Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

Geographical Extent
Location: The Indus Valley Civilization covered a vast area from Tibet in the north to Karachi
in the south. It includes parts of modern-day India and Pakistan.
Central Region: The civilization was centered around the Indus River and its tributaries,
crucial for supporting its agricultural economy.
Water Sources
Rivers: The Indus River and its tributaries flowing from Tibet to Karachi were vital. These
rivers created fertile plains that allowed advanced agriculture, sustaining large urban
populations.
Definition of Civilization
Civilization: The most advanced stage of human social development characterized by:
Material Advancement: Development and use of technology, tools, and other physical
artifacts.
Intellectual Development: Use of written language, record-keeping, and advancements in
science and arts.
Complex Social Structures: Formation of complex political systems, economic institutions,
social hierarchies, and religious beliefs and values.
Important Sites of the Indus Valley Civilization
Post-Partition: After the partition of British India in 1947, key sites were divided between
Pakistan and India.
Major Sites:
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa: Located in present-day Pakistan.
Kalibangan and Lothal: Located in India. Kalibangan is known for early farming communities
and plowed fields, while Lothal is noted for its dockyard, indicating the importance of trade.
Archaeological Excavations
Key Archaeologists:
Sir John Marshall: Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India; played a pivotal
role in excavating the civilization from 1920 to 1947.
Sir Mortimer Wheeler: Continued excavations and studies on the civilization.
Discovery: Sites were often discovered accidentally, such as when laborers laying railway
tracks found ancient bricks and artifacts, leading to extensive excavations.
Mohenjo-Daro: Overview and Key Features
Location: Larkana, Sindh, Pakistan.
Excavation: By Sir John Marshall from 1922 to 1931.
Main Buildings:
The Great Bath:
Dimensions: 24 feet wide, 40 feet long, and 8 feet deep.
Structure: Verandahs on all four sides, with bathrooms and a well nearby.
Drainage: Elaborate system to carry away sewage.
Purpose: Possibly used for religious rituals or community activities.
College of Priests:
Dimensions: 230 feet long and 78 feet wide.
Structure: Great hall supported by pillars, possibly for gatherings or religious ceremonies.
Pillared Hall: Large hall supported by pillars, indicating its importance, possibly for
administrative or public purposes.
Urban Planning
Drainage System: Well-planned system where excess water from roads and buildings was
channeled away to avoid flooding.
Bathrooms and Wells: Almost every house had a private well and bathroom. Wells were round
and made of brick, often surrounded by a courtyard. Public wells were also available.
Street Layout:
Grid Pattern: Main streets running north-south and secondary streets running east-west,
intersecting at right angles, creating a well-organized city divided into blocks.
Pottery of the Indus Valley
Types of Pottery:
Basket-marked Pottery: Made by pressing clay into baskets to create an imprint.
Handmade Pottery: Crafted by hand without a potter's wheel.
Wheel Pottery: Made using a potter's wheel, resulting in more uniform shapes.
Pottery Objects: Jars, bowls, cups, saucers, vases, and goblets.
Clay Composition: Made from clay mixed with sand, lime (chalk), and mica, often coated with
a red slip.
Designs: Geometric patterns, including horizontal waves, crisscross lines, circles, and floral
motifs like the pipal leaf. Some designs included depictions of animals, birds, and human
figures.
Burial Practices
Types:
Inhumation: Entire body buried intact.
Fractional Burial: Body exposed until flesh decomposed, then bones buried.
Cremation: Body burned, and ashes buried.
Grave Goods: Ornaments like anklets, bracelets, bangles, rings, beads, and pottery vessels.
Seals of the Indus Valley Civilization
Materials: Made from steatite (a type of soft stone), ivory, copper, agate, and clay.
Purpose: Likely used for commercial transactions or administrative purposes; some scholars
believe they also served as amulets.
Arts and Crafts
Stone Carving: Skilled in stone carving, producing refined sculptures. The "Dancing Girl"
statue is a notable example of their work in bronze.
Beads: Made from gold, silver, copper, and precious stones. Potters crafted bowls and other
objects from these materials.
Terracotta Objects: Human and animal figurines, with females often depicted heavily
adorned. Commonly found in homes and fields.
Trade
Internal Trade:
Regions: Major regions included Punjab, Baluchistan, and Gujarat.
Trade Items: Lothal known for rice, Balochistan for wool, Gujarat for cotton.
External Trade: Traded with regions like Bahrain (Dilmun), Mesopotamia (Meluha), and parts
of Central Asia and the Persian Gulf.
Religion
Beliefs: Exact beliefs remain unclear, but likely practiced nature worship, suggested by seals
and figurines found at sites.
Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization
Natural Factors: Climate change, earthquakes, flooding, and epidemics may have contributed
to the decline.
Human Factors: Invasion of the Aryans, deforestation, and decay of administrative systems
likely played significant roles.
Aryan Migration
Timeline: Aryans migrated to India around 1500 B.C. from Central Asia.
Social and Political Life:
Social and Political Life:
System: Tribal political system and social structure emphasizing family and class divisions.
Women: Practiced monogamy and valued women's high status in society.
Economic Life: Agriculture and trade were the backbones of their economy.
Religious Life: Introduced Hinduism, with sacred texts like the Bhagavad Gita written in
Sanskrit.
Caste System: Society divided into four main classes: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas
(warriors), Vaishyas (traders), and Shudras (laborers).
Harappa
Location:
Harappa is located in the Punjab province of modern-day Pakistan, near the Ravi River.
It was the first site of the Indus Valley Civilization to be discovered, leading to the civilization
being named after it.
Discovery:
Harappa was discovered in the 1920s by archaeologist Daya Ram Sahni.
The discovery revealed a complex urban culture, leading to the identification of the Indus
Valley Civilization.
Urban Planning:
Harappa was a well-planned city, divided into two main parts:
The Citadel: A raised area likely used for administrative and religious purposes. It contained
large structures that might have served as public buildings, granaries, or assembly halls.
The Lower Town: The lower part of the city where the majority of the population lived. It was
organized into a grid system with streets running at right angles. Houses were made of
baked bricks and often had private wells, bathrooms, and drainage systems connected to a
larger city-wide drainage network.
Architecture:
Harappa had advanced architecture with standardized brick sizes used for construction.
Buildings included residential houses, workshops, granaries, and possibly temples or
administrative buildings. The granaries suggest an organized approach to food storage and
distribution.
Economy:
Harappa was a major center for trade and craftsmanship.
The city had workshops for making pottery, beads, and tools.
Harappan seals made of steatite were used in trade and have been found in regions as far
away as Mesopotamia, indicating long-distance trade connections.
away as Mesopotamia, indicating long-distance trade connections.
Social and Cultural Aspects:
The people of Harappa practiced various crafts, including bead-making, metallurgy, and
pottery.
They had a script known as the Indus script, though it remains undeciphered.
The discovery of terracotta figurines, toys, and jewelry suggests a rich cultural life.
Decline:
Harappa began to decline around 1900 BCE.
The reasons for the decline are debated but could include climate change, shifting river
patterns, or invasions by outside groups.
Mohenjo-Daro
Location:
Mohenjo-Daro is located in the Sindh province of modern-day Pakistan, near the Indus River.
It is one of the largest and most sophisticated cities of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Discovery:
Mohenjo-Daro was discovered in the 1920s by archaeologist R.D. Banerji.
It is one of the most extensively excavated sites of the Indus Valley Civilization and provides
significant insights into the urban planning and culture of the Harappan people.
Urban Planning:
Mohenjo-Daro was meticulously planned, divided into two main sections:
The Citadel: A fortified area on a raised platform, possibly serving as the administrative and
religious center. It contained large public baths, granaries, and possibly assembly halls.
The Lower City: The area where most of the population lived. It was organized in a grid
pattern with wide streets and houses built of baked bricks. The houses often had private
wells, bathrooms, and an advanced drainage system connected to covered drains along the
streets.
Architecture:
Mohenjo-Daro is renowned for its sophisticated architecture, particularly the Great Bath, a
large rectangular tank made of baked bricks and waterproofed with a layer of bitumen, likely
used for ritual bathing.
Granaries: Large, carefully designed storage facilities for grain, indicating a well-organized
food distribution system.
Residential buildings: Houses with multiple rooms, courtyards, and sometimes even two
stories. The presence of wells and bathing areas within houses suggests a high standard of
stories. The presence of wells and bathing areas within houses suggests a high standard of
living.
Economy:
Mohenjo-Daro was a major center for trade and manufacturing.
The city had workshops for making beads, pottery, and metal goods.
The discovery of standardized weights and measures suggests that trade was well-
regulated. Like Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro was connected to a vast trade network that extended
to regions like Mesopotamia.
Social and Cultural Aspects:
The people of Mohenjo-Daro were skilled artisans, producing finely crafted pottery, tools,
and jewelry.
The city is also known for its seals, which feature animal motifs and inscriptions in the
undeciphered Indus script. These seals were likely used in trade and possibly had religious or
administrative significance.
The discovery of numerous figurines, toys, and ornaments indicates a rich cultural life. Some
figurines, like the famous "Dancing Girl" made of bronze, suggest that dance and music may
have been part of their cultural practices.
Decline:
Mohenjo-Daro, like Harappa, experienced a decline around 1900 BCE.
The reasons for this decline are not fully understood, but theories include environmental
changes, river course shifts, and possible invasions by outside groups.