SAINT AUGUSTINE UNIVERSITY OF TANZANIA

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING & INFORMATION SYSTEMS
DEPARTMENT

LECTURE NOTES ON ANTENNA THEORY AND DESIGN.

BY, M.D. KABADI

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Course Objectives:
Fundamentals of Antennas:
Understand the basic principles of antenna radiation and operation.
Learn about key antenna parameters like radiation resistance, radiation pattern, polarization, and
reciprocity.
Become familiar with different types of antennas and their applications.
Analysis and Design:
Learn how to analyze communication links using antennas and considering propagation effects.
Develop the ability to apply mathematical techniques to solve antenna problems.
Understand the connection between electric and magnetic fields and the generation, propagation,
and receiving of electromagnetic waves in various media.
Real-World Applications:
Gain knowledge of antennas and wave propagation in wireless communication systems.
Understand the impact of antennas and propagation on radar systems.
Learn about link budget calculation, considering propagation effects and signal-to-noise ratio

Wave Propagation:
Review electromagnetic theory and wave properties.
Study different propagation mechanisms and impairments.
Learn about atmospheric and weather effects on wave propagation.
Understand basic propagation models.

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 BASIC ANTENNA THEORY
INTRODUCTION
An antenna is an electrical device which converts electric currents into radio waves, and vice
versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver.
In transmission, a radio transmitter applies an oscillating radio frequency electric current to the
antenna's terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic
waves (radio waves).

An antenna is a conductor or group of conductors used either for radiating electromagnetic

energy into space or for collecting it from space. Electromagnetic waves are often referred to as
radio waves. Most antennas are resonant devices, which operate efficiently over a relatively
narrow frequency band. An antenna must be tuned to the same frequency band that the radio
system to which it is connected operates in, otherwise reception and/or transmission will be
impaired.
Transmitting Antenna: Any structure designed to efficiently radiate electromagnetic radiation in
a preferred direction is called a transmitting antenna.
In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of an electromagnetic wave in order to
produce a tiny voltage at its terminals, that is applied to a receiver to be amplified. An antenna
can be used for both transmitting and receiving.
Receiving Antenna: Any structure designed to efficiently receive electromagnetic radiation is
called a receiving antenna

BASIC STRUCTURE
It is a metallic conductor system capable of radiating and receiving EM waves. Typically, an
antenna consists of an arrangement of metallic conductors (“elements"), electrically connected
(often through a transmission line) to the receiver or transmitter.
An oscillating current of electrons forced through the antenna by a transmitter will create an
oscillating magnetic field around the antenna elements, while the charge of the electrons also
creates an oscillating electric field along the elements.

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These time-varying fields radiate away from the antenna into space as a moving electromagnetic
field wave.
Conversely, during reception, the oscillating electric and magnetic fields of an incoming radio
wave exert force on the electrons in the antenna elements, causing them to move back and forth,
creating oscillating currents in the antenna.
Antenna reciprocity : can be used as transmitter and receiver.
In two way communication same antenna can be used as transmitter and receiver.
RECIPROCITY OF ANTENNAS
In general, the various properties of an antenna apply equally, regardless of whether you use the
antenna for transmitting or receiving. The more efficient a certain antenna is for transmitting, the
more efficient it will be for receiving on the same frequency. Likewise, the directive properties
of a given antenna also will be the same whether it is used for transmitting or receiving.
Assume, for example, that a certain antenna used with a transmitter radiates a maximum amount
of energy at right angles to the axis of the antenna, as shown in figure 1, view A. Note the
minimum amount of radiation along the axis of the antenna. Now, if this same antenna were used
as a receiving antenna, as shown in view B, it would receive best in the same directions in which
it produced maximum radiation; that is, at right angles to the axis of the antenna.
Reciprocity of antennas Antenna as a a) Transmission Mode b)
Receiving Mode

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WHY ANTENNAS?
Need of antenna arisen when two person wanted to communicate between them when separated
by some distance and wired communication is not possible.
Antennas are required by any radio receiver or transmitter to couple its electrical connection to
the electromagnetic field.
Radio waves are electromagnetic waves which carry signals through the air (or through space) at
the speed of light with almost no transmission loss.
Radio transmitters and receivers are used to convey signals (information) in systems including
broadcast (audio) radio, television, mobile telephones, point-to-point communications links
(telephone, data networks), satellite links.
Radio waves are also used directly for measurements in technologies including Radar, GPS, and
radio astronomy.
In each and every case, the transmitters and receivers involved require antennas, although these
are sometimes hidden (such as the antenna inside an AM radio or inside a laptop computer
equipped with wi-fi).

WHERE USED?
Antennas are used in systems such as radio and television broadcasting, point to point radio
communication, wireless LAN, radar and space exploration
Antennas are most utilized in air or outer space
But can also be operated under water or even through soil and rock at certain frequencies for
short distances
BASIC PRINCIPLE OF RADIATION:-
Under time varying conditions , Max wells equations predict the radiation of EM energy from
current source(or accelerated charge). This happens at all frequencies , but is insignificant as
long as the size of the source region is not comparable to the wavelength.
While transmission lines are designed to minimize this radiation loss, radiation into free space
becomes main purpose in case of Antennas.

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For steady state harmonic variation, usually we focus on time changing current For transients or
pulses ,we focus on accelerated charge The radiation is perpendicular to the acceleration. The
radiated power is proportional to the square of .
I L or Q V
Where
I = Time changing current in Amps/sec
L = Length of the current element in meters
Q= Charge in Coulombs
V= Time changing velocity
Transmission line opened out in a Tapered fashion as an Antenna:

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A good antenna works. A bad antenna is a waste of time & money. Antenna systems can be very
inexpensive and simple. They can also be very, very expensive.
Antenna considerations
– The space available for an antenna
– The proximity to neighbours
– The operating frequencies you will use
– The output power
– Money

TYPES OF ANTENNAS: According to their applications and technology available, antennas

generally fall in one of two categories:
1.Omnidirectional or only weakly directional antennas which receive or radiate more or less
in all directions. These are employed when the relative position of the other station is unknown
or arbitrary. They are also used at lower frequencies where a directional antenna would be too
large, or simply to cut costs in applications where a directional antenna isn't required.
2. Directional or beam antennas which are intended to preferentially radiate or receive in a
particular direction or directional pattern.

TYPES OF ANTENNAS: According to length of transmission lines available, antennas

generally fall in one of two categories:
1. Resonant Antennas – is a transmission line, the length of which is exactly equal to multiples
of half wavelength and it is open at both ends.
2.Non-resonant Antennas – the length of these antennas is not equal to exact multiples of half
wavelength. In these antennas standing waves are not present as antennas are terminated in
correct impedance which avoid reflections. The waves travel only in forward direction. Non-
resonant antenna is a unidirectional antenna.
TYPES OF ANTENNA: According to construction, antennae could be broadly classified as:

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1. Wire Antennae: This is the basic type of an antenna, widely used on top of the
buildings, automobiles, ships and spacecrafts. These antennae are made into different
shapes such as a straight wire (dipole), loop and helix.

2. Array Antennae: In an array antenna, several radiators separated from each other are
geometrically arranged to give desired radiation characteristics that are not possible to
achieve with a single independent radiating element. The arrangement of array elements
is such that radiation from individual elements adds up to give the maximum radiation in
a particular direction or directions, and minimum radiation in other directions. In
practice, individual radiators are arranged in linear or planar grid depending on the
application.

3. Aperture Antennae: These antennae are in the form of a slot or aperture in a metal plate
and commonly used at higher frequencies (3-30 GHz). Typical examples are slotted
waveguide antennae and horn antennae. These antennae are very useful for aircraft and
spacecraft applications, because they can be conveniently flush mounted on the surface of
the aircraft or spacecraft.

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 In practice, these antennae are covered with a dielectric material to protect them from
hazardous environmental conditions.

4. Reflector Antennae: These antennae are specifically used in applications requiring

communication over long distances, such as outer space exploration and satellite
communication. They are built with large diameters in order to achieve the high gain
required to transmit or receive signals over very long distances. The reflector antenna
usually uses a smaller antenna as the feed.

5. Lens Antennae: In these antennae, lenses are used to collimate the incident divergent
energy to prevent it from spreading in undesired directions. By choosing the appropriate
material and setting the geometrical configuration of lenses, they can transform various
forms of divergent energy into plane waves. Lens antennae are classified according to the
material from which they are constructed or their geometrical shapes.
6. Printed Antennae By definition, a printed antenna is one that is fabricated using
standard photolithography technique. The most common version of printed antenna is
microstrip antenna, which consists of a metallic patch above a ground plane. The shape
and size of patch determine the frequency of operation of the antenna and its
performance.
These antennae are more popular because of their low cost and ease of fabrication, and
easy integration with circuit components. Printed antennae are inexpensive to fabricate
using modern printed circuit technology, and are conformal to planar and non-planar
surfaces. These antennae can be easily mounted on the surface of aircrafts, spacecrafts,
satellites, missiles and even on handheld mobile devices.

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Antenna type, operating frequency and application :

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BASIC PARAMETERS OF ANTENNA

RESONANT FREQUENCY:
The resonant frequency is related to the electrical length of the antenna. Electrical length is the
length or distance expressed in terms of wavelengths.
Typically, an antenna is tuned for a specific frequency, and is effective for a range of
frequencies usually centered on that resonant frequency. Therefore, an antenna is a form of tuned
circuit consisting of inductance and capacitance, and as a result it has a resonant frequency. This
is the frequency where the capacitive and inductive reactance cancel each other out. At this point
an antenna appears purely resistive, the resistance being a combination of the loss resistance and
the radiation resistance.
Resonant frequency is the frequency whereby antenna impedance is purely resistive.

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Figure 2 Impedance of an antenna with frequency

The capacitance and inductance of an antenna are determined by its physical properties and the
environment where it is located. The major feature of the antenna design is its dimensions.
However, the other properties of the antenna (especially radiation pattern and impedance)
change with frequency, so the antenna's resonant frequency may merely be close to the center
frequency of these other more important properties.
Some antenna designs have multiple resonant frequencies, and some are relatively effective over
a very broad range of frequencies. The most commonly known type of wide band aerial is the
logarithmic or log periodic, but its gain is usually much lower than that of a specific or narrower
band aerial.
WAVELENGTH:
Wavelength: this is the length of one RF wave. It can be computed by either of the following
formulas, depending on the units required:

Antenna size is often referred to its relative to wavelength.

Note: The length of a half-wave dipole is slightly less than a half-wavelength due to end effect.
The speed of propagation in coaxial cable is slower than in air, so the wavelength in the cable is

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shorter. The velocity of propagation of electromagnetic waves in coax is usually given as a
percentage of free space velocity, and is different for different types of coax.

BANDWIDTH:
The bandwidth of an antenna is the range of frequencies over which it is effective, usually
centered around the resonant frequency.
The bandwidth of an antenna may be increased by several techniques, including using thicker
wires, replacing wires with cages to simulate a thicker wire, tapering antenna components (like
in a feed horn), and combining multiple antennas into a single assembly and allowing the natural
impedance to select the correct antenna.
RADIATION RESISTANCE:
Radiation Resistance RA is the equivalent resistance which would dissipate the same amount of
power as the antenna radiates.
Radiated energy is the useful part of the transmitter's signal. However, it represents as much of a
loss to the antenna as the energy lost in heating the antenna wire. In either case, the dissipated
power is equal to I2R. In the case of heat losses, the R is real resistance. In the case of radiation,
R is an assumed resistance; if this resistance were actually present, it would dissipate the same
amount of power that the antenna takes to radiate the energy. This assumed resistance is referred
to as the RADIATION RESISTANCE.
Mathematically Radiation Resistance is

P
Rr 
i2
Where:
R r = radiation resistance
P = rms power radiated by the antenna.
i = rms antenna current at the feed point.
Radiation resistance varies at different points on the antenna. This resistance is always measured
at a current loop. For the antenna in free space, that is, entirely removed from any objects that
might affect its operation, the radiation resistance is 73 ohms.

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A practical antenna located over a ground plane may have any value of radiation resistance from
0 to approximately 100 ohms. The exact value of radiation resistance depends on the height of
the antenna above the ground. For most half-wave wire antennas, the radiation resistance is about
65 ohms.
ANTENNA INPUT IMPEDANCE:
Radiation from an antenna is a direct result of the flow of RF current. The current flows to the
antenna through a transmission line, which is connected to a small gap between the conductors
that make up the antenna. The point on the antenna where the transmission line is connected is
called the antenna input terminal or the feed point. The feed point presents an ac load to the
transmission line called antenna input impedance and is simply the ratio of the antenna’s input
voltage to input current. The input impedance measured at the antenna input terminals. In general
it is complex and has two real parts and one imaginary part:
Radiation resistance: - represents conversion of power into RF waves (real)
Loss resistance – represents conductor losses, ground losses, etc. (real)
Reactance – represents power stored in the near field (imaginary)
Mathematically, input impedance is :

Ei
Z in 
Ii
Where:
Zin =antenna input impedance.
Ei= antenna input voltage.
Ii= antenna input current
The input impedance is the sum of the radiation resistance and the dc resistance.
A half wave dipole presents a resistive impedance of 73 ohms to a transmission line. It also has a
small inductive reactance, of about 11 ohms. (The size of the reactive part depends on the
length/diameter ratio of the rods of the antenna). Now we see why coaxial cable is often
designed to have 75 ohms characteristic impedance.

ANTENNA EFFICIENCY:
Antenna Efficiency: is the ratio of the power radiated by an antenna to the sum of the power
dissipated by an antenna to the total input power. Mathematically, antenna efficiency is;
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 Pr
 X 100
Pr  Pd
Where:
= antenna efficiency in (%).
Pr= power radiated by an antenna.
Pd=power dissipated in antenna.

i 2 Rrr Rr
OR:   2 
i Rr  Rd  Rr  Rd
Where:
 = antenna efficiency
Rr= radiation resistance.
Rd= dc antenna resistance.

ISOTROPIC RADIATOR
An "isotropic radiator" has no preferred direction of radiation. It radiates uniformly in all
directions over a sphere centred on the antenna. It is a reference radiator with which other
antennas are compared. If the power supplied to the isotropic radiator is P watts, the energy
density (watts per square metre) at a distance R metres from the centre of the radiator is P/(4 pi
R^2). This is because we are spreading the power P uniformly across the area (4 pi R^2) of a
sphere of radius R.

ANTENNA GAIN G:
Gain is given in reference to a standard antenna. The two most common reference antennas are
the isotropic antenna and the resonant half-wave dipole antenna. The isotropic antenna radiates
equally well in "all" directions. Real isotropic antennas do not exist, but they provide useful and
simple theoretical antenna patterns with which to compare real antennas. An antenna gain of 2 (3
dB) compared to an isotropic antenna would be written as 3 dBi. The resonant half-wave dipole
can be a useful standard for comparing to other antennas at one frequency or over a very narrow

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band of frequencies. To compare the dipole to an antenna over a range of frequencies requires an
adjustable dipole or a number of dipoles of different lengths. An antenna gain of 1 (0 dB)
compared to a dipole antenna would be written as 0 dBd.
Therefore, gain is the logarithm of the ratio of the intensity of an antenna's radiation pattern in
the direction of strongest radiation to that of a reference antenna.
Simply Antenna Gain G: The ratio of the radiated power in the maximum direction to the
radiated power of an isotropic antenna. The gain of an antenna represents the ability to focus its
beam in a particular direction – an isotropic antenna has a gain of 0 dB.

Note:
• dBi indicates gain vs. isotropic antenna
• Isotropic antenna radiates equally well in all directions, spherical pattern
• dBd indicates gain vs. reference half-wavelength dipole
• Dipole has a doughnut shaped pattern with a gain of 2.15 dBi
Directivity D:
Directivity is the ability of an antenna to focus energy in a particular direction when transmitting
or to receive energy better from a particular direction when receiving.
The relationship between gain and directivity: Gain = efficiency/Directivity. An antenna with
increased directivity is hopefully implemented efficiently, is low loss, and therefore exhibits both
increased directivity and gain.
P
D
Pr ef
Where:

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D = directive gain.
P= power density at some point with a given antenna
Pref= power density at the same point with a reference antenna
RADIATION PATTERN:
The radiation pattern of antenna is a representation (pictorial or mathematical) of the
distribution of the power out-flowing (radiated) from the antenna (in the case of transmitting
antenna), or inflowing (received) to the antenna (in the case of receiving antenna) as a function
of direction angles from the antenna.

BEAM WIDTH (OR HALF-POWER BEAM WIDTH):

BEAM WIDTH: The angle between the two directions in which the radiated power is half of the
maximum value of the beam in an antenna’s radiation pattern. In general, the beamwidth of the
main lobe of the radiation pattern decreases as the directivity increases. Beamwidth measures
the directivity of antenna. High-gain antennas always have narrow beams

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ANTENNA POLARIZATION:
Polarization: polarization is the orientation of the electric field vector of the electromagnetic
wave produced by the antenna. For most antennas, the orientation of the antenna conductor
determines the polarization.
Hence, the polarization of an antenna in a specific direction is defined to be the polarization of
the wave produced by the antenna at a great distance at this direction (The direction of the E-
field).

Polarisation categories
Vertical and horizontal are the simplest forms of antenna polarization and they both fall into a
category known as linear polarisation. However it is also possible to use circular polarisation.
This has a number of benefits for areas such as satellite applications where it helps overcome the
effects of propagation anomalies, ground reflections and the effects of the spin that occur on
many satellites. Circular polarisation is a little more difficult to visualise than linear polarisation.
However it can be imagined by visualising a signal propagating from an RF antenna that is
rotating. The tip of the electric field vector will then be seen to trace out a helix or corkscrew as
it travels away from the antenna. Circular polarisation can be seen to be either right or left
handed dependent upon the direction of rotation as seen from the transmitter.
Another form of polarisation is known as elliptical polarisation. It occurs when there is a mix of
linear and circular polarisation. This can be visualised as before by the tip of the electric field
vector tracing out an elliptically shaped corkscrew.

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The diagram above shows vertical and horizontal polarization. If the radio wave's electric field
vector points in some other direction, it is said to be obliquely polarized. If the electric field
rotates in space, such that its tip follows an elliptical path, it is elliptically polarized.
EFFECTIVE ISOTROPICALLY RADIATED POWER (EIRP):
A frequently used concept in communication system is that of effective (or equivalent)
isotropically radiated power, EIRP. It is formally defined as the power gain of a transmitting
antenna in a given direction multiplied by the net power accepted by the antenna from the
connected transmitter. EIRP, effective radiated power, is similar to EIRP but with antenna gain
relative to that of a half-wave dipole instead of relative to an isotropic antenna. As an example of
EIRP, suppose an observer is located in the direction of maximum radiation from a transmitting
antenna with input power Pt; then

EIRP  Pt Gt

(a) directional antenna with (b)Isotropic antenna with input

Input power Pt and gain Pr power PtGt and unity gain.
Effective isotropically radiated power is a parameter used in the broadcast industry. FM radio
stations often mention their effective radiated power when they sign off at night.

ANTENNAS IN COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

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Figure. Communication link

Power density PD at wave front 1 is inversely proportional to the square of its distance from its
source R in meters with respect to the originally transmitted power, Pt

1
PD 
R2
An isotropic radiator is a theoretical, lossless, omni directional (spherical) antenna. That is, it
radiates uniformly in all directions. The power of a transmitter that is radiated from an isotropic
antenna will have a uniform power density (power per unit area) in all directions. The power
density at any distance from an isotropic antenna is simply the transmitter power divided by the
surface area of a sphere (4R2) at that distance. The surface area of the sphere increases by the
square of the radius, therefore the power density, PD, (watts/square meter) decreases by the
square of the radius.
Power density from an isotropic antenna

Pt Gt
PD 
4R 2
Where: Pt = Average transmitter power
R= Range from the antenna
Pt is either peak or average power depending on how PD is to be specified.
The Gain (G) of an antenna is the ratio of power radiated in the desired direction as compared to
the power radiated from an isotropic antenna, or:

4A
G
2
Where: G= gain of antenna, A, physical aperture area of antenna,  = wavelength
The power density at a distant point from a transmitter with an antenna gain of Gt is the power
density from an isotropic antenna multiplied by the antenna gain.
Power density from transmitting antenna,

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 Pt Gt
PD 
4R 2
Pt is either peak or average power depending on how PD is to be specified.
EFFECTIVE CAPTURE AREA
Effective capture area (Ae) is the product of the physical aperture area (A) and the aperture
efficiency ( ) or:

2 G
Ae  A 
4
GAIN AS A FUNCTION OF APERTURE EFFICIENCY
The Gain of an antenna with losses is given by:

4A
G
2
Where:  =efficiency, A= physical aperture area,  = wavelength and
G= gain of an antenna

Since Ae  A
4Ae
Then G 
2
Note that the gain is proportional to the aperture area normalized by the square of the
wavelength. For example, if the frequency is doubled, (half the wavelength), the aperture could
be decreased four times to maintain the same gain.
Communication links.
We are now ready to completely describe the power transfer in the communication link of. If the
transmitting antenna were isotropic, it would have power density at distance R of

Pt Gt
PD 
4R 2
Where P t the time-average input power is accepted by the transmitting antenna and has been
used. For a transmitting antenna that is not isotropic but has gain Gt and is pointed for maximum

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power density in the direction of the receiver, we have for the power density incident on the
receiving antenna.

Pt Gt
PD 
4R 2
Using this in given the available received power as

Pt Gt Aer
Pr 
4R 2
Where: Aer is the effective aperture of the receiving antenna and we assume it to be pointed and
polarized for maximum response.

Gr 2
Now from Aer  so becomes
4

Pt Gt Gr 2
Pr 
4R 2
Which gives the available power in terms of the transmitted power, antenna gains, and
wavelengths.
1
Re ceivedpowerPr  Pt Gt Ar W
4R 2
This is called the Friis transmission formula.
The power transmission formula is very useful for calculating signal power levels in
communication links. It assumes that the transmitting and receiving antennas are matched in
impedance to their connecting transmission lines, have identical polarizations, and are aligned
for polarization match. It also assumes the antennas are pointed toward each other for maximum
gain. If any of the above conditions are not met, it is a simple matter to correct for the loss
introduced by polarization mismatch, impedance mismatch, or antenna misalignment. The
antenna misalignment effect is easily included by using the power gain value in the appropriate
direction.
Decibel forms for friis equation.

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 Pt Gt Gr 2
Pr 
Starting with 4R 2 ,

Solve for  in terms of f and take logarithms of both sides. After manipulation and change to
more convenient units, the equation is

Pr dBx  Pt dBx  Gt dB  Gr dB  32.44  20 log f MHZ   20 log RKm Wher
e: dBx is a decibel level referred to any fixed reference power.

And 32.44  20 log f MHZ   20 log RKm . This is the free space path loss
Where G t(dB) and G r(dB) are the transmit and receive antenna gains in decibels, R (km) is the
distance between the transmitter and receiver in kilometers, and f(MHz) is the frequency in
megahertz.

Elements of a Radio Link

 Transmitting side
o Transmitting power,
o Loss and gain of connectivity devices (cables, connectors, attenuators, amplifiers,
splitters antenna gain) between transmission device and transmitter’s antenna
• Propagating side
o Propagation properties of the medium (FSPL, Fresnel zone, attenuation before
signal reception)

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• Receiving side
o cable loss, Loss and gain of connectivity devices (Antenna gain cables,
connectors, attenuators, amplifiers, splitters, receiver Sensibility) between
receiver’s antenna and receiver device.
Line-of-Sight (LOS) Link Budget
To limit the scope of this paper, only line-of-sight links with sufficient Fresnel Zone
clearance will be considered. The following equation shows the basic elements that
need to considered when calculating a link budget:
Received Power (dBm) = Transmitted Power (dBm) + Gains (dB) − Losses (dB)
Free-Space Path Loss
The calculation of FSPL includes two effects:
• The diminishing of power density as the signal spreads through space in all directions
• The efficiency of an antenna in receiving power from an incoming electromagnetic signal
In a line-of-sight radio system, losses are mainly due to free-space path loss (FSPL).
FSPL is proportional to the square of the distance between the transmitter and receiver as well as
the square of the frequency of the radio signal. In other words, free-space path loss increases
significantly over distance and frequency.

If the distance d between the antennas is much greater than the wavelength λ, the free-space
attenuation (free-space basic

transmission loss) in decibels will be:

The FSPL equation can be further simplified as follow:

where:
f is signal frequency in Hz
d is distance in meters (m)
c is the speed of light in a vacuum (3 x 108 m/s)
Normally, distance is measured in km or miles and frequency in MHz, in this case the
above equation becomes:

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Eq 1: where d is in km and f in MHz Eq 2: where d is in miles and f in MHz
Using decibels to express the loss and at a generic frequency f, the equation for the Free Space
Loss is:

where Lfs is expressed in dB, d is in kilometers and f is in GHz.

Link Budgets
_ a link budget is the most important tool for system-level design of wireless systems
_ it’s a “budget” similar to an accountant’s budget: the sum of gains and losses in various parts
of the system has to result in satisfactory performance (typically output SNR or BER)
_ the link budget includes all gains (and losses) from baseband input to baseband output
_ since values are gains/losses it is more convenient to add values expressed in dB instead of
multiplying and dividing
A good link budget is the basic requirement of a well-functioning link
● Losses takes place in every element along the transmission path
● Limiting the losses is the key issue

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 Practical Antennae and Their Characteristics
Introduction:
Many wire antennas (but not all) are used at or near resonance. Sometimes it is not practical to
build the whole resonant length. The physical length can be shortened using loading techniques:
Inductive load: e.g. center, base or top coil (usually adjustable)
Capacitive load: e.g. capacitance “hats” (flat top at one or both ends)
Types of wire antenna
Half wave Antenna (Dipole antenna)
Quarter-wave Antennas (Monopole Antennas).
Folded dipole antenna
Small loop antenna

1. THE HERTIZIAN DIPOLE

The dipole antenna consists of a conductor that is broken in the center so that RF power can be
applied to it. One can think of the half wave dipole as an open circuited transmission line that has
been spread out, so that the transmission line can radiate a signal into space.

Half wave dipole transmitting antenna, placed so that the ends are pointing North/South,
radiates: mostly to the East and West A half-wave dipole is sometimes referred to as a Hertz
antenna Typically, the length of a half-wave dipole is 95% of one-half the wavelength measured
in free space:

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A dipole has an input impedance that is purely resistive and lies between 30 and 80 ohms, which
provides a good match to commercially available 50 ohms coaxial cables as well as commercial
transmitters and receivers, most of which have 50 ohms output and input impedances.
Basics of the Half-Wave Dipole
The half-wave dipole antenna is as you may expect, a simple half-wavelength wire fed at the
center as shown in Figure
c

f

CURRENT AND VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION ON AN ANTENNA

A current flowing in a wire whose length is properly related to the rf produces an
electromagnetic field. This field is radiated from the wire and is set free in space
Figure 2 shows the current and voltage distribution on a half-wave (Hertz) antenna. In view A, a
piece of wire is cut in half and attached to the terminals of a high-frequency ac generator. The
frequency of the generator is set so that each half of the wire is 1/4 wavelength of the output. The
result is a common type of antenna known as a DIPOLE.

27
Figure - Current and voltage distribution on an antenna.

RADIATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY

The radiation pattern of a /2 dipole in free space is shown below

The 3-dimensional radiation pattern in free space is a fat doughnut with the dipole piercing its
central hole. Notice that unlike an isotropic radiator that radiates equally well in all directions,
the dipole radiates more RF in some directions than others. This means that the dipole has a gain
or directivity over an isotropic radiator of approximately 2.1 dB. That means that the radiation
from the dipole is 2.1 dB stronger in the direction of maximum radiation than the radiation from
an isotropic radiator in the same direction, when both antennas are fed with the same amount of
RF power.
Gain and Directivity
In antennas, power gain in one direction is at the expense of losses in others
Directivity is the gain calculated assuming a lossless antenna

28
The input impedance
The input impedance of a dipole antenna also depends on its electrical length. When the antenna
is approximately an odd multiple of a half wavelength long, the input impedance is resistive and
lies between 50 and 200 ohms. For antennas that are an even number of half wavelengths long,
the input impedance is resistive and extremely high, between 1000 and 50,000 ohms.
The chart below shows the effect of ground on the input impedance of a dipole.

As a horizontal antenna is brought closer to the surface of the earth, its input resistance decreases
at first because the electric field is being shorted by the ground. As the antenna is brought closer,
the input resistance will rise again because increases in ground loss resistance overwhelm the
decrease due to shorting of the electric field. Over a good conductor such as sea water, the input
resistance drops steadily as the antenna is lowered, reaching a value of zero when the antenna
touches the water's surface.

29
As a horizontal dipole is raised above the ground, the input resistance increases until a maximum
value of approximately 90 ohms is reached at a height of 3/8 . As the antenna is raised even
higher, the input resistance slowly oscillates around the free space value of 73 ohms. Most
dipoles in actual installations show an input resistance of 50 to 75 ohms, depending on a
location.
Beamwidth
A directional antenna can be said to direct a beam of radiation in one or more directions
The width of this bean is defined as the angle between its half-power points
A half-wave dipole has a beamwidth of about 79º in one plane and 360º in the other
Many antennas are far more directional than this
Front-to-Back Ratio
The direction of maximum radiation is in the horizontal plane is considered to be the front of the
antenna, and the back is the direction 180º from the front
For a dipole, the front and back have the same radiation, but this is not always the case

Ground Effects
When an antenna is installed within a few wavelengths of the ground, the earth acts as a reflector
and has a considerable influence on the radiation pattern of the antenna
Ground effects are important up through the HF range. At VHF and above, the antenna is usually
far enough above the earth that reflections are not significant
Ground effects are complex because the characteristics of the ground are variable

30
DIPOLE ANTENNACHARACTERISTICS

– Radiation pattern: E ( ) = cos[( /2)cos ]/sin

– Radiation resistance: 73
– Directivity: 1.64 (2.15 dBi)
– The input impedance is not sensitive to the radius and is about 73 Ω which is well
matched with a standard transmission line of characteristic impedance 75 Ω or 50
Ω (with a VSWR < 2).
– Its size and radiation pattern are suitable for many applications
–
Advantages and Disadvantages with application
Advantages
It receives balanced signals.
Receives signals from a variety of frequencies.
Loss is less.
Disadvantages:
The outdoor antennas are large and wide.
This type of antenna is no t used for space communication.
Installation of outdoor antennas is difficult.
Applications:
Set-top TV antenna.
FM broadcasting antenna.
An array of dipole elements is extensively used as an antenna at the base station of a land mobile
system (Dipole towers and dipole arrays).

31
Design curves for Dipole antenna

2. QUARTER-WAVE ANTENNAS (MONOPOLE ANTENNAS).

A 1/2 wavelength antenna is the shortest antenna that can be used in free space. If we cut a half-
wave antenna in half and then ground one end, a grounded quarter-wave antenna is achieved..
This antenna will resonate at the same frequency as the ungrounded half-wave antenna. Such an

32
antenna is referred to as a QUARTER-WAVE or Marconi antenna. almost the same feature as a
dipole, except the 37 radiation resistance, higher gain, a shorter length, and easier to feed!
Fed with unbalanced feedline with ground conductor connected to earth ground.
In practice it usually requires an array of radials to develop a better ground plane. (Marconi
antenna)
When used at low frequencies the field should be vertically polarized and antenna could be a
tower.
A vertical antenna is used to launch a vertically polarized RF wave. Vertical antennas are most
often used in two areas:

1. Low frequency communications – at frequencies below 2 MHz, it is difficult to use

dipole antennas because of their length and the requirement that they be mounted at least a half
wavelength above ground. For example: a 2 MHz dipole antenna is approximately 234 ft long
and needs to be approximately 234 feet above ground. Also, most communications at frequencies
below 2 MHz is via ground wave, which requires vertical polarization.

2. Mobile communications – it is difficult to mount a horizontally polarized dipole on a

vehicle. A vertical antenna only has one mounting point and less wind resistance.

The most common vertical antenna is the Marconi antenna. It is a vertical conductor /4 high,
fed at the end near ground. It is essentially a vertical dipole, in which one side of the dipole is the
RF image of the antenna in the ground. This may sound strange, but remember that ground
reflects RF as a mirror reflects light

Simple Marconi Antenna

33
The image antenna formed in the ground under a Marconi antenna

This type of antenna, unlike the dipole, is an unbalanced antenna, and should be fed directly with
coaxial cable. The shield of the coax is connected to the ground at the base of the antenna and the
center lead of the coax is connected to the vertical radiator.

Because the ground under a vertical antenna is actually part of the antenna, it is necessary that
ground losses be minimized. To minimize the losses, the electrical conductivity of the ground
must be made as high as possible, or an artificial low loss ground must be provided.

Ground conductivity can be improved by using ground radial wires. These are wires buried just
under the earth’s surface or laid on the surface that provide a low resistance path for RF currents
flowing in the ground. The ground currents are greatest in the vicinity of the feed point of a
Marconi antenna, so the radials run out from the feed point, up to a distance of /4 from the
antenna, if possible. The ground radials do not have to be any specific length and the general rule
is that a large number of short radials is preferable to a few long radials. The diagram below
shows how current flows through the ground to the feed point of the Marconi antenna.

The radials should be laid out in a pattern that follows the ground current that is running radially
out from the feed point of the antenna. The diagram below is a bird's eye view of typical ground

34
radial layouts. Note that the radials do not all have to be the same length and those losses may be
decreased by adding extra radials near the feed point. These extra radials can be as short as /40
and still be effective.

When a Marconi antenna cannot be mounted on the ground, an artificial ground system, called a
counterpoise, is used. The counterpoise consists of /4 wires emanating radially from the
antenna feed point as shown below. The shield of the coax is connected to the counterpoise at the
feed point. The counterpoise is not connected to ground.

Ground losses affect the feed point impedance and antenna efficiency. A Marconi antenna
mounted on a perfectly conducting ground would have an input impedance that is ½ the
impedance of a dipole, or approximately 36 ohms. When mounted on a real ground, the input
impedance can range from 38 ohms for a well-designed AM broadcast antenna mounted over a
specially prepared ground, to over 100 ohms for a Marconi mounted above poor, unprepared
ground that has no radials.

35
Ground loss reduces the antenna's efficiency, because part of the power being delivered to the
antenna is being dissipated in the ground rather than being radiated. The efficiency can be
computed from the measured value of input resistance by using the following formula:

The radiation pattern of the Marconi antenna is a half doughnut as shown in the figure below.
There is no radiation straight up in the direction of the wire. The bulk of the radiation occurs at a
low elevation angle, which is what is needed to launch a ground wave.

Applications of Monopole antenna

1. Broadcast transmitters – vertical polarised wave
2. The dipole and monopole are two of the most widely used antennas for wireless mobile
communication systems
3. Mobile and portable antennas used with cellular and PCS systems have to be
omnidirectional and small
4. The radiation efficiency and gain characteristics of both of these elements are strongly
influenced by their electrical length which is related to the frequency of operation.
5. The monopole, because of its broadband characteristics and simple construction, most
common antenna element used for portable equipment, such as cellular telephones,
cordless telephones, automobiles, trains, etc.

36
3. FOLDED DIPOLE
Folded antenna is a single antenna but it consists of two elements.
First element is fed directly while second one is coupled inductively at its end.
Radiation pattern of folded dipole is same as that of dipole antenna i.e figure of eight (8).. -
Folded-dipole antennas.

A FOLDED DIPOLE is an ordinary half-wave antenna that has one or more additional
conductors connected across its ends. Additional conductors are mounted parallel to the dipole
elements at a distance equal to a very small fraction of a wavelength. Spacing of several inches is
common.

37
Same length as 1/2 wave dipole
Parallel conductors joined at each end separated by an appropriate spacing. 300 ohms radiation
resistance: Even though current is same magnitude but out of phase with respect to the wire, in
SPACE the currents are actually in the same direction due to FOLDING of antenna.
Given the same conditions a dipole and folded dipole radiate the same amount of power.
The current at the feedpoint of the folded dipole is only half the total current.
If the power is the same as the 1/2 wave dipole and current is reduced by half due to folding then
feedpoint voltage must be doubled.

 I 
P  VI  2V  
2
R V / I
4V
R  2V
I /2   4R
I
The result of twice the voltage and half the current is a feedpoint impedance that is four times
that of a dipole.

Radiation Pattern :The radiation pattern of half-wave folded dipoles is the same as that of the
half-wave dipole antennas. The following figure shows the radiation pattern of half-wave folded
dipole antenna, which is Omni-directional pattern.

Advantages
1. Input impedance of folded dipole is four times higher than that of straight dipole.
2. Typically the input impedance of half wavelength folded dipole antenna is 288 ohm.

38
 3. Bandwidth of folded dipole is higher than that of straight dipole.
4. Reception of balanced signals.
5. Receives a particular signal from a band of frequencies without losing the quality
6. A folded dipole maximizes the signal strength.
Disadvantages:
1. Displacement and adjustment of antenna is a hassle.
2. Outdoor management can be difficult when antenna size increases
The input impedance of the folded dipole is approximately 300 ohms, which is a perfect match to
TV twin lead and to the input of the TV set. The folded dipole also has a larger bandwidth than
the regular dipole, which is important for proper TV reception.

Applications:

1. Mainly used as a feeder element in Yagi antenna arrays.

2. Generally used in radio receivers.
3. Most commonly used in TV receiver antennas.
4. folded dipole antennas are used where optimum power transfer is needed and where large
impedances are needed.

LOOP ANTENNA
A loop antenna is a radio antenna consisting of a loop of wire with its ends connected to a
balanced transmission line
It is a single turn coil carrying RF current through it.
The dimensions of coil are smaller than the wavelength hence current flowing through the coil
has same phase.
Small loops have a poor efficiency and are mainly used as receiving antennas at low frequencies.
Except for car radios, almost every AM broadcast receiver sold has such an antenna built inside
of it or directly attached to it.
A technically small loop, also known as a magnetic loop, should have a circumference of one
tenth of a wavelength or less. This is necessary to ensure a constant current distribution round the
loop.

39
As the frequency or the size are increased, a standing wave starts to develop in the current, and
the antenna starts to have some of the characteristics of a folded dipole antenna or a self-resonant
loop.
Self-resonant loop antennas are larger. They are typically used at higher frequencies, especially
VHF and UHF, where their size is manageable. They can be viewed as a form of folded dipole
and have somewhat similar characteristics. The radiation efficiency is also high and similar to
that of a dipole. Radiation pattern of loop antenna is a doughnut pattern.
Loop antennas take many different forms such as a
• rectangle,
• square,
• triangle,
• ellipse, circle,
Classes of loop antenna
• Loop antennas are usually classified into two categories,
electrically small and
Electrically large

Electrically small antennas

• Are those whose overall length (circumference)

Is usually less than about one-tenth of a wavelength (C < λ/10).

• Loop antennas with electrically small circumferences or perimeters have small radiation
resistances that are usually smaller than their loss resistances. Thus they are very poor radiators,
and they are seldom employed for transmission in radio communication.
• When they are used in any such application, it is usually in the receiving mode, such as in
portable radios and pagers, where antenna efficiency is not as important as the signal to- noise
ratio.

Electrically large loops

• Are those whose circumference is about a free-space wavelength (C ∼ λ).

40
• These are used primarily indirection al arrays, such as in helical antennas ,Yagi-Uda arrays,
quad arrays and so on. For these and other similar applications, the maximum radiation is
directed toward the axis of the loop forming an end-fire antenna.
• To achieve such directional pattern characteristics, the circumference (perimeter) of the loop
should be about one free-space wavelength. The proper phasing between turns enhances the
overall directional properties.

Picture of electrically large loop

• If the loops circumference C < /10
• The antenna is called electrically small. If C is in order of or larger, the antenna is
electrically large.
• Commonly, these antennas are used in a frequency band from about 3 MHz to about 3 GHz.
Another application of loop antennas is in magnetic field probes.
• The radiation resistance of the loop can be increased, and made comparable to the characteristic
impedance of practical transmission lines, by
• Increasing (electrically) its perimeter and/or the number of turns.
• To insert, within its circumference or perimeter, a ferrite core of very high permeability which
will raise the magnetic field intensity and hence the radiation resistance.
• The total radiated power is computed by integrating the time-average Poynting vector over the
closed spherical surface:

Application:
1. Used for direction finding applications
2. Typically a receiving antenna.
3. Uses an air core with radiation in the plane of the loop.
4. A ferrite core loopstick is also used typically in A.M receivers.
5. Radiation is in same plane as the loop but broadside to the loopstick
6. Can also be used as a coil in the R.F. tuned circuit.
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
A small loop is generally used as magnetic dipole.

41
A loop antenna has directional properties whereas a simple vertical antenna not has the same.
The induced e.m.f around the loop must be equal to the difference between the two vertical sides
only.
No e.m.f is produced in case of horizontal arms of a loop antenna.
The radiation pattern of the loop antenna does not depend upon the shape of the loop (for small
loops).
The currents are at same magnitude and phase, throughout the loop.
Disadvantages
Transmission efficiency of the loop is very poor.
It is suitable for low and medium frequencies and not for high frequencies.
In loop antenna, the two nulls of the pattern result in 180° ambiguity.
Loop antennas used as direction finders are unable to distinguish between bearing of a distant
transmitter and its reciprocal bearing.
Advantages of a small loop antenna
Have high signal to noise ratio
They have a small size and low cost.
They are used in pagers, and as field strength probes used in wireless measurements.
Small loop antennas are largely immune to locally generated (within the near field)
electrical noise because they primarily sense the magnetic field.
Operates even in very low frequencies, they can make practical receiving antennas in the
medium-wave (520–1610 kHz) band and below
Simple construction, small size and weight.
Small loops often have a low radiation resistance and a highly inductive component to
their reactance. Hence, they are most often used as receive antennas.
high radiation resistance provided multi-turn ferrite-core constructions are used;
Disadvantages of small loop antennas
high losses, therefore, low radiation efficiency;
Small loop antennas are never used as transmitting antennas due to their low efficiency
cd e
APPLICATIONS
Loop antennas are used in radio direction-finding (RDF) applications. Some RDF units

42
employ both a loop antenna to sense the magnetic field and a dipole to sense the electric
field; the two antennas allow the RDF unit to determine an unambiguous direction.
they are very much preferred as receiving antennas in AM radio-receivers because of
their high signal-to-noise ratio (they can be easily tuned to form a very high-Q resonant
circuit)
In amateur radio, loop antennas are often used for low profile operating
they can make practical receiving antennas in the medium-wave (520–1610 kHz) band
and below
Used for direction finding applications

43
Antenna arrays

Introduction
In many applications it is necessary to design antennas with very directive characteristics (very
high gains) to meet the demands of long distance communication.
Enlarging the dimensions of single elements often leads to more directive characteristics.
To enlarge the dimensions of the antenna, without necessarily increasing the size of the
individual elements, is to form an assembly of radiating elements in an electrical and geometrical
configuration. This new antenna, formed by multi-elements, is referred to as an array.
Antenna arrays is group of antennas or antenna elements arranged to provide desired directional
characteristics.
Consist of multiple (usually identical) antennas (elements) ‘collaborating’ to synthesize radiation
characteristics not available with a single antenna.
Generally, any combination of elements can form an array.
However equal elements of regular geometry are usually used.
In most cases, the elements of an array are identical. This is not necessary, but it is often
convenient, simpler, and more practical. The individual elements of an array may be of any form
(wires, apertures, etc.).
They are able
To match the radiation pattern to the desired coverage area
To change the radiation pattern electronically (electronic scanning) through the control of the
phase and the amplitude of the signal fed to each element
To adapt to changing signal conditions
To increase transmission capacity by better use of the radio resources and reducing interference

Advantages and disadvantages

The following are the advantages of using antenna arrays −
• The signal strength increases
• High directivity is obtained
• Minor lobes are reduced much
• High Signal-to-noise ratio is achieved

44
• High gain is obtained
• Power wastage is reduced
• Better performance is obtained
Disadvantages
The following are the disadvantages of array antennas −
• Resistive losses are increased
• Mounting and maintenance is difficult
• Huge external space is required
Applications
The following are the applications of array antennas −
• Used in satellite communications
• Used in wireless communications
• Used in military radar communications
• Used in the astronomical study

Types of antenna arrays

1. Phased Array Antennas
o Broadside Array
o End-fire Array
o Collinear Array
2. Yagi-Uda Array (Parasitic arrays):
3. Log Periodic Dipole antenna(LPDA) Array

1. Broadside Antenna Array

A type of arrangement of multiple identical elements that are placed parallelly along the line
normal to the antenna axes forms a broadside antenna array. It is known to be a practical antenna
array configuration which is most widely used.
The figure below represents the broadside arrangement of antenna array:

45
In this type of arrangement, the elements are present horizontally at equal distance by a half
wavelength from each other and each element is fed with the current of same magnitude and
phase.
In this arrangement when the elements are excited then maximal radiation emission occurs from
the broadside (i.e., the direction normal to the array axis) while the little amount of radiation is
emitted from the other directions. Thereby providing a bidirectional radiation pattern. The
reason for its bidirectional radiation pattern is that it radiates in both direction along the
broadside. The array in which a number of identical parallel antennas are arranged along a line
perpendicular to the line of array axis is known as broadside array

Fig. 1 Geometry of broadside array Fig. 2 Radiation pattern of broadside array

2. End-Fire Antenna Array

An end-fire array has a similar arrangement of elements as the broadside arrangement but the
crucial difference between the two configurations lies on the way of excitation. In end-fire array,

46
the elements are fed out of phase generally 180°, while in case of broadside each element is fed
with the current of the same phase.
It is such an arrangement whose maximum radiation is obtained along the array axis.

physical arrangement of elements The radiation pattern

Basically, this whole arrangement of the identical elements is excited with the current of equal
magnitude but there is a continuous variation in the phase along the line in order to have a
unidirectional radiation pattern.
More simply, it can be stated in a way that, the difference in phase must vary progressively
similar to the distance between the elements.
Thus, an end-fire array offers a unidirectional radiation pattern where the maximal radiation is
achieved along the direction of the axis of the array.
These arrays suit low, medium and high-frequency ranges and majorly used in case of point to
point communication.

47
Difference Between Broadside array vs End-fire array

broadside arra End-fire array

 both, the end fire array and broad side array, are linear and are resonant, as they consist of
resonant elements.
 Due to resonance, both the arrays display narrower beam and high directivity.
 Both of these arrays are used in transmission purposes.
 Neither of them is used for reception, because the necessity of covering a range of
frequencies is needed for any kind of reception.

3. Collinear Antenna Array

The name itself is indicating that it is an arrangement that allows the placement of various
antenna elements in a single line from an end to another. This means that here the various
elements are stacked one behind the other in a single line.
This arrangement can be either of vertical or horizontal orientation. The figure below shows the
collinear array with a horizontal arrangement:

physical arrangement of elements The radiation pattern

48
Here also the excitation is provided with currents of the same magnitude and phase to all the
elements. Like broadside array, this also offers radiation in the direction normal to the axis of the
array. Hence its radiation pattern is somewhat similar to the broadside array.
However, this array offers circular symmetry across the major lobe and thus facilitates
omnidirectional radiation from itself.
It is to be noted here that with an increase in the length of the array the directivity also increases.
Generally, 2 elements collinear array is mostly used as it supports multi-band operation.
Sometimes some applications use a combination of broadside, end-fire and collinear arrays as
this increases the gain and directivity to a very high range.
Parasitic Arrays-
In some way it is similar to broad side array, but only one element is fed directly from source,
other element arc electromagnetically coupled because of its proximity to the feed element. Feed
element is called driven element while other elements are called parasitic elements. A parasitic
element lengthened by 5% to driven element act as reflector and another element shorted by 5%
acts as director. Reflector makes the radiation maximum in perpendicular direction toward
driven element and direction helps in making maximum radiation perpendicular to next parasitic
element.

The radiation pattern of this array is the result of reflector behind the driven element that adds
the back-reflected waves to the forward wave.

49
The simplest parasitic array has three elements: reflector, driven element and director, and is
used, for example in Yagi-Uda array antenna. The phase and amplitude of the current induced in
a parasitic element depends upon its tuning and the spacing between elements and driven
element to which it is coupled. Variation in spacing between driven element and parasitic
elements changes the relative phases and this proves to be very convenient. It helps in making
the radiation pattern unidirectional.
A distance of λ/4 and phase difference of π/2 radian provides a unidirectional pattern.
A properly designed parasitic array with spacing 0.1λ to 0.15λ provides a frequency bandwidth
of the order of 2%, gain of the order of 8 dB and FBR of about 20 dB.
It is of great practical importance, especially at higher frequencies between 150 and 100 MHz,
for Yagi array used for TV reception.

Yagi-Uda Antennas

50
The driven element (feeder) is the very heart of the antenna. It determines the polarisation and
centre frequency. For a dipole, the recommended length is about 0.47l to ensuring a good input
impedance to a 50 Ω feed line.
The reflector is longer than the feeder to force the radiated energy towards the front. The
optimum spacing between the reflector and the feeder is between 0.15 to 0.25 wavelengths.
The directors are usually 10 to 20% shorter than the feeder and appear to direct the radiation
towards the front. The director to director spacing is typically 0.25 to 0.35 wavelengths,
The number of directors determines the maximum achievable directivity and

gain.
Boom
The element on which all these are placed is callled a boom. It is a non-metallic structure which
provides insulation, so that there will not be any short circuit between the other elements of the
array.
These are all the main elements, which contribute the radiation. This can be better understood
with the help of a diagram

Yagi-Uda Antenna characteristics

• Develops an endfire radiation pattern.

• Optimum spacing for gain of a reflector and driven element is 0.15 to 0.25 wavelengths
• Director to director spacings are 0.2 to 0.35 wavelengths apart.
• Reflector length is typically 0.05 wavelengths longer or a length 1.05 that of the driven
element.

51
 • The driven element is calculated at resonance without the presence of parasitic elements.
Driven element is a ½ wave dipole.
• The directors are usually 10 to 20% shorter than at resonance.

Advantages
The following are the advantages of Yagi-Uda antennas −
• High gain is achieved.
• High directivity is achieved.
• Ease of handling and maintenance.
• Less amount of power is wasted.
• Broader coverage of frequencies.
Disadvantages
The following are the disadvantages of Yagi-Uda antennas −
• Prone to noise.
• Prone to atmospheric effects.
Applications
The following are the applications of Yagi-Uda antennas −
• Mostly used for TV reception.
• Used where a single-frequency application is needed.

Log Periodic Dipole antenna( LPDA) Array

The Yagi-Uda antenna is mostly used for domestic purpose. However, for commercial purpose
and to tune over a range of frequencies, we need to have another antenna known as the Log-
periodic antenna. A Log-periodic antenna is that whose impedance is a logarithamically per
Log Periodic Dipole antenna(LPDA) Array: Has a structural geometry such that its impedance
and radiation characteristics repeat periodically as the logarithm of frequency.
Because of this variability is minor, it is considered as a frequency independent antenna.
Each dipole element of the LPDA is fed, but the phase is reversed between adjacent
dipole elements - this ensures that the signal phasing is correct between the different elements. It
also means that a feeder is required along the length of the antenna.
iodic function of frequency.

52
Frequency range
The frequency range, in which the log-periodic antennas operate is around 30 MHz to 3GHz
which belong to the VHF and UHF bands.

The diagram of log-periodic array is given above.

The antenna is divided into the so called active region and inactive regions.
The role of a specific dipole element is linked to the operating frequency: if its length, L, is
around half of the wavelength, it is an active dipole and within the active region; Otherwise it is
in an inactive region and acts as a director or reflector as in Yagi-Uda antenna
The driven element shifts with the frequency – this is why this antenna can offer a much wider
bandwidth than the Yagi-Uda. A travelling wave can also be formed in the antenna.
The highest frequency is basically determined by the shortest dipole length while the lowest
frequency is determined by the longest dipole length (L1).
In practice, the most likely scenario is that the frequency range is given from fmin to fmax, the
following equations may be employed for design

53
Antenna design
This seems to have too many variables. In fact, there are only three independent variables for
log-periodic antenna design
The scalling factor :

The spacing factor:

The Apex angle:

L1 L2 L3
    ......
L2 L3 L4
where L is respective element lengths

D1 D2 D3
     .....
D2 D3 D4
where D represents spacings between elements
and apex of angle clo sin g them.
D1 is shortest.

54
 L1
 tan

2 D1 2

Alpha is the angle of the apex of taperedelements and is typically 30 degrees

Optimum design data for Log periodic antenna

55
Design curve for LPDA

Advantages
The following are the advantages of Log-periodic antennas −
• The antenna design is compact.
• Gain and radiation pattern are varied according to the requirements.
Disadvantages
The following are the disadvantages of Log-periodic antennas −
• External mount.
• Installation cost is high.
Applications
The following are the applications of Log-periodic antennas −
• Used for HF communications.
• Used for particular sort of TV receptions.
• Used for all round monitoring in higher frequency bands, with wider frequency range
with reduced gain.

56
The antenna is ideally suited for reception of VHF/UHF point-to-point communication where its
directional can significantly improve rejection of interfering signals.
professional applications, this antenna is ideally suited for EMC pre-testing, surveillance and
monitoring.

Example: Optimum Design of a 54- to 216-MHz Log-periodic Dipole Antenna

It is desired to have an antenna that operates over the entire VHF-TV and FM broadcast bands,
which span the 54- to 216-MHz frequency range for a 4:1 bandwidth. Suppose the design gain is
chosen to be 6.5 dB. The corresponding values of T and for a optimum design from Figure
above are
T 0.822 and 0.149

Then from the apex angle


10 1 0.822
2 tan 33.3
4 0.149



The length of the longest dipole is determined first. At the lowest frequency of operation (8.54
MHz), the dipole length from 1 2
LL


should be near a half-wavelength, so
1 0.5 0.5(5.55) 2.78 L L m

The shortest dipole length should be on the order of 0.5 0.694 U U L m at 216 MHz. the
LPDA element lengths are computed until a length on the order of 0.694 m is reached. To be
specific, element lengths are found from 1 L using n 1 L = T
n L . For example,

2 1 L TL (0.822)(2.78) 2.29 m

and
3 2 L TL (0.822)(2.29) 1.88 m

Completing this process leads to

1 L = 2.78 m, 2 L = 2.29 m, 3 L = 1.88 m, 4 L = 1.54 m,

5 L = 1.27 m, 6 L = 1.04 m, 7 L = 0.858 m, 8 L = 0.705 m

9 L = 0.579 m

The array was terminated with nine elements since 9 L = 0.579 m is less than the 0.694 m length
for the highest operating frequency. Elements could be added to either end to improve
performance at the band edges.
The elements spacing for this example are found as
2 2(0.149) 0.298 n n n n d L L L
Using the element lengths of dn are obtained as
1 d = 0.828 m, 2 d = 0.682 m, 3 d = 0.560 m, 4 d = 0.459 m,

57
5d = 0.378 m, 6 d = 0.310 m, 7 d = 0.256 m, 8 d = 0.210 m
The total length of the array is the sum of the spacings in which gives a 3.683 m. The outline of
the antenna fits into an angular sector of angle 0 33.3 .

Class Task
Design a log-periodic dipole antenna to cover all UHF TV channels, which is from 470 MHz for
channel 14 to 890 MHz for channel 83. Each channel has a bandwidth of 6 MHz.
The desired directivity is 8 dBi.

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Broad Spectrum of Types

Introduction
Typical antennas are designed for a specific narrow band of operation
Broadband antennas are designed to operate effectively over a wide range of frequencies
Public two-way-radio VHF covers 130-174Mhz
Public two-way-radio UHF 406-512Mhz
The challenge is to create an antenna which can operate in both the VHF and UHF bands

An aperture antenna contains some sort of opening through which electromagnetic waves are
transmitted or received. The edge of a transmission line when terminated with an opening,
radiates energy. This opening which is an aperture, makes it an Aperture antenna.. Examples of
aperture antennas include slots, waveguides, horns, reflectors and lenses. The analysis of
aperture antennas is typically quite different than the analysis of wire antennas. Rather than using
the antenna current distribution to determine the radiated fields, the fields within the aperture are
used to determine the antenna radiation patterns.
Aperture antennas are commonly used in aircraft or spacecraft applications. The aperture can be
mounted flush with the surface of the vehicle, and the opening can be covered with a dielectric
which allows electromagnetic energy to pass through

The main types of aperture antennas are −

 Wave guide antenna

 Horn antenna

 Slot antenna

Waveguide Antenna

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A Waveguide is capable of radiating energy when excited at one end and opened at the other
end. The radiation in wave guide is greater than a two-wire transmission line.
Frequency Range
The operational frequency range of a wave guide is around 300MHz to 300GHz. This antenna
works in UHF and EHF frequency ranges. The following image shows a waveguide.

This waveguide with terminated end, acts as an antenna. But only a small portion of the energy is
radiated while a large portion of it gets reflected back in the open circuit. It
means VSWR (voltage standing wave ratio, discussed in basic parameters chapter) value
increases. The diffraction around the waveguide provides poor radiation and non-directive
radiation pattern.

Radiation Pattern

The radiation of waveguide antenna is poor and the pattern is non-directive, which means omni-
directional. An omni-directional pattern is the one which has no certain directivity but radiates
in all directions, hence it is called as non-directive radiation pattern.

The above figure shows a top section view of an omni-directional pattern, which is also called
as non-directional pattern. The two-dimensional view is a figure-of-eight pattern, as we already
know.

Slot Antenna

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A type of aperture antenna which contains one or more slots cut on the surface of the waveguide.
They are usually used in microwave frequencies and have an omnidirectional radiation pattern.
Horn Antenna
One of the most popular antennas is the Horn Antenna, which effects the transition between
transmission line and wave propagating in free space. It acts as a natural extension to a
waveguide.

Advantages
The following are the advantages of Aperture antenna −

 Radiation is greater than two-wire transmission line

 Radiation is Omni-directional
Disadvantages
The following are the disadvantages of Aperture antenna −

 VSWR increases

 Poor radiation
Applications
The following are the applications of Aperture antenna −

 Micro wave applications

 Surface search radar applications

Reflector Antennas
o Corner Reflector Antenna
o Parabolic Reflector Antenna

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Helix antenna
Helical antenna is an instance of wire antenna and itself forms the shape of a helix. This is a
broadband VHF and UHF antenna.
Frequency Range
The frequency range of operation of helical antenna is around 30MHz to 3GHz. This antenna
works in VHF and UHF ranges.
The antenna in the sketch has its maximum radiation along its long axis

A helical antenna is a specialized antenna that is considered to be a hybrid between a loop

antenna and a dipole antenna. It consists of a conducting wire wound in the form of a helix.
Helical antennas are usually mounted over a ground plane and the feedline is connected between
the bottom of the helix and the ground plane.
Helix Antennas usually support wide bandwidths compared to other types of antennas. To the
casual observer, they appear as one or more "springs" or helixes mounted against a flat reflecting
screen. These antennas emit and respond to electromagnetic fields with circular polarization.
These antennas operate in one of two modes: normal mode and axial mode. In the normal
mode, the diameter and pitch of the helix are small in comparison to the wavelength. As a result,
the operation is similar to an electrical short monopole or dipole. The radiation would be linearly
polarized parallel to the axis of the antenna with maximum radiation taking place at right angles
to the helix axis. This mode/configuration has a narrow bandwidth and low efficiency. These are
used for compact antennas for portable and mobile two-way radios, and for UHF television
broadcasting antennas.

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In axial mode, the diameter and pitch of the helix is comparable to the wavelength. In this case,
it functions as a directional antenna. Unlike the normal mode, simple solutions are not available
to determine the radiation properties in the case of axial mode. As a result, for axial mode
experimentally determined numerical and analytical techniques are used to determine these
factors. This mode/configuration is often used by earth-based stations in satellite
communications systems.
Helical antennas are commonly connected together in so-called bays of two, four, or
occasionally more elements with a common reflector. The entire assembly can be rotated in the
horizontal (azimuth) and vertical (elevation) planes, so the system can be aimed toward a
particular satellite. If the satellite is not in a geostationary orbit, the azimuth and elevation
rotators can be programmed to follow the course of the satellite across the sky.
The most popular helical antenna (helix) is a travelling wave antenna in the shape of a corkscrew
that produces radiation along the axis of the helix antenna. These helix antennas are referred to
as axial-mode helical antennas. The benefits of this helix antenna is it has a wide bandwidth, is
easily constructed, has a real input impedance, and can produce circularly polarized fields. The
basic geometry of the helix antenna shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Geometry of Helical Antenna.

The parameters of the helix antenna are defined below.

D - Diameter of a turn on the helix antenna.
C - Circumference of a turn on the helix antenna (C=pi*D).
S - Vertical separation between turns for helical antenna.

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 - pitch angle, which controls how far the helix antenna grows in the z-direction per turn, and

is given by
N - Number of turns on the helix antenna.
H - Total height of helix antenna, H=NS.
Helix antennas of at least 3 turns will have close to circular polarization in the +z direction when
the circumference C is close to a wavelength:

Once the circumference C is chosen, the inequalites above roughly determine the operating
bandwidth of the helix antenna. For instance, if C=19.68 inches (0.5 meters), then the highest
frequency of operation will be given by the smallest wavelength that fits into the above equation,

or =0.75C=0.375 meters, which corresponds to a frequency of 800 MHz. The lowest

frequency of operation will be given by the largest wavelength that fits into the above equation,

or =1.333C=0.667 meters, which corresponds to a frequency of 450 MHz. Hence,

the fractional BW is 56%, which is true of axial helical antennas in general.
The helix antenna is a travelling wave antenna, which means the current travels along the
antenna and the phase varies continuously. In addition, the input impedance is primarly real and
can be approximated in Ohms by:

The helix antenna functions well for pitch angles ( ) between 12 and 14 degrees. Typically, the
pitch angle is taken as 13 degrees.
The axial ratio for helix antennas decreases as the number of loops N is added, and can be
approximated by:

The gain of the helix antenna can be approximated by:

64
In the above, c is the speed of light. Note that for a given helix geometry (specified in terms of C,
S, N), the gain increases with frequency. For an N=10 turn helix, that has a 0.5 meter
circumference as above, and an pitch angle of 13 degrees (giving S=0.13 meters), the gain is 8.3
(9.2 dB).
For the same example helix antenna, the pattern is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Normalized radiation pattern for helical antenna (dB).

The Half-Power Beamwidth for helical antennas can be approximated (in degrees) by:

Advantages
The resulting are the advantages of Helical antenna −
Simple design
Highest directivity
Wider bandwidth
Can achieve circular polarization
Disadvantages
Antenna is larger and requires more space
Efficiency decreases with number of turns

Applications

65
Axial mode of helix is an extremely popular circularly-polarised broadband antenna at the VHF
and UHF band frequencies
Frequently used for satellite and space probe communications and radio astronomy
Used for telemetry links with ballastic missiles and satellites at Earth stations
Used to establish communications between the moon and the Earth

Class task
Design a circularly polarised helix antenna of an end-fire radiation pattern with a directivity of
13 dBi. Find out its radiation resistance, HPBW, AR and radiation pattern.
Micro strip antennas are low-profile antennas.
In telecommunication, a microstrip antenna (also known as a printed antenna) usually means an
antenna fabricated using photolithographic techniques on a printed circuit board (PCB). It is a
kind of internal antenna. They are mostly used at microwave frequencies.
Micro strip antennas are low-profile antennas. A metal patch mounted at a ground level with a
di-electric material in-between constitutes a Micro strip or Patch Antenna. These are very low
size antennas having low radiation

Frequency Range
The patch antennas are popular for low profile applications at frequencies above 100MHz.
Construction & Working of Micro strip Antennas
Micro strip antenna consists of a very thin metallic strip placed on a ground plane with a di-
electric material in-between. The radiating element and feed lines are placed by the process of
photo-etching on the di-electric material. Usually, the patch or micro-strip is choosen to be
square, circular or rectangular in shape for the ease of analysis and fabrication. The following
image shows a micro-strip or patch antenna.

66
The length of the metal patch is λ/2. When the antenna is excited, the waves generated within the
di-electric undergo reflections and the energyis radiated from the edges of the metal patch,which
is very low.
Radiation Pattern
The radiation pattern of microstrip or patch antenna is broad. It has low radiation power and
narrow frequency bandwidth.

The radiation pattern of a microstrip or patch antenna is shown above. It has lesser directivity.
To have a greater directivity, an array can be formed by using these patch antennas.
Advantages
The following are the advantages of Micro strip antenna −
 Lighteweight
 Low cost
 Ease of installation
Disadvantages

67
The following are the disadvantages of Micro strip antenna −
 Inefficient radiation
 Narrow frequency bandwidth
Applications
The following are the applications of Micro strip antenna −
 Used in Space craft applications
 Used in Air craft applications
 Used in Low profile antenna applications
 Mobile and satellite communication.
 Global Positioning System, RFID, WiMAX, Radar, rectenna and telemedicine
applications.
Advantages:
Ease of manufacturing
It has a very low fabrication cost.
Microstrip patch antennas are efficient radiators.
It has a support for both linear and circular polarization.
Easy in integration with microwave integration circuits.
Disadvantages:
Low impedance bandwidth.
Low gain.
Extra radiation occurs from its feeds and junctions.
Excitation of surface waves.
Size of micro strip antenna comes in both advantages and disadvantages but there are some
applications where the size of microstrip antenna is too large to be used.

68
5.

69
70
References

C. Balanis, “Antenna Theory analysis & design”, Wiley, 2005, 3rd Edition
W.L. Stutzman and G.A. Thiele, “Antenna Theory and Design,” 2nd. Ed., Wiley, 1998.
HINTS
Radiation by wire and loop antennas (Balanis chapter 4 and 5
Antenna arrays (Balanis chapter 6 and 7)
Microstrip antennas (Balanis chapter 14)

Summary
• Bandwidth: describes the range of frequencies over which the antenna can properly
radiate or receive energy.
• Radiation Resistance RA: The equivalent resistance which would dissipate the same
amount of power as the antenna radiates.
• Input impedance ZA : The ratio of the voltage to the current at the antenna terminals.
• Polarization: The polarization of an antenna in a specific direction is defined to be the
polarization of the wave produced by the antenna at a great distance at this direction (The
direction of the E-field).
• Antenna Gain G : The ratio of the radiated power in the maximum direction to the
radiated power of an isotropic antenna. The gain of an antenna represents the ability to
focus its beam in a particular direction – an isotropic antenna has a gain of 0 dB.
• Beam width: The angle between the two directions in which the radiated power is half of
the maximum value of the beam.
• Antenna Efficiency: The efficiency of an antenna relates the power delivered to the
antenna and the power radiated or dissipated within the antenna. The antenna efficiency
(or radiation efficiency) can be written as the ratio of the radiated power to the input
power of the antenna: e = Prad / Pin
• Radiation pattern: Graphical representation of radiation properties of an antenna is
depicted as two-dimensional cross section
• Beam width (or half-power beam width)
• Measure of directivity of antenna
• High-gain antennas always have narrow beams

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