MINERALOGY

by Group 2
 MEMBERS
Belano
Cloma
Cunanan
Pancho
Siez
 SUBTOPICS
Symmetry Elements of Crystallographic Systems
Physical Properties of Minerals
Rock Forming Minerals
Process of Formatiom of all Minerals
Coal and Petroleum
 WHAT IS MINERALOGY?
Mineralogy is the branch of geology that studies the
composition, structure, properties, classification, and
formation of minerals. Minerals are naturally occurring,
inorganic solids with a definite chemical composition
and an ordered atomic arrangement (crystalline
structure).

Mineralogy plays a critical role in civil engineering

because minerals are the primary components of rocks,
soils, and construction materials.
 CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC
SYSTEMS
also known as crystal systems, are a classification scheme
used to categorize crystals based on their symmetry and
the geometry of their unit cells. The unit cell is the smallest
repeating unit of a crystal lattice that reflects the overall
symmetry and structure of the crystal. There are seven
crystal systems
 SYMMETRY ELEMENTS IN
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
Symmetry elements are fundamental to understanding
the structure and properties of crystalline materials. In
crystallography, symmetry elements are geometric
entities such as points, lines, and planes that define the
symmetrical arrangement of atoms within a crystal. These
elements are used to describe the repeating patterns in
a crystal lattice.
SYMMETRY ELEMENTS IN
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
Center of Symmetry
Axis of Symmetry
Plane of Symmetry
Axis of Rotatory Inversion
Screw-axis of Symmetry
Glide-plane of Symmetry
The word "Symmetry," carefully written with somewhat
distorted letters, shows a two-fold axis (a rotation of 180
degrees) perpendicular to the screen.
 SYMMETRY ELEMENTS IN
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
Center of Symmetry
Also called inversion
center. It is a point within the
crystal such that any point in the
crystal has an equivalent point
at the same distance but the
opposite direction. calcite
 Center of Symmetry

Two objects related

by a center of
symmetry and

Hands (left and right)

a polyhedron showing
related through a
a center of symmetry
center of symmetry
in its center
 SYMMETRY ELEMENTS IN
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
Axis of Symmetry
When an imaginary line
can be passed through a crystal
such that the crystal can be
rotated 360o about the line to fill
the same space two, three, four,
or six times, it has an axis of
symmetry.
kaolinite
 Axis of Symmetry

The crystal may be rotated such that it represents the

same appearance more than once during the
complete revolution.
 SYMMETRY ELEMENTS IN
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
Plane of Symmetry
When an imaginary plane is
passed through a crystal such
that the portion of the crystal on
one side of the plane is a
reflection, or mirror image, of
the portion on the other side of
the plane, the plane is a plane
orthoclase
of symmetry (often called a
mirror plane).
 Plane of Symmetry

Parallel Planes of Symmetry

 Plane of Symmetry

Diagonal Planes of Symmetry

 SYMMETRY ELEMENTS IN
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
Axis of Rotatory Inversion
also called a rotoinversion
axis. If an axis turned through n
degrees (where n = 120o, 90o,
or 60o) and the crystal inverted
through its center brings the
crystal into coincidence with its
original space, then the crystal
has, respectively a 3, 4, or 6 -fold quartz
axis of rotatory inversion.
 Axis of Rotatory Inversion

symbol i or 1̅ (one bar)

x, y, z = -x, -y, -z
Axis of Rotatory Inversion
 SYMMETRY ELEMENTS IN
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
Screw-axis of Symmetry & Glide Plane of Symmetry

Screw-axes and glide planes are not visible in a macroscopic, or even

a microscopic, crystal. They only appear in the unit cell, and are visible
to the x-ray crystallographer. They are included here because one or
both are found in several crystal classes; and while we cannot observe
them, we occasionally see their effects.
 SYMMETRY ELEMENTS IN
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
Screw-axis of Symmetry
A screw axis combines
rotation with translation
along the axis. It is a
symmetry element found in
space groups rather than
point groups.
gypsum
 Screw-axis of Symmetry

Twofold screw axis. A screw axis

consists of a rotation followed by a
translation
 SYMMETRY ELEMENTS IN
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
Glide Plane of Symmetry
is a symmetry element in crystallography that combines
reflection (across a plane) with translation (a shift) parallel to the
plane. This symmetry operation is commonly found in space
groups, which describe the symmetry of crystal structures in
three dimensions.
 Glide Plane of Symmetry

Glide plane.applied to a left hand. The left hand reflects on

the plane, generating a right hand that moves a half of the
lattice translation in the direction of the glide operation.
 THE 7 CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC
SYSTEMS
Crystals are classified into seven crystal systems based on their
symmetry elements and lattice parameters. Each system has a
unique set of symmetry elements:
1. Triclinic System
2. Monoclinic System
3. Orthorhombic System
4. Tetragonal System
5. Trigonal (Rhombohedral) System
6. Hexagonal System
7. Cubic System
TRICKS!!!
 TRICKS!!!
CUBIC

TETRAGONAL

ORTHORHOMBIC

MONOCLINIC

TRICLINIC

HEXAGONAL
TRICKS!!! EDGE LENGTH INTERFACIAL ANGLES
CUBIC a=b=c a = β = Y = 90°

TETRAGONAL a=b≠c a = β = Y = 90°

ORTHORHOMBIC a≠b≠c a = β = Y = 90°

MONOCLINIC a≠b≠c a = Y = 90° β ≠ 90°

TRICLINIC a≠b≠c a ≠ β ≠ Y ≠ 90°

HEXAGONAL a=b≠c a = β = 90° Y = 120°

RHOMBOHEDRAL a=b=c a = β = 90° Y ≠ 90°

 PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES OF
MINERALS
REFER TO THE CHARACTERISTICS
THAT CAN BE OBSERVED OR
MEASURED WITHOUT CHANGING
THE MINERAL'S CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION.
GEOLOGIST WORKING IN FIELD DON’T USUALLY
HAVE ACCESS TO THE SOPHISTICATED
LABORATORY TECHNIQUES NEEDED TO
DETERMINE THESE PROPERTIES.

A PARTICULAR MINERAL MAY BE FOUND IN

SEVERAL APPARENTLY DIFFERING FORMS BUT ITS
FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES WILL BE
THE SAME.
8 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
1. HARDNESS
2. COLOR
3. LUSTER
4. STREAK
5. CLEAVAGE
6. FRACTURE
7. DENSITY
8. CRYSTAL FORM
 HARDNESS
A MEASURE OF A MINERAL'S
RESISTANCE TO SCRATCHING. IT IS
COMMONLY TESTED USING MOHS'
SCALE OF HARDNESS, WHICH RANGES
FROM 1 (SOFTEST, TALC) TO 10
(HARDEST, DIAMOND).
 COLOR
THE COLOR OF A MINERAL'S SURFACE,
THOUGH IT CAN SOMETIMES BE
MISLEADING DUE TO IMPURITIES OR
WEATHERING.
 LUSTER
THE WAY A MINERAL REFLECTS LIGHT. IT
CAN BE DESCRIBED AS METALLIC,
GLASSY, PEARLY, OR DULL.
 STREAK
THE COLOR OF THE MINERAL IN
POWDERED FORM, WHICH CAN OFTEN
BE DIFFERENT FROM THE MINERAL'S
SURFACE COLOR. THIS IS TESTED BY
RUBBING THE MINERAL ON A
PORCELAIN STREAK PLATE.
 CLEAVAGE
THE TENDENCY OF A MINERAL TO
BREAK ALONG FLAT PLANES OF
WEAKNESS IN ITS STRUCTURE,
PRODUCING SMOOTH, SHINY
SURFACES.
 FRACTURE
REFERS TO THE WAY A MINERAL
BREAKS WHEN IT DOES NOT
HAVE ANY NATURAL PLANES OF
WEAKNESS, OR CLEAVAGE.
 DENSITY
THE MASS OF THE MINERAL PER
UNIT VOLUME, OFTEN EXPRESSED
AS SPECIFIC GRAVITY, WHICH
COMPARES THE MINERAL'S
DENSITY TO THAT OF WATER.
 Mass
DENSITY = ________
Volume
 CRYSTAL FORM
THE EXTERNAL SHAPE OF A MINERAL,
WHICH REFLECTS ITS INTERNAL
ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS.
CRYSTALS MAY FORM IN VARIOUS
SHAPES, LIKE CUBES, PRISMS, OR
PYRAMIDS.
 ROCK
FORMING
MINERALS
 KINDS OF ROCK
FORMING MINERALS

QUARTZ
PLAGIOCLASE
FELDSPAR
MICA
OLIVINE
PYROXENE
AMPHIBOLE
 QUARTZ
Quartz, which is usually called silica, is one
of the most common minerals in the
Earth's crust.
Quartz is made up of silicon dioxide (SiOz)
Quartz crystals are usually hexagonal and
prismatic in shape.
Pure quartz is colourless, although the
presence of impurities may give a range
of colours, such as violet, pink and orange.
Quartz is the raw material for making
glass
 FELDSPAR
Plagioclase feldspar is sodium- or calcium-rich
feldspar. The chemical composition ranges
from sodium aluminium silicate to calcium
aluminium silicate.
Plagioclase feldspar crystals usually occur as
stubby prisms.
Plagioclase feldspar is generally white to grey
and has vitreous lustre.
Plagioclase feldspar is an important industrial
mineral used in ceramics
 MICA
Micas are made up of varying amounts of
potassium, magnesium, iron, as well as
aluminium, silicon and water.
Micas form flat, book-like crystals that split into
individual sheets, separating into smooth flakes
along the cleavage planes.
They are common minerals in intrusive igneous
rocks, and can also be found in sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks.
Biotite is dark, black or brown mica; muscovite
is light-colored or clear mica
 OLIVINE
Olivine contains iron and magnesium.
Olivine is a green, glassy mineral.
Olivine is common in mafic and ultramafic rocks.
Clear and transparent olivine crystals are
commonly faceted as gemstones

Mafic - a kind of igneous rock or even

magma that is relatively high in
magnesium and iron content

Ultramafic- an igneous rock with

extremely low silica composition, being
made of almost all olivine and pyroxene
 PYROXENE
Pyroxene minerals generally
contain magnesium, iron,
calcium and aluminium as well as
silicon and oxygen.
Pyroxenes form short or columnar
prismatic crystals
Pyroxene crystals are commonly
faceted as gemstones. For
instance, precious jade (jadeite)
is a pyroxene.
 AMPHIBOLE
Amphibole minerals generally contain
iron, magnesium, calcium and
aluminium as well as silicon, oxygen,
and water.
Amphiboles form prismatic or needle-
like crystals.
•Amphibole is a component of many
igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Hornblende is a common member of
the amphibole group of rock-forming
minerals.
 HOW ARE THESE USED?
Minerals are used in construction Industries such as
making foundations, concrete, road base, tile, cement,
bricks etc. Iron is used to make rods, steel beams, wire
and nails.

Rocks are used for masonry work, lintels, and

vertical columns, covering floors of the building.
 SIGNIFICANCE
Rock forming minerals are crucial in civil engineering
as they are used as foundation rocks, road metals,
concrete aggregates, building stones, floorings, and
roofing materials. The properties of rocks, such as
strength, durability, and appearance, can be
assessed with knowledge of the minerals that form
them.
 Natural Aesthetics

Fire Resistance

Minimal Maintenance

Requirement
 A Q T U Z R
C I A M
L O H I P A M B E
O R E N E P Y
L O V I N I E
D E L P R A S F
 PROCESS OF
FORMATION OF ALL
MINERALS
MINERALS FORM THROUGH
VARIOUS GEOLOGICAL
PROCESSES
Crystallization from Magma/Lava
Precipitation from Aqueous solution
Biological Activity (Biomineralization)
Metamorphism
Weathering
 CRYSTALLIZATION FROM
MAGMA/LAVA
As magma (molten rock beneath the Earth's surface) or lava (molten rock on the
Earth's surface) cools, the atoms and ions within it arrange themselves into an
ordered, crystalline structure, forming minerals.

The size and shape of the crystals depend on the cooling rate; slow cooling allows
for larger, well-formed crystals, while rapid cooling results in smaller, less distinct
crystals.
EXAMPLES:

Quartz Mica
Feldspar
PRECIPITATION FROM AQUEOUS
SOLUTION
Minerals can form when dissolved ions in water become supersaturated
and precipitate out of solution, forming solid mineral deposits.

Examples:
Evaporation: As water evaporates from lakes, seas, or inland drainage
basins, dissolved minerals crystallize, leaving behind mineral deposits.
Hot Water: Hot water flowing underground can dissolve minerals and
deposit them in fractures or open spaces in rocks.
Hydrothermal Solutions: Minerals can precipitate from hot, mineral-rich
fluids that circulate through the Earth's crust.
EXAMPLES OF MINERALS:

Halite (table
Calcite Gypsum
salt)
 BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY
(BIOMINERALIZATION)
Some minerals are formed by the activity of living organisms, such as the formation
of shells, bones, and teeth.
EXAMPLES:
Seashells: Calcite (calcium carbonate) is a major component of many seashells.
Bones and Teeth: Apatite (a phosphate mineral) is a primary component of
bones and teeth.
Bacteria: Some bacteria can produce minerals, such as gold.
 METAMORPHISM

Existing minerals can be transformed into new minerals under high temperatures
and/or pressures, a process known as metamorphism.
EXAMPLES:
Garnet: Can form from the metamorphism of other minerals.
Amphibole: Can form from the metamorphism of other minerals.
Mica (biotite and muscovite):Can form from the metamorphism of other
minerals.

Garnet Amphibole Mica (biotite and

muscovite)
 OTHER PROCESSES
Weathering:
The breakdown of rocks and minerals at the Earth's surface can lead to the formation of
new minerals.

Diagenesis:
The chemical and physical changes that occur in sediments after they are deposited.

Volcanic Gases:
Minerals can form from volcanic gases, such as native sulfur around volcanic vents.
PASDFLER
TQAZURA
ARNTGE
ATCL
ORIGIN AND OCCURENCE
OF COAL AND PETROLEUM
 it is a non-renewable,
combustible, hard, black solid
substance, consisting briefly
of carbonised plant matter,
found mainly underground
seams and used as fuel
PETROLEUM

also called crude oil, is a fossil

fuel. Like coal and natural gas,
petroleum was
formed from the remains of
ancient marine organisms, such as
plants, algae, and bacteria
ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCE
OF COAL AND PETROLEUM
Coal and petroleum are formed
as a result of degradation of
ancient plant life which lived
millions of years ago. These dead
plant matter started to pile up,
eventually forming a substance
called peat. Over time, heat and
pressure from geological
processes transformed these
materials into coal.
ORIGIN OF COAL
ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM
TYPES OF COAL
LIGNITE
aka brown coal, is the lowest
grade coal with the least
concentration of
carbon. Lignite has a low
heating value and a high
moisture content and is
mainly
used in electricity generation.
TYPES OF COAL
BITUMINOUS
a middle rank coal between
subbituminous and
anthracite. Bituminous coal
usually has a high heating
(Btu) value and is used in
electricity generation and
steel making.
TYPES OF COAL
ANTHRACITE
The highest rank of coal. It is a
hard, brittle, and black
lustrous coal,
often referred to as hard coal,
containing a high percentage
of fixed carbon and a
low percentage of volatile
matter
PRODUCTS FROM PETROLEUM
Gasoline
Diesel fuel
Kerosene
Aviation fuel
Butane
Petroleum Jelly
Paints and inks
Asphalt
HOW IS COAL USED IN THE FIELD
OF CIVIL ENGINEERING?
Coal plays a significant role in civil
engineering, primarily as a fuel source for
industries that produce essential
construction materials like cement and steel,
and also through the use of coal byproducts
and waste materials
1. Fuel for Construction Materials Production:
Cement:
Coal is a major fuel source for cement plants, which
require high temperatures to produce clinker, the main
ingredient in cement.

Steel:
Coal coke (a product of coal processing) is used in the
smelting of iron ore to produce steel, a crucial material
for bridges, buildings, and other infrastructure.

Other Industries:
Coal is also used as fuel in the concrete and paper
industries, contributing to the overall energy needs of
the construction sector.
HOW IS PETROLEUM USED IN THE
FIELD OF CIVIL ENGINEERING?
Petroleum, particularly asphalt derived from
it, is a crucial material in civil engineering,
primarily used in road construction for
pavement surfaces, as well as in other
applications like soil stabilization and as a
component in concrete mixes.
Asphalt for Pavements:
Asphalt, a viscous adhesive derived from petroleum refining, is
the primary binder in hot mix asphalt (HMA) used for road
surfaces.

Soil Stabilization:
Petroleum-contaminated soil (PCS) can be used in construction
applications after stabilization, such as mixing it with cement to
create a stable base for roads.

Other Applications:
Petroleum products, like fuel oils, are used for heating and
electricity generation in various civil engineering projects.
Petroleum products can also be used as feedstocks for making
chemicals, plastics, and synthetic materials used in construction.
Petroleum products can be used to improve the workability of
concrete mixes.
P E T R O L E UM
P E A T
A N T H R A C I T E
GROUP PROJECT: CASE
STUDY OF DAM
CONSTRUCTION
CASE STUDY OF THE HOOVER
DAM CONSTRUCTION
THE HOOVER DAM
The Hoover Dam, constructed
between 1931 and 1936, is
one of the most iconic
engineering marvels in the
world. Located on the
Colorado River, at the border
between Arizona and Nevada,
the dam was built to control
flooding, provide irrigation
water, and generate
hydroelectric power.
 SITE ASSESSMENT INVESTIGATIONS TO
CREATE THE HOOVER DAM
Before construction,
extensive investigations were
conducted to determine the
optimal dam site. Key
considerations included:

Hydrological Studies
Topographic Surveys
Geological Investigation
 HYDROLOGICAL STUDIES
The Colorado River’s
flow was analyzed to
assess water
availability and flood
risks.
Historical flood data
was used to design
spillways and
determine reservoir
capacity.
 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS
Engineers surveyed multiple
potential dam sites, ultimately
selecting Black Canyon due to
its:
Narrow gorge (ideal for a
concrete arch-gravity dam).
Strong bedrock
foundations.
Proximity to construction
materials (aggregate,
cement).
GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS

A thorough geological
assessment was critical to
ensure dam stability. Key
findings included:
Rock formation at Black
Canyon
Faults and Joints
Seismic Risk Assessment
ROCK FORMATION AT BLACK CANYON

The dam site consisted of volcanic

rock formations, primarily:
Basalt (hard, dense, and
durable).
Andesite (strong but with some
jointing).
Breccia (fractured rock
requiring grouting).
These rocks provided a competent
foundation but required
treatment to prevent water
seepage.
FAULT AND JOINTS

Minor fault lines and rock

fractures were identified.
Grout curtains (injecting
cement into fractures)
were used to strengthen
the foundation.
SEISMIC RISK ASSESSMENT

The region had low to

moderate seismic activity.
The dam was designed to
withstand potential
earthquakes.
CONSTRUCTION CHALLENGES AND
SOLUTIONS
Excavation and
Foundation Preparation

Over 1.5 million cubic yards of

loose rock and sediment were
removed. The bedrock was
cleaned and inspected before
concrete pouring.
CONSTRUCTION CHALLENGES AND
SOLUTIONS
Grouting and Water
Seepage Control
A grout curtain (holes drilled
and filled with cement) was
implemented to reduce water
leakage. Drainage tunnels
were constructed to relieve
hydrostatic pressure.
CONSTRUCTION CHALLENGES AND
SOLUTIONS
Material Sourcing
Aggregates for concrete were
sourced from nearby quarries.
A concrete batch plant was
built on-site to ensure
consistent quality.
GEOLOGICAL IMPACT OF THE DAM
The dam’s weight (over 6.6
million tons) caused minor
crustal subsidence
(sinking).
Lake Mead, the reservoir
formed by the dam, sits on
sedimentary layers,
leading to slight
compaction over time.
 CONCLUSION
The Hoover Dam’s success was mainly due to comprehensive site
investigations and adaptation to geological conditions. Key takeaways
include:
Strong volcanic bedrock provided a stable foundation.
Grouting and drainage systems mitigated water seepage risks.
Seismic considerations ensured long-term stability.
The Hoover Dam remains a testament to the importance of geotechnical
engineering and civil engineering in large-scale infrastructure projects.
 REFERENCES

U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. (1936). Construction of Hoover

Dam.
Rogers, J. D. (2006). Engineering Geology of the Hoover Dam.
National Park Service. Geology of Black Canyon.
THREE GORGES DAM
CONSTRUCTION
THE THREE GORGES DAM
IN CHINA
a dam on the Yangtze just west of the
city of Yichang in Hubei province,
China. When construction of the dam
officially began in 1994, it was the
largest engineering project in China. At
the time of its completion in 2006, it was
the largest dam structure in the world.
SITE ASSESSMENT INVESTIGATIONS

Geological Investigations
Hydrological Studies
Environmental Assessments
Social and Economic Assessments
Engineering & Design Feasibility
GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS

Rock Stability: Engineers analyzed the

bedrock along the Yangtze River to
ensure it could support the massive
weight of the dam.
Seismic Activity: Studies examined
fault lines and earthquake history to
assess seismic risks.
Landslide Risks: Investigations were
conducted on surrounding cliffs and
hills to prevent slope failures.
HYDROLOGICAL STUDIES
Water Flow Analysis: Scientists monitored
seasonal fluctuations in the Yangtze River
to design a dam that could manage
floods effectively.
Sedimentation Studies: Experts assessed
sediment transport to prevent excessive
buildup behind the dam, which could
reduce reservoir capacity.
Flood Control Modelling: The dam was
designed to mitigate the devastating
floods that frequently affected
downstream areas.
ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENTS

Biodiversity Impact: Studies evaluated

the effects on local ecosystems,
including fish migration and
endangered species.
Water Quality: Researchers predicted
potential water stagnation issues and
pollution risks from submerged areas.
Climate Change Considerations: The
potential impact of the reservoir on local
climate patterns was studied.
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASSESSMENTS

Resettlement Plans: Over 1.3 million

people were displaced, requiring
detailed socio-economic assessments
and compensation strategies.
Agricultural & Urban Impact:
Investigators assessed the impact of
reservoir flooding on farmland and
urban centers.
Navigation & Trade: The dam’s role in
improving river transportation and
economic development was
considered.
ENGINEERING AND DESIGN FEASIBILITY

Material Testing: Engineers tested

concrete, steel, and other materials
for durability.
Structural Design Modelling:
Computer simulations helped
determine the best dam design.
Construction Logistics: Studies
evaluated the availability of materials
and workforce in the region.
ROCK FORMATION AT THE YANGTZE RIVER

The rock formations at the Three

Gorges Dam area primarily consist of
hard carbonate rocks, with the area
being located on the middle Yangtze
paraplatform, featuring both
basement and caprock tectonic
layers. The basement is composed of
metamorphic and magmatic rocks,
while the caprock includes carbonate
and clastic rocks.
CONSTRUCTION CHALLENGES AND
SOLUTIONS
rock mechanics issues, slope stability,
and large-scale excavation

The project involved deep layers of

dam sections, requiring thorough
geotechnical investigations and
scientific experiments to understand
the rock masses' characteristics and
parameters.
GEOLOGICAL IMPACT

The Three Gorges Dam has had

significant geological impacts,
including increased seismicity,
reactivation of landslides, and
alterations to river morphology and
sediment transport, all of which have
affected the Yangtze River basin.
CONCLUSION

The dam has given positive impacts

such as: Flood Control, Power
Generation and Increased Shipping
but has also lead to environmental
and social consequences:
Displacement and Resettlement,
Sediment Deposition, and Seismic
Activity
 REFERENCES

Encyclopaedia Britannica | Melissa Petruzelo

Nebraska Anthropologist, Volume 29: 2021
http://www.pbs.org/itvs/greatwall/dam.html