exercises of selecting, matching and arranging the
spectrum colors by means of the small color tablets generally in use in the first
years of school are the very best that can be devised without regard to any of
the abstract theories concerning either the cause or the possible classification
of color blindness.
For some reason the most common form of color blindness occasions a
confusion between red and green, as for example, we are told, by some
people, that in picking wild strawberries in a field the fruit can be distinguished
from the leaves and grass only by the shape, and the green fruit from the ripe
by the touch or taste.
If a teacher discovers that a child is unable to readily give the name of a color
it may not indicate want of color vision, but merely inability to remember
names, and therefore various tests which will naturally suggest themselves can
be made to aid in reaching a decision on this point. Should the results of the
tests seem to indicate some defect in color vision, the nature of the trouble
should be sought and memoranda made from time to time for future reference,
and if the final result shows a radical lack of color perception the parents
should be informed of the fact and a physician consulted.
It is probable that the number of color blind women is very much less than that
of men, and much time has been spent in debating the matter, but some doubt
remains as to whether this opinion does not obtain because the girls are
brought so much more intimately into relation with colored materials in
selecting their articles of dress, and consequently come to know the names of
colors much better, and in fact enjoy a much better color education than the
men. A more correct decision regarding this question can better be reached
when both the boys and girls receive a systematic color education and their
color sense is more equally cultivated.
A Glass Prism, the cost of which need not exceed a few cents, as almost any
lamp or gas pendent in the form of a prism will serve the purpose. By the use
of such a prism a small spectrum can be shown on the wall of any schoolroom
having a sunny exposure during any part of the day. This spectrum will make
plain the fact that sunlight is composed of many colors.
METHOD.
Show to the pupils the best solar spectrum that can be produced under the
controlling conditions.
Call attention to the six colors, red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet, and
the order of their arrangement in the spectrum.
Present the colors separately as far as possible, selecting the best conditions
available for each one.
Ask the pupils to separate the six standards from the twelve spectrum hues.
Standards to be arranged in spectrum order.
Teach the names of the standards.
Test natural color perceptions by the attempts of the pupils to lay the spectrum
in the eighteen papers.
Explain the intermediate hues by the color disks, and drill with the tablets.
Continue the practice of having the pupils lay the entire spectrum with the
papers until it is familiar to them.
PRACTICAL OCCUPATIONS.
Pasting simple designs in either of the six standard colors, on white or gray
background, with ready-cut papers. Marking forms from tablets and cutting and
pasting them on backgrounds.
Study of Tones.
MATERIAL.
Folding models to show light and shade. Crumpled satins and plushes.
Standard color disks with white and black, on wheel or tops.
Paper tablets, Selection No. 2, Tints No. 1, Shades No. 1, White, Black and
Neutral Grays.
METHOD.
Ask each pupil to lay spectrum in eighteen normal colors. Lay tints and shades
of the six standards.
Have the children complete tints and shades No. 1 of entire spectrum circuit.
Illustrate neutral grays by white in shadow with folding model, also with white
and black disks combined.
Begin to classify into families the miscellaneous color material brought by the
pupils.
PRACTICAL OCCUPATIONS.
Broken Colors.
MATERIAL.
METHOD.
PRACTICAL OCCUPATIONS.
METHOD.
Continue the study of tones with pure spectrum scales in five tones, as was
done in the first three tones.
From the Chart of Spectrum Scales the study and classification of harmonies
can begin in a simple way.
From this time on free-hand paper cutting and pasting may be introduced at
pleasure, employing the colored papers in five tones when required.
Water Colors.
This outline would not be complete without a reference to water colors, but
this is not the place to give definite instructions as to their use. Kindergartners
and primary teachers are now generally competent to direct the children in this
work, if they will avail themselves of such aid as is furnished by recently
published books on the subject.
Non-poisonous paints, cheap and still of fair quality, can now be obtained in
standard colors and put up in various forms. The moist paints in collapsible
tubes are the most convenient as well as the most economical for school use.
This form should be accompanied by a small mixing palette containing several
compartments, which can be bought at so small a price that each pupil can
have one. The paint in the tubes can then be dealt out only as required for
each day's use.
WATER COLORS.
ACCESSORIES
Standard Mixing Palette, with seven
compartments for paints and two for
.60.25
mixing. Almost indispensable in using tube
colors. Extra deep, per doz.
Water Cups. An enameled metal cup,
.60.13
practically indestructible, per doz.
Camel's Hair Brushes, Quill, per doz. .30.02
Camel's Hair Brushes, Long Handles, per
.60.03
doz.
Japanese School Brushes, per doz. .60.05
Artists' Camel Hair Brushes, No. 6,
.75 .03
Wooden Handles, per doz.
Milton Bradley Co.'s Water Color Pads—
Made of extra quality paper for water
color work.
No. 1, Pad of 50 sheets, 6x9, each .10.09
No. 2, Pad of 25 sheets, 9x12, each .10.10
APPARATUS
BOOKS ON COLOR.
MISCELLANEOUS MATERIAL.
Springfield, Mass.
Footnotes:
[A] The Principles of Harmony and Contrasts of Colours and their
Application to the Arts. By M. E. Chevreul. Translated from the
French by Charles Martel. Third Edition. London. George Bell and
Sons. 1890.
[B] The Theory of Color in its relation to Art and Art Industry. By
Dr. William Von Bezold. Translated from the German by S. K.
Koehler with introduction and notes by Edward C. Pickering.
Boston; L. Prang & Company, 1876.
[C] Tablets of paper instead of cardboard are recommended
because in primary instruction the standards or types of color
presented to the child ought to be the purest possible expressions
of the colors represented, and a piece of color material cannot
meet this requirement after having been used one year by a child.
The necessary expense of cardboard tablets practically precludes
a new supply each year. But the papers can finally be used to
form, by pasting, some chart or combination which the pupil may
be allowed to own as a sample of his work.
[D] A Nomenclature of Colors for Naturalists and Compendium of
useful Knowledge for Ornithologists by Robert Ridgway, Curator,
Department of Birds, National Museum. Boston, Little, Brown &
Co., 1886.
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