FOREST PROTECTION

S- 100 (BC)

Basic Fire Suppression

& Safety

STUDENT WORKBOOK

BC Suppression
Training Series
Ministry of Forests Fire Suppression Training
 S-100 (BC)

Basic Fire Suppression & Safety

STUDENT MANUAL

Copyright © 2005 Province of British Columbia

Ministry of Forests

BC Suppression
Training Series
Fire Suppression Training
Ministry of Forests
DISCLAIMER

This manual is the exclusive property of the British Columbia Ministry of Forests. It
may not be reproduced in whole or in part, without the express written permission of
the Deputy Minister.

This manual is prepared for the sole use of British Columbia Ministry of Forests
personnel only. It may not be used by other agencies or individuals as a
development guideline without the express written permission and cooperation of the
British Columbia Ministry of Forests.
Acknowledgements
Thank you to Alberta Sustainable Resource Development- Forest Protection Division
for the use of the fireline sprinkler information

Thank you to Parks Canada for use of the MK III pump set-up photos

A sincere thanks to the B.C. Forest Service employees and forest industry personnel
who reviewed and revised subsequent drafts of the Basic Fire Suppression and
Safety Course.

Course content developed by:

• Kelly Johnston, Wildland Solutions

• Don Mortimer, Fireline Consulting and Instruction

• Peter Meaden, H.I.S. Ventures Ltd.

Comments on the S-100 course please direct to:

• Team Leader, Training & Safety, Protection Program

S-100 Basic Fire Suppression and Safety British Columbia Forest Service

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. OVERVIEW………………………………………………………….. 1-1

2. WILDFIRE DETECTION AND REPORTING…………………….. 2-1

3. FIRE BEHAVIOUR....................................................................... 3-1

4. FIRELINE ORGANIZATION………………………………………... 4-1

5. FIRELINE SAFETY………………………………………………….. 5-1

6. EMERGENCY FIRELINE COMMUNICATIONS…………………… 6-1

7. FIRE SUPPRESSION………………………………………………. 7-1

8. IGNITION OPERATIONS…………………………………………… 8-1

9. HAND TOOLS………………………………………………………… 9-1

10. FIRELINE HEAVY EQUIPMENT…………………………………….. 10-1

11. WATER DELIVERY SYSTEMS…………………………………….. 11-1

12. HELICOPTER USE AND SAFETY………………………………….. 12-1

13. FIRELINE AIRCRAFT (FIXED WING)………………………………. 13-1

14. WILDLAND/URBAN INTERFACE SAFETY………………………… 14-1

15. WHMIS & TDG…………………………………………………………. 15-1

S-100 Student Workbook TABLE OF CONTENTS

S-100 Basic Fire Suppression and Safety British Columbia Forest Service

1. OVERVIEW

Course Learning Objective

Upon completion of this course, the participant will demonstrate a basic
knowledge of the wildland fire suppression organizational structure, the
wildland fire environment, suppression and safety procedures and
equipment used in British Columbia to effectively and safely respond as a
basic wildland firefighter.

Course Outline
The British Columbia Forest Service S-100 Basic Fire Suppression & Safety
course is a two-day training session involving one day of classroom work and
one day of field work.

Target Audience
This course was designed for delivery to the following individuals involved in
wildland fire suppression operations:
• Province of British Columbia staff
• Local government staff
• First nations groups
• Industry personnel
• Contractors

Recognition of Training
This course is recognized by the British Columbia Ministry of Forests as the
minimum training standard required for any person to participate as a wildland
fire fighter in the province of British Columbia.

Evaluation
Individuals will be evaluated on this course using the following criteria:
• Written exam (45 mins held at the end of the first day) 70%
• Practical Field Test (ongoing during field day) 30%
A final combined mark of 70% will be required for successful completion

Training Refresher
Individuals must successfully complete the S100A Basic Fire Suppression &
Safety course refresher annually to maintain the minimum training level required
to participate as a wildland fire fighter in British Columbia

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NOTES:

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2. WILDFIRE DETECTION AND REPORTING

Section Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this section, the participant will demonstrate a basic
knowledge of:
1. The 10:00 AM Concept
2. The Key elements of assessing and reporting fires in British Columbia
3. The role of industry and the public in fire suppression

Wildfires in British Columbia

Each year, British Columbia experiences approximately 2,500 wildfires burning
close to 72,000 hectares of valuable forest. Lightning causes 37% of the
province’s wildfires; while industrial activity, such as logging, accounts for an
additional 25%. The remaining 38% are caused by the public; usually the result
of various recreational activities.

The 10 AM Concept
BC Forest Service
Protection provides
aggressive attack and
suppression efforts on all
wildland fires. Early
detection is critical to
success—every effort is
made to control the wildfire
by 10:00 a.m. of the
morning following
discovery. This is called
the ‘10 AM Concept’.

By controlling fires before 10:00 a.m. (when high temperature and low humidity
start to increase fire rates of spread) fire fighters can suppress fires more easily
with a greater chance of success. Existing success rates are very high with over
90% of all wildland fires being controlled within 24 hours of discovery at less than
one hectare in size. This expectation is the minimum standard.

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Fire Assessment
When a fire is detected, prompt and accurate reporting to the Ministry of Forests
Fire Control Centre is very important.

When reporting a fire, it is important to note these key elements :

• Exact location and size of the fire;

• Colour, density and volume of smoke;

• Wind speed and direction;

• Type of trees and ground vegetation and how they are spaced;

• The terrain in the area (is the fire on a slope, open area?);

• Values at Risk (Communities, Buildings, Power Lines)

• Access to the area (road, boat, helicopter?);

• Fire fighting resources currently in use suppressing the fire.

Thorough observation is important and specific details of the situation must be

reported to the Fire Centre in order for the Fire Control Officer to decide on an
appropriate initial attack response.

Initial Phone Report

Since 1995, the Ministry of
Forests began operating a
1-800 fire number.
The number connects callers to a
Ministry of Forests telephone
operator who may fill out an
Initial Phone Report (IPR)
based on the information
reported.
When calling the 1-800 number, it
is important to listen and give
clear, accurate information.

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Industry and Public Role in Fire Suppression

Duty to Report Wildfires
It is every person’s legal obligation to immediately report an open fire that is
burning on, or within 1 km of forest land or grass land and appears to be burning
unattended or uncontrolled.

Duty to Perform Fire Suppression

A person carrying out industrial activity must immediately start fire suppression
efforts and report any fires starting at, or within 1 km of the work site. Industrial
activities must have, fire suppression equipment, as required by law, available for
fire control efforts.
A fire official can order a person who is 19 years of age or older, physically
capable and trained in fire suppression, or has skills that can be used in doing
so, to assist in fire control. Fire officials can also order a person to provided
facilities and equipment that they own; or staff they employ to assist in fire
suppression efforts.

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3. FIRE BEHAVIOUR

Section Learning Objectives:

Upon completion of this section, the participant will demonstrate a basic
understanding of wildland fire behaviour through knowledge of:
1. The basic structure of forests and fuels in the wildland fire environment
2. The three elements of the fire triangle
3. The three key factors that influence fire behaviour; the 30/30 Cross concept
4. The main components of the Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System
5. The three fire types; candling and spotting
6. The Fire Intensity Ranking System
7. The parts of a fire

Forest Layers
A wildland forest consists of a plant community dominated by trees growing on a
forest floor.

Overstory
“canopy”

Forest

Understory Seeds and

Micro-
organisms

Litter
Forest Duff layer Decomposed litter
Organic soil
floor Soil layer
Mineral soil

The duff layer rests on top of the soil layer. Duff evolves from each year’s dead
and decomposed plants and animals. Mineral soil evolves from decomposition of
rocks.

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Forest Fuels
Any substance that will ignite and
combust (burn) is a fuel. There are
three types of fuel:
• aerial fuel: combustible material
aerial
higher than one metre (39
inches) above ground level;
• surface fuel: includes all
combustibles less than one metre
surface above ground level and one
year's litter accumulation; and
ground • ground fuel: includes all
combustible substances below
the surface litter of the duff.

The Fire Triangle

In order to control and successfully fight forest fires, we must first understand
what makes fire spread.
Three elements: fuel, oxygen and heat must be present to start and maintain a
fire.

Fuel + Oxygen + Heat

In a forest fire:
• Forests provide the fuel;
• oxygen is in the air and;
• heat results either naturally (lightning strike) or is introduced by people.

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These three elements (fuel, oxygen, heat) are related to a triangle with each side
representing one element. If any one of these elements is altered, the fire will
behave differently; if one side of a triangle is removed, the fire extinguishes.

The Heat Transfer Process

The process by which heat travels from one body or object to another is known
as heat transfer. There are three processes.
Radiation: Transfer of heat through the air from warm surfaces to cooler
surroundings (the heat you feel when you are sitting next to a campfire)
Convection: Transfer of heat by the movement of a hot air mass; usually
upwards (burning objects below heat objects above)
Conduction: Transfer of heat through solid matter (objects touching each other).

Factors Influencing Fire Behaviour

There are three key factors that influence fire behaviour. They are:

Key Factors

1. Fuel 2. Weather 3. Topography

Moisture Wind Slope

Size Precipitation Aspect

Spacing (continuity) Relative Humidity Terrain

Fuel Loading Temperature Elevation

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Fuel
Fuel Moisture
Fuel moisture content is the single most important fuel-related factor affecting fire
behaviour.
Fire will ignite easier and spread faster in fuels with lower fuel moisture.
Fuel moisture in widland fuels is determined by :
• Weather related factors affecting the amount of moisture in the fuel. For
example, the amount and type of precipitation (rain, snow)
• Percentage of live or dead (cured) fuel. For example green grass will not
burn as well as brown grass.

Fuel Size

Surface Area = 6 m² Surface Area = 18 m²

Heavy, slow-burning fuels include Light, fast-burning fuels include

logs, stumps, large branch wood, grass, dead leaves, tree needles,
trees and deep duff. Taking longer to brush and small trees. They ignite
ignite (due to moisture content) fires quickly, result in fast spreading fires
spread slowly but burn longer with and act as kindling to light heavier
greater intensity. The moisture fuels. The moisture content change
content change is slower due to a is faster due to a high surface area
low surface area to volume ratio. to volume ratio.

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Fuel Spacing (Continuity)

Fuel spacing refers to the arrangement of fuel on the landscape and can be
considered as the fuel distribution in the horizontal and vertical directions. Fuel
closer together increases the ability of fire to spread, while fuel spaced further
apart decreases the ability of fire to spread
Horizontal Fuel Spacing- is usually described as “continuous” or “patchy”.
Vertical Fuel Spacing- refers to the distance between surface fuels and aerial
fuels. Fuels present between these two fuels are called ladder fuels.

Fuel Loading
Fuel loading refers to the weight or mass of fuels in a given area, usually
measured in tonnes per hectare. Fuel loads may vary across the landscape.
Higher density fuel loads will burn at higher intensities if fuel moisture conditions
make all the fuel available for combustion.

Weather
Wind
Wind is the single most important weather factor affecting fire behaviour and
influences fire behaviour by:
• Increasing or decreasing fuel moisture
• Bending the flames ahead, heating, drying and igniting new fuels
• Carrying sparks and embers into new fuel sources (spotting)
• Feeding more oxygen to a fire
• Driving the direction of a fire

Precipitation
Precipitation influences fire behaviour by affecting fuel moisture. The effect of
precipitation on fuel moisture is mostly dependant on fuel size:
• Less precipitation is required to raise the fuel moisture content in fine fuels
than in heavy fuels
• Fine fuels will dry out faster heavy fuels
• Precipitation may not wet ground fuels if they are located under a dense
canopy
• Duration of precipitation, not quantity, is the most important factor
determining the effect of precipitation on fuel moisture.

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Relative Humidity
Relative Humidity influences fire behaviour by affecting fuel moisture.
Relative Humidity is the percentage of water vapour present in the air. When the
air is dry (low Relative Humidity), fuels are likely to dry out; when the air is damp
(high Relative Humidity), fuels are likely to absorb moisture (fuel moisture
increases). Typically, the relative humidity will increase overnight and decrease
during the day.

Temperature
Temperature fluctuations affect relative humidity, thereby affecting fuel moisture
content. To a lesser degree, temperatures also influence the amount of
preheating required to bring fuel to it’s ignition temperature.

The 30/30 Cross (Black Cross)

Watch for Extreme Fire Weather
The 30/30 Cross describes the condition where the RH drops below 30% and
temperature rises about 30ºC. If this occurs on the fireline, this is a useful rule of
thumb to potentially expect extreme fire behaviour – precautions must be taken
accordingly.

Temperature
R.H.
Watch for Extreme
TEMP º C Fire Behaviour

30

20

10

0600 1200 1800 2400

TIME

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The Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System (CFFDRS)

The Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System (CFFDRS) is a standard
national system of rating fire danger in Canada. Fire potential and fire spread
rates are used to determine day-to-day fire preparedness and suppression
requirements for fire centre operations.

Fire fighters should have a general understanding of the CFFDRS and the
importance of the various codes and indexes to understand ease of ignition, rate
of spread and difficulty of control.

The CFFDRS has two sub-systems:

1. The Fire Weather Index (FWI) system
2. The Fire Behaviour Prediction (FBP) system.

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The Fire Weather Index (FWI) system

The Fire Weather Index (FWI) system uses four weather readings (taken each
day at 1300 hours PDT). These inputs are:
Temperature (wet and dry bulb)
Relative Humidity
Wind speed and direction
Rainfall (cumulative – past 24 hours)
The weather readings are entered into standard tables which provide fire fighters
with three Fuel Moisture Codes and three Fire Behaviour Indexes.

Fuel Moisture Codes

Fuel Moisture Codes are numerical ratings that express daily changes in
moisture content of three classes or layers of forest fuel (each class has a
different drying rate). Fuel Moisture Code values increase with lower fuel
moistures.
Amount of 24 hr
Code Represents Time Lag* rainfall required to
lower value
FFMC
Fine Fuel Moisture Surface litter 2/3 day 0.6 mm
Code
DMC
Duff Moisture Code 5 – 10 cm duff 12 days 1.5 mm
DC
Drought Code 10 – 20 cm duff 52 days 2.9 mm
*Time lag refers to the time required for fuel to lose 2/3 of its moisture under standard drying conditions

Fine Fuel Moisture Code (FFMC)- The FFMC represents the moisture content
in litter (needles, twigs) and other cured fuels on the surface. This fuel group is
extremely sensitive to all daily weather changes. The FFMC expresses ease of
ignition and fuel flammability.
CODE / INDEX INTERPRETATION
FFMC
Less than 77 Generally a fire will not start without a concerted effort.

77 – 86 Approximately 50% of ignition sources will start fires.

More than 86 Easy ignition of fuels.

Greater than 94 Almost 100% of ignition sources will ignite forest fuels.
ISI
Less than 10 When FFMC is less than 86, fire spread is generally not great.
Above 10 Expect rapid spread rates which escalate rapidly as the FFMC increases.

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Duff Moisture Code (DMC)- The DMC represents the moisture content of duff
layers 5 – 10 cm (2 – 4 inches) deep. This fuel group is affected by rainfall,
temperature and humidity. The DMC expresses fuel consumption in medium-
depth duff layers and medium-sized woody material.
CODE / INDEX INTERPRETATION
DMC
Less than 35 Do not expect a great deal of involvement of fire in this layer. Above this
level one can expect more intense fires.

Drought Code (DC)- The DC represents the moisture content of deep duff layers
10 – 20 cm (5 – 10 inches) deep. This fuel group is affected by rainfall and
temperature. The DC expresses seasonal drought effects on forest fuels and the
amount of smoldering that will occur in deep duff layers and large logs.
CODE / INDEX INTERPRETATION
DC
0-300 Very little involvement of this fuel in most areas.

300-450 Increased involvement with fires becoming more intense and mop-up
problems increasing.
500+
Extensive involvement of the fuel layer. Fires are intense with difficult mop-
up problems, due to the depth of the fires.

Fire Behaviour Indexes

ISI Initial Spread Index
Represents the relative fire
spread expected immediately
after ignition.

BUI Build Up Index

Represents the total amount
of fuel available for
combustion – useful in
determining mop-up
requirements – used in
calculating fire rate of spread.

FWI Fire Weather Index

Represents the potential fire
intensity. Fire danger levels
(classified as very low, low,
moderate, high or extreme)
summarize wildland fire
conditions for a specific area.

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Fire danger class ratings are calculated for three danger regions in the province
of BC and are used to determine the need for open fire bans and public travel
restrictions or road closures in forested areas. Industrial activities use the fire
danger classes to determine restrictions on industrial operations such as the
need for early shutdown, ‘fire-watch’ following early shutdown or complete
shutdown of industrial activity.

The Fire Behaviour Prediction (FBP) System

The FBP system predicts fire rate of spread in a given fuel type with a known ISI.
The FBP system evaluates:
• FWI indices on site or from the nearest weather station
• Fuel type (17 different fuel types)
• Topography (slope and aspect)
• Time of day / time of year

Primary outputs of the FBP system are:

• Rate of Spread (meters per minute)
• Fire Type (surface, intermittent crown, crown)
• Fire Intensity (kilowatts per meter)

Fire Types
Ground Fire Surface Fire

Crown Fire (Intermittent) Crown Fire

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Topography
There are three topographical factors that influence fire behaviour:
• Slope
• Aspect
• Terrain
• Elevation
Slope
Slope is the single most important topographical factor affecting fire behaviour.
Slope affects fire behaviour in the following ways:
• Flames are closer to fuels
on the uphill side, heating
and igniting these new fuels
• Convective heat (rising heat)
from the fire travels up the
slope, heating and drying
new fuels
• The convective air may
carry firebrands, which can
ignite spot fires above the
main fire
• Burning embers and large
burning material may roll
downhill igniting new,
unburned materials below
the fire Flames
• Firefighting efforts are “bent”
hampered and slowed on upslope
slopes
• Cooling at night and weather Burning Embers
changes can cause winds to Rolling Downhill
blow down slope.

Aspect
Aspect refers to the direction the slope faces. For example, a southwest aspect is
a slope that faces southwest.

South
Temperature (oC)

West
North
East
North South North
Aspect
Aspect Aspect
Aspect

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The following aspect factors affect fire behavior directly:

• Southern slopes receive the most direct heat from the sun and therefore
have higher temperatures
• Fuels on south facing slopes typically have the lowest fuel moisture

Terrain
Terrain is the variation in land features, which primarily affects fire behaviour by
altering wind direction and speed at a local level. It is useful to think of the wind
patterns over terrain as water flowing in a river. Terrain affects wind patterns in
the following ways:
• Turbulence or “eddies” can be generated on the leeward side when wind
blows across ridges

• Terrain restrictions, such as narrow portions of valleys, or knolls, can

increase wind speed as the wind passes through, or around these
restrictions.

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• Steep-sided gullies or canyons running uphill can create a “chimney

effect” dramatically increasing uphill spread rates and intensity. In many
cases these terrain features will also have heavy fuel loadings, increasing
fire behaviour.

Elevation

Typically, air temperatures follow an elevation gradient with temperatures being

warmer at lower elevations and cooler at higher elevations. Quite often,
atmospheric conditions will cause a band of warm air to be trapped at mid-
elevation between cool air at lower elevations and cool air above. In mountainous
terrain this is a temperature inversion known as a thermal belt. Within the
thermal belt, temperature will be higher and relative humidity will be lower than
the elevations above and below, possibly creating extreme fire conditions when
unexpected

THERMAL BELT

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Fire Intensity Ranking System

Fire ranking is a very convenient way of quickly assessing the fire.

It is important to understand the Fire Intensity Ranking System which enables fire
fighters to communicate a summarized assessment of fire behaviour. Numbers
from 1 (low) to 6 (extreme) are based on the FWI values.

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Rank 1
• No open flame, white smoke, smouldering ground fire
Rank 2
• Visible open flame, surface fire only
• Unorganized flame front, little or no spread
Rank 3
• Organized surface flame front
• Moderate rate of spread
• Vigorous surface fire
Rank 4
• Organized surface flame front, disorganized crown involvement
• Moderate to fast rate of spread on the ground
• Short range spotting
• Grey to black smoke
Rank 5
• Organized crown fire front
• Moderate to long range spotting
• Independent spot fire growth
• Copper to black smoke
Rank 6
• Organized crown fire front
• Moderate to long range spotting
• Independent spot fire growth
• Presence of fire balls and fire whirls

Definitions
Candling - A single tree or a small clump of trees is said to candle when its
foliage ignites and flares up, usually from bottom to top.
Spotting - A fire producing firebrands carried by the surface wind, a fire whirl
and/or convection column that fall beyond the main fire perimeter and result in
spot fires

Parts of the fire

It is very important that you are able to describe the anatomy of a wildfire. You
will need this to describe your position on the fire or the position of an
observation you are making from afar. The following anatomical descriptors are
important to remember and understand:

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Head -The head or front of the fire is the portion of the fire that has the greatest
rate of spread. The head is the direction in which the fire is growing. The head is
usually on the downwind or upslope part of the fire.
Back- The back or rear of the fire is opposite the head and usually has the
slowest rate of spread. It is also known as the heel or the base.
Flank-The flanks are any areas between the head and the back. The flanks are
often referred to in relation to a geographic feature such as the ‘north flank’.
Finger-A finger is an elongated burn area projecting from the main body of the
fire. Fingers often occur on wind driven fires.
Bay-A bay is a marked indentation in the fire perimeter. A bay is usually located
between two fingers.
Island-An island is an area of an unburned fuel located within the fire perimeter.
Spot Fire- spot or jump fire is a fire ignited by firebrands outside the main
perimeter of the fire. Spots can occur very close to the fireline or under windy
conditions a great distance from the fireline.
Hot Spot- A hot spot is any part of the fire that is particularly active.

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4. FIRELINE ORGANIZATION

Section Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this section, the participant will demonstrate a basic
knowledge of:
1. The five major organizational activities within the Incident Command
System and explain their primary functions.
2. The Crew Leaders primary function within the incident organization
3. Chain of Command principles.
4. How span of control functions within the Incident Command System
and in the use of resources.
5. The terms used to name the six major incident facilities, and the
function of each.

The Incident Command System (ICS)

Every fire in British Columbia, whether it is a small fire with only 2 firefighters and
a crew leader, or a large fire with several hundred personnel, is organized using
the principles of the Incident Command System (ICS).

ICS Organizational Activities

There are five major functions within the Incident Command System:

INCIDENT
COMMANDER

OPERATIONS PLANNING LOGISTICS FINANCE/

SECTION SECTION SECTION ADMINISTRATION
SECTION

AIR BRANCHES,
OPERATIONS DIVISIONS,
BRANCH GROUPS

SINGLE
RESOURCE
(CREW)
LEADER

FIREFIGHTER

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Incident Commander (IC)- has overall responsibility at the fire. There is an

Incident Commander in charge of every fire. On small (low complexity) fires, the
Incident Commander may manage all of the 5 main functions on their own. On
larger (higher complexity) fires, the Incident Commander may require separate
Section Chiefs for each of the additional 4 main functions, as well as Branch
Directors, Group or Division Supervisors and Crew Leaders; depending on the
complexity of the fire.
Operations Section Chief- Responsible for all operations, organizes and directs
personnel, equipment and aircraft. This is the section firefighters work under
when suppressing fires.
Planning Section Chief- responsible for developing action plans and
maintaining records.
Logistics Section Chief- Provides support for incident (food, vehicles,
equipment, etc.).
Finance and Administration- Monitors costs, accounting and time recording.

Crew Leader
The Crew Leader is considered a single resource leader in ICS and directs up to
7 fire fighters to perform certain tasks in a specific area of the fire. The crew
leader typically reports to the Division Supervisor, or Operations Section Chief on
larger fires. On smaller fires, the Crew Leader either takes charge as the Incident
Commander, or reports directly to the Incident Commander.

Chain of Command
Firefighter safety and effectiveness is the responsibility of their immediate
supervisor. One of the keys to ensuring that firefighters are working safely and
effectively at all times is the chain-of-command. The chain of command rule
states that fire fighters have ‘one boss and one boss only’. Firefighters will report
to and take direction from their immediate supervisor only, regardless of what
supervisory staff may be in the vicinity. This rule is respected at all times for
reasons of safety and efficiency. Firefighters must ensure that they do not
change locations without the Crew Leaders knowledge.

Span of Control
For safety and efficiency reasons, supervisors should only supervise up to a
maximum of 7 people with an optimum span of control of 1 supervisor to 5
people. On a small fire the Incident Commander may directly supervise up to 7
firefighters. A large fire (51 – 100+ fire fighters) may require an Operations Chief,
Division Superintendents and Crew Leaders to ensure that the Incident
Commander and each supervisor below him or her, is only directly supervising a
maximum of 7 people.

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Here are some examples of what the organizational charts might look like to
manage Span of Control:
Small Fire
Initial response resources are managed by the initial response Incident
Commander who will perform all command and general staff functions. Only if
the incident grows in size or complexity will it be necessary to add staff in the
functional areas. If the decision is made to add additional resources and staff,
the organizational framework and reporting relationships have been pre-
established.

INCIDENT COMMANDER

Helicopter

Fire Fighter

Fire Fighter

Fire Fighter

Fire Fighter

Fire Fighter

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Small to Moderate Fire / Incident

The Incident Commander performs all command and general staff functions and
manages all resources. If the incident grows in size or complexity and additional
resources are required, the Incident Commander would also need additional
supervisory staff to maintain an appropriate span of control ratio. The
organizational framework and reporting relationships have been pre-established.

INCIDENT COMMANDER

Communications
Unit

Documentation Unit Time Unit

Food Unit

Helicopter

Single Resource
Leader

Single Resource
Leader

Fire Fighter

Fire Fighter

Fire Fighter

Fire Fighter

Fire Fighter

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Moderate to Large Fire / Incident

The Incident Commander has people performing in some of the command and
general staff functions. The incident has grown in size or complexity so it is
necessary to add staff in functional areas.

INCIDENT COMMANDER

Liaison Officer

Safety Officer

LOGISTICS OPERATIONS
SECTION SECTION
CHIEF CHIEF

Fire Behaviour
Specialist

Communications Unit Division

or
Group Costs Unit
Supervisor

Facilities Unit Division Documentation Unit Time Unit

or Helicopter Coordinator
Group
Supervisor

Food Unit Supply Unit Helicopter

Single Resource
Leader Helicopter

Heavy Equipment
Leader

Single Resource
Leader

FIRE FIGHTER

FIRE FIGHTER

FIRE FIGHTER

FIRE FIGHTER

FIRE FIGHTER

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Large Fire / Incident

The Incident Commander has people performing in all command staff functions
and most general staff functions. The incident is of significant size and
complexity to add staff in the functional areas. However, only the positions that
need to be filled to manage the specific incident are filled.

INCIDENT COMMANDER

Information Officer

Safety Officer

LOGISTICS OPERATIONS PLANNING FINANCE/ADMINSTRATION

SECTION SECTION SECTION SECTION
CHIEF CHIEF CHIEF CHIEF

Operations Branch Air Branch Fire Behaviour Procurement Unit

Director Director Specialist

Communications Unit Ground Unit Heavy Equipment

Group
Supervisor Situation Unit Costs Unit

Medical Unit Facilities Unit Division

Supervisor Helicopter Coordinator Documentation Unit Time Unit

Food Unit Supply Unit Division

Supervisor Helicopter

Helicopter

Single Resource Helicopter

Leader
Helicopter
Single Resource
Leader

Single Resource
Leader

Helibase Manager
Fire Fighter

Fire Fighter

Fire Fighter

Fire Fighter

Fire Fighter

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Incident Facilities
There are six major incident facilities identified in the ICS system. It is important
that firefighters have a basic knowledge of these facilities and their functions in
the organizational structure.

Incident Command Post (Name)

S Staging Areas (Name)

B Base (Name)

C Camp (Name)

H Helibase (Name)

Helispot (Number or Name)

H-2

Incident Command Post (ICP)- The location from which the Incident
Commander oversees all incident operations. There is only one ICP for each
incident.
Staging Areas- Locations where resources (including firefighters) are kept while
awaiting assignment. Most fires will have at least one staging area; some may
have several staging areas.
Base- The location at the incident where the primary service and support
activities are performed (equipment repairs, equipment warehouse etc.). There is
only one base for each incident.
Camps- Camps are temporary locations within the general incident area which
are equipped to provide sleeping, food, water and sanitary services to incident
personnel. There may be more than one camp on large fires.
Helibase- A location in the vicinity of the incident at which helicopters may be
parked, maintained, fueled and equipped for fire operations.
Helispot- Temporary locations where helicopters can land, load and off-load
personnel, equipment and supplies. Large incidents may have several Helispots.

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NOTES:

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5. FIRELINE SAFETY

Section Learning Objectives:

Upon completion of this section, the participant will demonstrate a basic
understanding of fireline safety, through knowledge of:
1. When you should receive a briefing and what should be in it
2. LCES safe work practice
3. Fireline evacuation procedures
4. Personal Protective Equipment used on the fireline
5. The five basic fireline hazards
6. Fire entrapment, fire entrapment avoidance and fire entrapment survival
7. Wildland/Urban Interface hazards
8. Danger tree marking system, no work zones and danger tree significant
hazards
9. Firefighter fitness and health

Wildland fire suppression is a hazardous occupation. Most injuries and fatalities

on the fireline are the result of fire fighters not following safe work procedures.
When injuries occur, a crew’s efforts are diverted away from the fire which may
escape and threaten other fire fighters. The first responsibility of all fire fighters is
to prevent injury to themselves and others.
Fire fighters must approach every fireline situation with a ‘safety first’ attitude and
remember that no fire suppression tasks are considered sufficiently urgent to
justify any risk-taking or shortcuts with safe work procedures.

Safety Role of the Crew Leader

Crew Leaders are trained to
supervise crews and make sure that
all fire suppression tasks are
accomplished safely and effectively.

Crew Safety Briefing

Crew Leaders will provide a pre-work safety
briefing and ongoing updates, to make sure
that fire fighters are kept informed.

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Firefighters should expect the following key information to be included in the

pre-work safety briefing:
• The Chain of Command
• Designated Lookouts (if any)
• Communications plan outlining communications between fire fighters and
between firefighters and their immediate supervisor.
• At least two Escape Routes that lead to adequate Safety Zones noted in
case fire fighters and equipment are threatened by sudden changes in fire
behaviour.
• Known fireline hazards. Every fire fighter is responsible for alerting other fire
fighters about any fireline hazard – note and make others aware of any
possible danger areas such as changes in fire behaviour, snags or any other
safety hazards.
• Safe work procedures to be used
• Current and expected fire behaviour
• Fire suppression strategies, current fire activities and progress
• Suppression tasks the crew will be accomplishing
• Individual work assignments

IMPORTANT!
A crew briefing isn’t a one-way process. After the briefing, ask
questions on any points that weren’t covered and make suggestions
where needed.
• If you aren’t sure about a situation, SPEAK OUT.
• The most important consideration when attacking a wildland fire is a
“safety first” attitude…..
IF IN DOUBT – BACK OUT!

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LCES System of Safe Work Procedures

Safe work procedures are established for all fire suppression tasks that fire
fighters accomplish.
L C E S is a system of safe work procedures that ties together the important
elements of the “10 STANDARD FIRE ORDERS” and the “18 Situations that
shout W-A-T-C-H-O-U-T ”. Use of the L C E S system will allow fire fighters to
work safely around fireline hazards.

Lookouts - lookouts are experienced firefighters that can continually size-up a fire.
Fire environment characteristics and fire behavior are used to establish an effective
lookout system. More than one Lookout may be required. Lookouts scout the fire,
leaving the crew on their own. Contact must be maintained with the crew.

Communications- firefighters must remain in constant communications with the

entire fireline organization and ensure that all information is understood and passed
on. They are responsible to warn other firefighters of identified fire hazards. Working
alone or out of earshot of other crewmembers is not allowed.

Escape Routes - provide for rapid access to safety zones for firefighters retreating
from a threatened fireline position. The effectiveness of escape routes changes
continuously, due to fire behaviour. The most common escape route is the fireline. On
indirect or parallel fireline, a fire which jumps over the fireline can severely reduce the
escape route options available to the firefighters. Unless safety zones have been
identified ahead as well as to the rear, firefighters retreat may not be possible. There
must always be more than one escape route that leads to an effective safety zone.
They must be scouted, timed and marked. A single escape route may be cut off.

Safety Zones - are planned locations where firefighters, threatened by fire hazards,
may find adequate refuge from danger. The effectiveness of a safety zone is
dependent on its ability to allow all firefighters to shelter from heat, smoke, rolling
debris, falling timber and snags etc. The burned area may be the best and simplest,
but also consider water sources, or large areas cleared of flammable vegetation.

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Fireline Evacuation Procedures

Fire fighters’ Three ‘R’s
If the crew leader decides to move the crew back from the fireline along an
escape route to a safety zone, the following procedures will be used by all fire
fighters:
Stay with your crew and follow the crew leader’s instructions.
• Take hand tools and packs (unless ordered to drop them by the crew
leader).
• Do not panic.
• Do not run.

Retreat → Regroup → Reassess

Personal Protective Equipment

The WCB Occupational Health
and Safety Regulation Part
26.19(4) requires that:
A worker engaged in firefighting
must wear pants and a long-
sleeved shirt of cotton, wool,
denim or flame resistant material.
Safety Boot requirements
depends on assignment. At a
minimum: leather boots with 8” uppers and lug type sole
Fireline Hazards
The wildland fire environment has five basic hazards:
• fire entrapment
• dangerous trees
• rocks and rolling debris
• fireline heavy equipment or aircraft
• unsafe personal behaviour.

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Fire Entrapment
Fire entrapment occurs when a
fire suddenly changes its
direction and rate of spread and
prevents fire fighters from
moving along escape routes to
safety zones.

Fire Entrapment Avoidance

Fire fighters must recognize the
fuels, weather and topography
that can cause hazardous fire
behaviour and make use of
lookouts, communications,
escape routes and safety zones
before fire entrapment occurs.
Do not fight fire in a situation
that compromises your safety. Stay alert and be aware of changing conditions.

Hazardous Fuels
These are fuels that can spread fire quickly include:
• Fine fuels – grass, needles, twigs, small trees and logging slash.
• Dead or diseased fuels – cured grasses, dead standing or downed trees, ‘red
needle’ branches.
• Closely spaced fuels – dense forest, ladder fuels to ground, large amounts of
dead and downed fuels on the forest floor.
• Unburned fuels between firefighters and the fire edge or below fire fighters on
steep slopes
Hazardous Weather
Weather factors that contribute to unpredictable and/or high rates of spread
include:
• wind increasing or changing direction;
• high temperatures and low humidities;
• prolonged drought – low fuel moisture;
• thunderstorms can cause strong and gusty winds, wind shifts and downdrafts.
Hazardous Topography
Hazardous topography and topography changes (even minor changes) that
unexpectedly increases fire rate of spread include:
• steep slopes;
• aspect – south facing;
• chimneys, gullies and canyons.

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Fire Behaviour
• Multiple spot fires or extensive spotting activity
Communications Failures
• Communications failures or lack of communication

If you are Trapped (Fire Entrapment)

Fire Entrapment With a Fire Shelter
Fire shelters are tent-like, foil structures designed to shelter a firefighter from
radiant heat during a fire entrapment incident. The fire shelter is folded into a
small pack and carried on the fire fighters belt when not in use
The BC Forest Service recognizes the safety advantage provided by fire shelters
and has adopted a policy on fire shelter use. Fire shelters and training (S185 Fire
Entrapment Avoidance and Fire Shelter Deployment course) in their use is
mandatory for all personnel working on the fireline in British Columbia.
Fire Entrapment Without a Fire Shelter
Protecting your lungs and airways is your one chance for survival. Fire resistant
clothing is the primary means of protection during entrapment. Advise immediate
supervisor (Crew Leader) of the situation. Request retardant drops on fuels
surrounding your location.

1. Attempt to shelter within the burned area

• Find an area of the fire front that consists of light fuels.
• Protect yourself as much as possible — ensure that sleeves are down, collar
up, gloves and goggles are on, use a shovel blade or jacket to deflect radiant
heat from the face.
• Take a deep breath and move quickly through the fire front into the burned
area.
• AVOID BREATHING HOT AIR — HOT GASES CAN FATALLY DAMAGE
AIRWAYS AND LUNGS.
• Keep moving back and away from the fire front. Watch for falling snags and
rocks.
• If you are unable to access the burned area — attempt to shelter on the
ground.
• Find a fuel-free depression or trench, preferably behind a rock or dirt pile (to
block radiant heat).
• The side of a ridge away from the advancing fire is also a good location, but
you may later have to move back into the burned area if sparks ignite fuels on
the ridge below you (and the fire starts burning back up the lee slope towards
you).

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• Benches or roads on the side of a hill are good choices when you lie along
the uphill side of the road or bench — watch for rolling materials from
upslope.
• Other possible sites include helispots, fire control lines and stump holes of up-
rooted trees.
• Lie flat on the ground, parallel to the flame front and curl your arms and hands
around your head and ears for protection.
• Cover yourself with clothing and/or dirt and take shallow breaths at ground
level.
• Remain on the ground until the fire passes. STAYING LOW AND
PROTECTING YOUR AIRWAY IS YOUR ONLY CHANCE TO SURVIVE
UNDER THESE CONDITIONS.
• Raisng above the ground, even a few inches, can be fatal. Once you commit
yourself, do not move.

Rocks and Rolling Debris

Ground fire can burn off thick layers of organic soil and moss leaving rocks and
other large debris (logs, fire equipment ) in the burnt- out soil, unstable and ready
to roll downhill. Even relatively small rocks hurtling down a mountainside can
inflict fatal injuries upon fire fighters. Heavy equipment, helicopter downwash
and fire fighters moving across slopes can all trigger falling rocks or boulders.

Fire fighters should call out ‘ROCK!’ if rocks or other debris, are kicked loose
accidentally or observed rolling downslope.

Fireline Heavy Equipment or Aircraft

Heavy equipment can endanger fire
fighters when trees and rocks,
moved by the heavy equipment, fall
into the work area.
Heavy equipment use on slopes is
especially hazardous and crews
must never work downslope of any
heavy equipment.
Aircraft operations can endanger fire
fighters when downdraft gusts
caused by helicopters or airtankers
knock trees or widow-makers onto
fire fighters and/or accelerate fire
activity.
Fireline aircraft operations require that fire fighters be especially vigilant and
maintain ‘heads up’ visual contact with the aircraft until it has left the area.

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Unsafe Personal Behaviour

Fire fighters must make an individual commitment to perform every task with
safety as the foremost consideration.

Fire fighters must constantly guard against unsafe personal behaviour including:
• working while fatigued,
• being overconfident,
• rushing or working too fast,
• panicking,
• not following directions from the Crew Leader,
• not understanding directions,
• not communicating clearly.

Widland/Urban Interface Fireline Hazards

It is becoming common practice for wildland/urban interface (WUI) environment.
A wildland/urban interface (interface) fire can ignite within a building and
spread to nearby forests, or spread from burning vegetation to ignite homes,
communities, or commercial structures. From the perspective of fire suppression
and safety, wildland/urban interface fires are not simply wildfires and structure
fires combined; they present challenges and safety concerns to fire fighters,
unique to these types of fires.

In addition to wildland fire hazards being present, this environment

presents hazards such as:
• inadequate vehicle access and vehicle escape routes
• overhead power lines
• propane and natural gas
• Hydrogen Sulphide gas
• unknown fuel types (buildings, vehicles, etc)
• hazardous materials

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Dangerous Trees
Danger Tree Assessment Background
The Ministry of Forests, Ministry of Water Land and Air Protection, and the
Workers Compensation Board of B.C. have been involved with an evolving
danger tree assessment process since the mid-1990s, shortly after the term
‘dangerous tree’ replaced snag in the W.C.B. definitions. The broader
‘dangerous tree’ definition (see below) required an evaluation/assessment
process and corresponding training to assist individuals in determining whether a
tree is safe or dangerous, depending on the work activity in the area. The
Protection Program introduced a similar process in 2000 to standardize danger
tree assessments in wildland fire situations, which has since been updated
(2004)

The change in W.C.B. definitions, and the new assessment process to determine
whether trees are safe or dangerous to work around, was initiated by a need to
retain more dead and dying trees within areas impacted by forestry operations.
At least eighty birds, mammals and amphibians require dead and dying trees for
part of their life cycle. These trees provide shelter, food, nesting sites and many
other habitat values for numerous native animal species. It is alos recognized
that not all ‘snags’ are actually dangerous; many are very stable and stand safely
for decades after the tree dies. Conversely, many green trees are dangerous to
work near; root and heart rot, physical damage, slope stability and other factors
can make trees, with apparently full and healthy live crowns, potentially
dangerous to work around.

Dangerous Tree Definition

A Dangerous Tree is any tree that is hazardous to people or facilities because of:
• location or lean,
• physical damage,
• overhead hazards,
• deterioration of limbs, stem or root system,
• a combination of the above.

The Dangerous Tree definition has replaced the snag definition, a standing
dead or dying tree over three meters in height, in all Workers Compensation
Board Regulations. W.C.B. Regulation 26.11 (1) states:

‘If work in a forestry operation will expose a worker to a

dangerous tree, the tree must be removed.’

Danger tree assessment must be conducted by a person who has successfully

completed the Wildland Safety Module of the Wildlife/Danger Tree
Assessor’s Course within the last four years.

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Trees assessed as Dangerous must be managed before workers are exposed to

those trees. The area of exposure is usually referred to as within 1.5 tree lengths
of the tree, this area can be large or smaller depending on site specific
conditions. Tree management includes one of the following options.
a) Fall the tree,
b) Remove hazardous part of the tree,
c) Install a No Work Zone so workers are not exposed to the tree.

No Work Zones (NWZs) are areas physically marked out on the ground, usually
with flagging tape. The marked out area must be large enough that if the
dangerous tree fails, all its pieces will remain inside the NWZ. This marking
eliminates exposure to workers to a dangerous tree and the tree can remain
standing. Workers are not allowed to enter NWZs for any reason, except,
• a Certified Danger Tree Assessor to re-assess the tree or others within the
NWZ,
• a Faller to remove other hazardous trees not managed for within the NWZ.

NWZs are usually installed for;

a) Trees too dangerous to fall,
b) Culturally significant trees,
c) Trees with high wildlife value, i.e. stick nests, active cavities, unique trees
d) An area of dangerous trees where preventing access will not compromise
the wildfire suppression effort.

NWZs are not usually installed within 1.5 tree lengths of the fireguard or fire
perimeter because they will impede wildfire suppression.

On Initial Attack fires and other fires with very small crews, all NWZs do not have
to be marked out. A verbal warning from the assessor that alerts the crew to
dangerous trees and instructions not to work within reach of those trees will
suffice.

Time Frames for Assessments

An initial assessment must be done during size-up. Wildland Fire Danger Tree
Assessments are only valid for up to 72 hours from the time of assessment.
Areas must also be reassessed when the following conditions exist:
• In areas of active burning and active fire suppression, when the Build Up
Index (BUI) is above thresholds, assessments are only valid for 24 hours.
• Work was halted then re-commenced in an area, or a major wind event has
caused structural damage in the area.
• If the level of disturbance is different from the initial intended work activity

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Marking Systems
There is no standard marking system for identifying safe or dangerous trees, or
identifying assessed areas. The lack of a standard is to ensure flexibility and
utilizing locally available materials to complete the marking. Regardless of the
system of marking used, the following issues must be addressed.
1. Dangerous trees must be identified in some manner as they are assessed.
Spray painting a D for dangerous on two sides of the tree at eye level or
using a unique flagging tape colour wrapped around the tree are most
commonly used. Dangerous trees that are felled at the time of assessment
do not require marking.
2. Safe trees are typically not marked to speed the assessment process and
to avoid having to remove the safe tree marking after the assessment’s
valid time frame. Safe trees that appear suspect are often marked in some
way to alert crews to their presence and to ensure assessors regularly re-
assess these trees.
3. All danger tree assessments must be documented, usually in an area
based format.

All danger tree assessments must be available to the crews working in those
areas. Crew Supervisors are responsible for checking daily to determine if
danger tree assessments and management are complete and valid for their crew
work areas.

Crew Knowledge
It is unwise to assume that danger tree assessors will remove all the dangerous
trees in an area. No one is perfect and conditions change very rapidly. Every
fire fighter is responsible for his or her own safety. All fire fighters must ensure;
• danger trees have been dealt with in an area before entering that work
area,
• they keep their heads up looking for new or missed danger trees,
• all newly identified danger trees are dealt with before the crew is exposed
to the tree,
• all crew members can identify the danger tree significant hazards

Danger Tree Significant Hazards

- >50% stem damage,
- >50% root damage,
- >15% new lean with some root problems, and
- hung up limbs and tops.

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Fire Fighter Physical Fitness

Physical Demands of Wildland Fire Fighting
Wildland fire fighting is hard work. Fire fighters perform a variety of physically
demanding tasks under hot and dusty conditions where oxygen availability may
be compromised by altitude, smoke and carbon monoxide. The key to fire fighter
safety and productivity is physical fitness.
Fire fighters must have both aerobic and muscular fitness. Fire fighters should
maintain a regular fitness program. Fire fighters with a medical condition, injury
or allergy that might affect their fitness level or their ability to work safely should,
prior to the fire season, seek advice from a doctor regarding there ability to
perform fire suppression tasks. If a medical condition, injury or allergy develops
while on a fire, or during the fire season, the individual should inform their crew
leader and be checked by medical personnel before starting work.

Work Capacity Fitness Test

The Arduous Work Capacity Fitness test is the requirement for all personnel
hired or expected to be hired, for the specific purpose of initial attack and/or
sustained action fire suppression. This test requires the following:
1) Pack Test: a job specific test where participants are required to carry a 20.43
kg (45 lb.) backpack over a measured, level, 4.83 km. (3 mile) course in less than
45:00 minutes. This test measures both muscular and aerobic fitness in
individuals.
2) Pump and Hose (PH) Test: a job specific test using standard BCFS fire
suppression equipment. Participants carry a Wajax Mark III pump a distance of
100m, and then are timed to carry rolled hose 300m, and drag one end of a
charged 1½ inch hose 200m. This test must be completed in less than 4 minutes
and 10 seconds.
The Moderate Work Capacity Fitness Test is the requirement for all standing-
offer contract fire crews in British Columbia performing mop-up or expanded
attack on controlled wildland fires. This test requires participants to walk a
distance of 3.22 km (2 miles) carrying an 11.37 kg (25 lb.) backpack in less
than 30:00 minutes. The test will be conducted on level ground over a firm,
smooth, hazard-free surface. This is the requirement for all standing-offer
contract fire crews in British Columbia performing mop-up or expanded attack on
controlled wildland fires.

Fatigue
Fire fighters working long shifts for consecutive days are prone to fatigue which
can lead to serious or fatal accidents.

Heat Exposure Disorders

In addition to fatigue, fire fighters are at risk for heat exposure and heat-related
emergencies. There are several ways in which the body may react to excessive
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heat and every worker exposed should be able to recognize each of the heat-
related disorders. Workers should be ready to give first aid to anyone who
requires it – including themselves.
Heat Cramps – Occur in those muscles that have performed the most work
(usually in arms or legs). Results from salt imbalance in muscles. Onset is
often delayed and cramping may occur during a rest period. Treatment
focuses on fluid and salt replacement – fruit juices or a solution of one
teaspoon of salt per 500 ml (one pint) of water is also recommended.
Heat Exhaustion – Occurs during prolonged periods of exertion, often in the
unacclimatized. Caused by both water and salt depletion. Onset may develop
during extreme exertion with no fluid intake, or it may take a few days of less
severe exertion in a hot environment. Common features are general
weakness, fatigue, dizziness, headache and nausea. Fainting or muscle
cramps may occur. Skin is usually pale, cool and clammy, and there is a
weak rapid pulse and rapid shallow breathing. Treatment focuses on moving
the patient to a cooler environment and laying him or her down. Cool the
patient by cold sponging and fanning. If fully alert and there is no nausea,
give fruit juices or salt water (one teaspoon salt per 500 ml). Patient should be
transferred to hospital for medical evaluation.
Heat Stroke – Occurs as a result of extreme exertion, often in the
unacclimatized. The body processes for heat loss are overwhelmed and fail.
Onset is during extreme exertion in a hot, humid environment. Body
temperature approaches or exceeds 41°C (106°F). Common features are
headache, nausea, vomiting. There is hot, dry, flushed skin with no sweating.
The patient may be agitated and confused, which can progress to seizures
and loss of consciousness. There is an increased breathing rate. Pulse may
become irregular, shock may develop and finally cardiac arrest. This is a
medical emergency! Initiate immediate, rapid cooling. Move victim to coolest
spot available. Remove all outer clothing. If there is vomiting or seizures,
place the patient on his/her side (3/4 prone or drainage position). Cool the
patient by cold water dousing or applying wet, cool sheets. Spraying or
sponging the entire body with cold water is also effective. Fanning promotes
evaporation and increases the cooling rate. Call for medical help without
delay.
Aside from being physically fit and aware of the potential for heat-related
emergencies, fire fighters can take other steps to avoid an incident.
Stay rested.
• 1 hour of sleep or rest for every 2 hours worked.
• Take breaks as a hedge against fatigue.
Replace fluids adequately.
• Wildland fire fighters commonly lose 1-2 litres of sweat per hour.

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• Dehydration can lead to heat exhaustion or heat stroke (potentially

fatal).
• Drink before work and drink often while working – don’t wait for thirst
(which underestimates fluid needs).
• Water is the best fluid for rehydration followed by juices and non-
caffeine soft drinks.
• Salt lost through sweating must be replaced – use of the salt shaker at
mealtimes should be sufficient – salt tablets are not recommended.
Eat balanced and nutritious meals.
• Fire fighters can burn up to 4,000 calories a day above normal daily
needs.
• Pack a large lunch with lots of snacks.
• Eat frequently to keep energy levels up and to slow fatigue.
Avoid heavy smoke and carbon monoxide (CO).
• Avoid working in heavy smoke and take rest breaks in smoke-free
areas.
• Attempt to rotate work shifts between hotter and cooler areas of the
fireline.

PAR – Q & You

The Par-Q has been incorporated into the Basic Fire Suppression and Safety Course to
ensure that the Protection Program employs physically fit wildland fire fighters. Due to
the potentially hazardous and physically challenging conditions you will face while
fighting wildfires, your level of fitness needs to be suitable to safely and effectively work
on the fireline.

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Source: Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (PAR-Q) c. 2002.

Used with permission of the Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology http://www.csep.ca/forms.asp

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6. EMERGENCY FIRELINE COMMUNICATIONS

Section Learning Objectives:

Upon completion of this section, the participant will demonstrate a basic
understanding of emergency fireline communications, through knowledge of:
1. Basic emergency operation of a handheld two-way radio
2. Emergency ‘Mayday’ transmission protocols

On the fireline, Crew Leaders use two-way radios to communicate with the
Incident Commander and other fireline resources. By law those who use radios
should be trained and licensed as a Restricted Radio Operator. Under normal
circumstances, fire fighters working under the supervision of a Crew Leader will
not use a radio, but they should know how to operate one in case of emergency.
Radio Operation
Most radios used on the fireline are the ‘hand-held’ or ‘walkie-talkie’ type.
To turn on:
• The ON-OFF switch is located on top of the radio – usually on the volume
control.
• Turn the ON-OFF switch / volume control clockwise.
• Turn the squelch control (located beside the volume control – if not, squelch
control is automatic) clockwise to a point just past where the static noise cuts
out.
• Adjust volume as desired.
The radio is now set up to monitor whatever channel is selected on the
numbered channel selector (located on the top of the radio near the volume /
squelch controls).
To transmit:
• Plan ahead for what you have to say - and keep your conversation as brief as
possible. Pause before speaking.
• Press the push-to-talk button (located on the side of the ‘hand-held’ radio) in
firmly and hold it.
• Speak slowly and clearly into the speaker in a normal voice. Release the
button to listen.
Emergency Procedure – ‘MAYDAY’
The ‘Mayday’ distress transmission is only used in situations of grave danger (life
threatening), such as serious injury, fire entrapment, aircraft accidents etc.
1. Make sure the radio is turned on.
2. Do not change the channel selector.
3. Call “MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY,” followed by “this is….” and identify your
station or self, your location, and the nature of the emergency.

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• All stations hearing your call will monitor all transmissions on that
channel and one station (usually the one nearest or most able to
assist) will respond and make arrangements to assist.
• If you do not get any response after several attempts, set channel
selector to CH1/F1 and repeat steps 1 – 3. Changing locations (move
upslope or into a clearing) may help.

• If you still do not get any response, listen to the other channels, find
one with some activity and repeat steps 1 – 3.

The Phonetic Alphabet

The phonetic alphabet is a standardized format for clearly pronouncing letters
that otherwise might be difficult to understand over the radio.
Letter Word Pronounced As
A Alfa AL FAH
B Bravo BRAH VOH
C Charlie CHAR LEE
D Delta DELL TAH
E Echo ECK OH
F Foxtrot FOKS TROT
G Golf GOLF
H Hotel HOH TELL
I India IN DEE AH
J Juliette JEW LEE ETTE
K Kilo KEY LOH
L Lima LEE MAH
M Mike MIKE
N November NO VEM BER
O Oscar OSS CAH
P Papa PAH PAH
Q Quebec KEH BECK
R Romeo . ROW ME OH
S Sierra SEE AIR RAH
T Tango TANG GO
U Uniform YOU NEE FORM
V Victor VIK TAH
W Whiskey WISS KEY
X X-ray ECKS RAY
Y Yankee YANG KEY
Z Zulu ZOO LOO

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7. FIRE SUPPRESSION

Section Learning Objectives:

Upon completion of this section, the participant will demonstrate a basic
understanding of wildland fire suppression through knowledge of:
1. The basic fire suppression principles
2. When you should receive a briefing and what should be in it.
3. The principles of fireline construction
4. The three attack methods
5. The principles of mop-up, cold trailing and inspection and patrol

Basic Fire Suppression Principles

Fire suppression can be dangerous work. Therefore sound safety procedures
and practice at the fire site are extremely important.

There are three basic principles of wildland fire suppression:

1. Fast Initial Attack – be organized, complete a thorough assessment, move a
crew to the fire as quickly as possible, and stop the fire from spreading.
2. Aggressive Action – deploy adequate resources, work efficiently to quickly
bring the fire under control.
3. Prompt and Complete Mop-Up – when the fire is contained, a thorough
mop-up must commence immediately.

Fire Assessment
Upon arriving at the fire site the Incident Commander will perform a
reconnaissance (preliminary inspection) or fire size-up. This involves an initial
assessment of the fire area to determine what safety concerns exist, which
suppression tactics will be most appropriate for the fire situation and what fire
fighting resources are required.

A fire size-up or intial assessment on a small fire is often done by quickly walking
around the outside edge of the fire or by viewing the fire area from a vantage
point. In some situations, an assessment is performed from an aircraft. During
the reconnaissance, the Incident Commander considers various factors that
influence the attack plan (e.g. types of fuel, weather and topography).
Assessing the fire is an ongoing process. Changes in weather, topography or fuel
will all affect fire behaviour.

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The Incident Commander works constantly, re-assessing the fire situation,

adapting suppression strategies to deal with new complications and keeping
crews and supervisors briefed.

Crew Safety Briefing

All firefighters will receive a briefing from their supervisor, prior to
commencement of tasks. At a minimum the briefing should include:
• The Chain of Command
• Designated Lookouts (if any)
• Communications plan outlining communications between fire fighters and
between firefighters and their immediate supervisor.
• At least two Escape Routes that lead to adequate Safety Zones noted in
case fire fighters and equipment are threatened by sudden changes in fire
behaviour.
• Known fireline hazards. Every fire fighter is responsible for alerting other fire
fighters about any fireline hazard – note and make others aware of any
possible danger areas such as changes in fire behaviour, snags or any other
safety hazards.
• Safe work procedures to be used
• Current and expected fire behaviour
• Fire suppression strategies, current fire activities and progress
• Suppression tasks the crew will be accomplishing
• Individual work assignments

IMPORTANT!
A crew briefing isn’t a one-way process. After the briefing, ask
questions on any points that weren’t covered and make suggestions
where needed.
• If you aren’t sure about a situation, SPEAK OUT.
• The most important consideration when attacking a wildland fire is a
“safety first” attitude…..
IF IN DOUBT – BACK OUT!

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Fire Attack Procedures

AERIAL VIEW OF A FOREST FIRE

← wind
Flank Fire
Head Fire

Back Fire

Ignition point

Flank Fire

Attack
The basic approach to successful fire suppression is to attack where the fire is
most likely to escape. There are three ways to attack a fire.
1. Remove the fuel by creating a fuel-free control line between fire and fuel, and
ignite unburned fuel.
2. Remove the air by covering burning material with soil or fire foam.
3. Remove the heat by cooling the fire with water

Remove heat by Remove oxygen by Remove fuel by creating a

cooling the fire with covering burning fuel-free control line
water material with soil or between fire and fuel, and
fire foam ignite unburned fuel

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Control Line

A control line is necessary at every fire. The control line may be a combination
of man-made firelines or natural fire barriers (e.g. rivers). The term “fireguard”
used historically is not accepted today. Correct terminology is ‘fireline’ referring
to man-made lines and control line is used to describe a combination of barriers
or completed firelines.

The fire fighter’s chief job is to construct the fireline. The fire fighter digs below
the surface of the ground to the mineral layer of soil. This procedure clears fuels
(dry leaves and duff, including roots) and prevents the fire from spreading.

Constructing a Fireline
The depth of the fireline
depends on fuel and soil
type plus the size of the
fire. On average, the
fireline built with hand
tools, is not more than 30-
60 cm (12-24”) wide. The
depth of the line is always
to mineral layer of the soil.

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Points to remember when constructing a fireline:

• Start from a secure or safe location (Anchor Point).
• When possible keep the fireline short.
• Avoid sharp angles.
• When possible, construct firelines through open areas rather than fighting
through dense or heavy fuels.
• Pay attention to normal daily wind shifts.
• Complete the control line by linking sections of fireline and when possible, tie
in existing barriers.

Fireline construction varies – lines are sometimes placed on the fire perimeter
or edge, while in other situations, well ahead of the fire. Correct application
depends on various factors including complexity of the fire and the overall attack
plan – which was determined during the assessment and is constantly re-
assessed.
• Take prompt action on all vital areas. Do not become bogged down at one
location and allow the fire to escape elsewhere.
• Snags can be extremely hazardous. When it is necessary to fall snags, a
trained dangerous tree faller will do it.
• Low-hanging limbs and small trees along the fireline can act as ladder fuels
and may allow fire to spread to the crowns. Cut limbs- off, remove small trees
and remove all fuel from beneath the trees.
• “Hot-spotting” is moving from one “hot spot” (intense area of fire) to another
and making them safe as you go. Start by cooling down hot spots with soil or
water if available, then separate fuels, knock down low-hanging limbs and dig
a narrow fireline around the hot spots.
• Place Lookouts at strategic points to watch for spot fires and fast-running
fingers from the main fire. Attempt to put out spot fires before they become
large.
• Grass or tree needles can easily spread fire to heavy fuel. Throw soil or
spray water on the fire edge or scrape a narrow fireline immediately against
the fire edge.
• Logs and cones may roll and spread fire. Turn logs to lie up and down the
slope or block them with rocks to prevent them from rolling away. Dig
trenches below logs that may roll.
• Piles of limbs and logs cause high-intensity burning and may shoot flames
and sparks high into the air. Separate piles, cool them down with soil and
build a fireline around them.

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Fire Attack Methods

Direct Method
This attack method is normally used to
suppress a slow moving fire. The
fireline is constructed directly adjacent
to the burning fuel. The fire is attacked Fire
and suppressed immediately. Burning
off islands of fuel near the control line
may be necessary to reduce the risk of
spotting across the control line

Parallel Method
This method is applied in situations where a
fire is spreading at a moderate spread rate,
the fire intensity is too high for fire fighters
to perform direct attack, or the burnt area is
highly irregular, making direct attack
inefficient. The fireline is constructed as
close to the fire as heat and flames permit.
This technique helps to control the fire as
opposed to immediately stopping it (Direct
Attack). Igniting unburned fuel between the Fire
fireline and the fire reinforces the line and
speeds up the control effort by consuming
or burning out fuel between the fireline
and the fire perimeter.

Indirect Method
This is a method whereby the control
line is strategically located to take
advantage of favourable terrain and
natural barriers or breaks well in
advance (several hundred metres to
several kilometers) of the fire perimeter.
Used under the direction of a senior, Fire
experienced Incident Commander, a
backfire is set to stop the advancing
fire.

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Mop-up
Mop-up is the act of re-enforcing the control line . It begins after the fire, or any
part of it, is brought under control and before suppression work is reduced to
patrol. It is an important component to successful fire suppression and should be
taken seriously. There have been situations where fires have escaped control
lines, due to inadequate mop-up and patrol, resulting in further loss of timber
resources and property and further financial burden and recommitment of much
needed suppression resources.
With a small fire, the crew’s goal is to completely extinguish all smouldering
material inside the fireline. On a large fire, smouldering material within a secure
strip inside the fireline is to be extinguished. The Incident Commander will
determine the width of the strip based on assessment of the fire size and current
and expected burning conditions.

Mop-Up Techniques
The following tasks must be accomplished:
• Extinguish all smouldering material along the fire edge after the spread has
been stopped.
• Place all rolling fuel so it cannot roll across the line or trench below it.
• Make sure that all burning fuel either burns itself out or is spread or buried to
stop spark travel.
• Clear the line on both sides of all special threats such as snags, rotten logs,
stumps, singed brush and low-hanging limbs of trees.
• Search for underground burning roots near the line.
• Mop up all material adjacent to the line on large fires and over the entire fire
area on small fires to ensure that the fire or embers cannot blow, spot or roll
over the control line.

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• Watch out for smouldering spot fires across the line in front of the main head
fire or below the main fire on a slope.
• Burning snags must be felled or knocked over in a location where they will not
roll or slide down the hill.
• Extinguish standing “safe” trees, clear or dig a fireline around the area in
which burning material has rolled.

Cold Trailing
Cold trailing is a method of
determining whether a fire is still
burning. It involves careful and
methodical inspection of burned
material and surrounding area by
carefully feeling with the bare hand.
Efficient use of this technique will help
you detect hotspots that are otherwise FIRELINE
invisible.

Inspection and Patrol

Once a fire is controlled and mopped up, the Incident Commander will direct
firefighters to continue patrolling the control line to prevent escapes, discover and
control spot fires and mop-up whenever necessary.
Patrollers must remain alert for holdovers or “sleepers”. These are hidden fires
burning deep inside duff layers or roots. They are virtually undetectable to sight,
as they do not smoke or glow. It may take weeks before an adjacent patch of
fuel is brought up to ignition temperature. Holdovers must be spotted before they
have a chance to ignite the adjacent fuel and cause the fire to escape.
Patrol and inspection may continue for days or weeks. The importance of
adequate patrol and inspection cannot be over-emphasized. To have a fire
escape after it has been controlled, mopped-up and in the patrol stage is
inexcusable.

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8. IGNITION OPERATIONS SAFETY

Section Learning Objectives:

Upon completion of this section, the participant will demonstrate a basic
understanding of ignition operations through knowledge of:
1. The three types of ignition operations and the attack methods they are used
with
2. The common types of ignition devices used
3. The general crew configuration for ignition and holding operations
4. Safe work practices used during ignition operations

Burning Out, Burning Off and Backfiring are three terms often confused.
Only during the Direct Attack operations (used on lower intensity fires) will a
man-made control line assist to effectively stop a fire; even in these situations,
islands of fuel may have to be removed using Burning Off operations to ensure
control line effectiveness. In complex, intense or difficult situations, the control
line will not stop a moving fire on it’s own; instead, it will be used as an anchor
from which to initiate Burning Out (Parallel Attack) operations on moderate
intensity fires, or Backfiring (Indirect Attack) operations on high intensity fires.

Burning Off
Burning Off is an attack method where islands of fuel within the fire perimeter are
ignited under controlled conditions to eliminate the potential of re-burning of
these fuels and short distance spotting over the control line. This is a small scale
routine operation. It is almost always accomplished by hand ignition (using the
hand-held drip torch).

Burning Out
Burning Out is used in conjunction with the
parallel attack method. It is used where in a fire
is set by the fire crew along the inside edge of
the control line or natural barrier to consume
unburned fuels between the line and the fire
perimeter. Burning out is a limited, small scale
routine operation as opposed to “backfiring”. It
is accomplished either by hand ignition (using
the hand-held drip torch) or aerial ignition (using
the helitorch or aerial ignition device).

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Backfiring

Backfiring is a form of “indirect attack” where

extensive fire is set along the inner edge of a
control line or natural barrier. Used in more
extreme situations, the line is situated some
distance from the fire and with the assistance of
wind, consumes fuel in its path. As a result, this
procedure halts or retards the progress of the
fire. This operation is directed by senior and
highly experienced fire personnel only. It is
almost always accomplished using aerial
ignition (helitorch or aerial ignition device)

Ignition Equipment
Ignition is accomplished either through hand ignition, most often using the hand-
held drip torch, or aerial ignition using the helitorch or aerial ignition device (AID).

Hand-held Drip Torch

This is operated by an experienced fire fighter. The hand-held drip torch is a

small canister with a tube and a wick. The canister is filled with a mixture of
gasoline and diesel. When it is tipped over the mixture will flow through the tube
and saturate the wick. During ignition operations the wick remains lit; when the
firefighter wants to ignite vegetation, the canister is simply tipped; the mixture
pours onto the burning wick, ignites and “drips” to the ground.
Hand-held Drip Torch Safety
• Full PPE is required
• Take care not to ignite clothing
• Always maintain two escape routes and a
safety zones
• Do not open or fill near hot embers, sparks
or while smoking
• Mixing and fuelling personnel should wear
an organic vapour respirator
• Fuel ratio varies
– Increased amount of gas decreases
flash point
– Increased amount of diesel
increases flash point
• Mix fuel, label with fuel type, ratio and date

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Helitorch

This device is slung beneath the helicopter

and is operated by the pilot. As the helicopter
flies over-head of the desired target, the fuel
is ignited and “drips” from the device. The
mixture of the fuel is in a gelatinous form and
is designed to stick to fuels (surface fuels,
crown fuels) and ignite the fuels.

Aerial Ignition Device

This device is carried in the cabin of

the helicopter and is operated by an
operator in the rear seat of the aircraft.
As the helicopter flies over the desired
target, small ‘ping-pong’ balls are
dropped. These balls use a delayed
chemical reaction to ignite.

General Ignition Safety

• Always maintain awareness of your Look Outs, Communications and
Escape Routes and Safety Zones
• Always use a Lookout for firing operations
• Always fire from an Anchor Point
• Follow the chain of command
• Maintain span of control at all times
• Minimum 500 metre separation between ground crews and aerial ignition
operation
• Appropriate PPE for all personnel; specialized PPE is required for mixing
crews
• Ensure all excess fuels and combustibles are stored a minimum of 150
metres away from the ignition area up wind and down hill
• Appropriate spill berms should be used for storing and mixing ignition fuel.
Emergency spill kits and procedures should be in place
• Do not open or fill fuel containers near hot embers, sparks, or while
smoking, as the tank may contain dangerous vapour
• Ensure all hazardous materials are labeled to WHMIS standards and that
all Material Safety Data Sheets are readily available
• When handling and transporting Dangerous Goods, ensure that they are
appropriately packaged, labeled, placards are in place, and drivers have
the paperwork.

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9. HAND TOOLS

Section Learning Objectives:

Upon completion of this section, the participant will demonstrate a basic
understanding and knowledge of hand tools and the associated fireline safety
rules used for fire suppression in British Columbia

The most common hand tools used for fire suppression in British Columbia are:

The Shovel is used for digging, trimming, scraping,

limbing light branches and throwing soil, fireline
construction, patrolling and mop-up operations. Keep the
shovel clean and sharp.

The Pulaski is a combination tool. It is neither the best

chopping tool nor the best grubbing tool, but good in
situations where quick changes from chopping to grubbing
are required. Keep edges sharpened.

Axes are usually single blade and used for blazing, falling
of small trees and limbing or chopping heavy bush.
Again, blades must be kept sharp. Before using, check
clearance on the back swing. Never leave axes stuck in
trees, stumps, etc.

The Mattock is used for grubbing in heavy roots, and on

gravel or rocky ground. The cutting and grubbing edges
must be kept sharp.

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The Sandvik is a narrow tempered blade in a spring

tension frame, used for cutting brush and small branches.
Keep the blade sharp and carry with the tool head
forward and the blade down. When using the sandvik,
bend the brush back with your free hand in order to make
the stems taut and easy to cut. Work into the brush,
clearing the debris as you go.

A Chain Saw is used to fall and buck trees while clearing

the fireline. It is to be used only by personnel trained to
the BC WCB Falling and Bucking Standard. Keep a safe
distance from anyone using a chain saw - two tree lengths
minimum from falling operations. The BC Forest Service
uses a 24:1 (gas to oil ratio) fuel mixture.

The Hand Tank Pump is useful for all fire control

operations (containing spot fires, cooling hot spots along
the fireline, extinguishing fire in snags, holding operations,
patrolling and mop-up).
The hand tank has an 18 litre (4 gallon) limited capacity.
It must therefore be used sparingly. The tank is carried on
your back and when full, weights approximately 23 kg. (50
lbs.). Be cautious, it can pull you off-balance.

The Drip Torch is a burning tool, available in various

models. It is used for burning off and burning out
unburned fuels within the burn. The torch uses a mixture
of diesel oil and gasoline fuels and lasts up to one hour.
It is designed to drip the burning fuel mixture, immediately
ignite vegetation (forest fuel) and produce a controlled
flame that can be directed. It can be dangerous if
improperly used. Carry a torch away from the body when
using it. Do not refuel near a fire, embers or while it is
still ignited. Do not spill fuel on clothing or body.

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Fireline Safety Rules

When working on a fireline, you must always follow these rules:

• Stay with the crew leader and follow all instructions.

• Stay at least 10 feet (3 metres) apart in single file when hiking in or out of a
fire.

• When working with hand tools, work at least 10 feet (3 metres) apart.

• Watch where you’re walking.

• Never walk or work within two tree lengths (or the defined “no work zone”;
whichever is larger) of an unstable, dangerous tree.

• Watch for rolling rocks on steep slopes.

• Never work below a bulldozer, other heavy equipment, or another crew.

• If you see something unsafe happening, shout out and warn your crew
immediately.

• Give the alarm if the fire jumps the line.

• Know your Lookouts, Communications, Escape Routes and Safety Zones.

• Take regular breaks and drink sufficient water.

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10. FIRELINE HEAVY EQUIPMENT

Section Learning Objectives:

Upon completion of this section, the participant will demonstrate a basic
understanding of fireline heavy equipment through knowledge of:
1. The common pieces of heavy equipment used on the fireline
2. The safety hazards associated with working around heavy equipment
3. Safe work practices used when working with heavy equipment

Common Fireline Heavy Equipment

Bulldozers are often used to construct fireline and fire access roads. Heavy
equipment fireline construction is simply a large-scale version of hand-
constructed fireline. The basic concept of providing a break in continuous fuels is
unchanged.

Skidders can be used to carry small water tanks with pump units to the fireline
during control and mop-up operations. Skidders can also perform light fireline
construction as well as transport equipment around the fire.

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Heavy Equipment Safety

Fire fighters will sometimes work on or travel through an area of a fire where
heavy equipment is being used. Fire fighters must be aware of the heavy
equipment safety hazards and the safe work procedures used to deal with them.

Heavy equipment safety hazards include the following:

• Trees pushed by heavy equipment can fall without warning– de-stabilized
trees and widow-makers may also fall without warning.
• On slopes, pushed trees and rocks can slide or roll down slope quickly.
• Stems lying on the ground that are run over by heavy equipment can pivot
suddenly.
• Out-of-control heavy equipment can roll or slide downhill very quickly.
The following rules are to be observed at all times by fire fighters working around
heavy equipment.

DO… wear high visibility clothing (safety vest and a high visibility hard hat)
DON’T…work downhill from heavy equipment
DON’T…work within two ‘tree lengths’ of heavy equipment
DON’T…approach without signaling equipment operators from a safe distance
DON’T…ride on heavy equipment – only the operator is allowed on equipment

Never work below

heavy equipment

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Safety in a Typical Tractor Unit (Task Force) Organization

Typically, heavy equipment is either organized into a Strike Team comprised of a

number of pieces of heavy equipment only, or a Task Force, which is a unit
comprised of equipment and firefighters for the purpose of performing the
specific task of fireline construction. A fire fighter will act as a line locator; the
bulldozers will clear the fireline to mineral soil; and firefighters will follow to burn
out and hold the control line. The holding operation may involve a skidder
carrying a water tank. In this situation, heavy equipment and firefighters are
working in close proximity to each other.
There are many special safety considerations to be taken into account when
operating heavy equipment.
• Know what your fireline construction objectives are.
• Have communications (radio) or work for a fireline supervisor with
communications.
• Know where fire fighters are located.
• Both operator and adjacent crews must always know exactly what each are
achieving and where they are working.
• Every machine should have a metal canopy and roll-over protection to protect
the operator.
• Never leave the machine running without lowering the blade and applying the
brakes.
• No operator shift should exceed 10 hours.

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Night Operations
Only work at night when it is safe to do so. The following points must be reviewed
and considered favourable:
• The terrain has been assessed and is safe to operate in
• There is a lookout in place (if required)
• You have communications with your supervisor
• You have at least 2 escape routes that lead to;
• Safety zones adequate for the current and expected fire behaviour
• There is an obvious advantage in using the night time burning
conditions over day time operations and the burning conditions do not
present any likely entrapment concerns and are such that heavy
equipment use will likely be effective.
• Objectives for night operations are realistic and achievable
• The equipment must be outfitted with adequate lighting

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NOTES:

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11. WATER DELIVERY SYSTEMS

Section Learning Objectives:

Upon completion of this section, the participant will demonstrate a basic
understanding of the basic water delivery systems used in wildland fire
suppression, through knowledge of:
1. The principles of suction, water pressure, back pressure and friction
2. The three sizes and three types of forestry hose
3. The Standard Hose Lay
4. Trouble-shooting and basic maintenance of the Mark III pump.
5. The two most common multi-pump systems
6. The three uses of sprinklers in wildland fire suppression
7. The properties of class “A” foam that make it an effective fire extinguishing
agent

Water is an integral component to fire suppression. In many areas of British

Columbia, water sources are very limited, while most of the province is
characterized by steep, or inaccessible terrain; requiring efficient use of water
and a basic knowledge of water physics and delivery options available,
The use of water involves power pumps, gravity systems, water tenders, hoses,
hand- tank pumps, portable reservoirs and in some situations helicopter water
delivery systems.

Properties of Water
Water cannot be compressed. It is not
possible to squeeze water into a VELOCITY PRESSURE
container which is smaller than the
space it would occupy in its natural
state. In positive displacement units, if
the equipment is not operated correctly,
tremendous pressure will develop in the
pump which could seriously damage the
unit. Should the pump “blow”, injury to
personnel is possible and damage to
equipment could be extensive. Major
repairs, impossible to complete on site,
will be necessary. Therefore it is SUCTION FRICTION
important to remember that water
cannot be compressed.

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Suction
Suction refers to the ability of the pump to create negative pressure. Static
suction lift is possibly the most important distance to be calculated when
considering the efficient installation of a pump. It is critical to pump performance.
Therefore, it is important to note that there are definite limitations as to how high
and how far a pump is able to lift and move water.
Consequently, it is strongly recommended that pumps be placed as close to the
water source as possible and at the same level of the water source (no higher or
lower).
Before taking any pump into the field, check to be certain that all necessary
pump accessories have been included in the tool box. Take a few moments to
ensure the foot valve and strainer are not malfunctioning. Also, do a quick
inventory of tools (screwdriver, wrench, etc) needed to quickly set-up the pump.

Water Pressure
Water pressure moves water through hoses and on to the fire. Water is
incompressible. Any attempt to compress water (as in a pump chamber) results
in the water pressure increasing.
• Water pressure on a surface area is expressed in pounds per square inch (psi).The metric
conversion is 6.9 kPa = 1 psi.

Back Pressure or "Head"

Back pressure is the result of 2 factors:
• The weight of water.
• The weight of the atmosphere above the water (called atmospheric
pressure) which exerts pressure on the water.
The weight of the water and the weight of the atmosphere on that water creates
back pressure. Back pressure is constant at the base of a column of water. The
column of water could be a fire hose lying on a hillside or a pipe full of standing
water. Pressure measurements at the base of both columns will be identical as
the pressure is determined by the elevation difference.
• Back pressure is constant at 1/2 psi/foot (10.5 kPa/metre) of water column height.
Back pressure is an important hydraulic force. When pumping uphill, enough
water pressure must be generated by the pump to overcome the force of back
pressure.

Friction
Friction is the result of one body of matter adhering to another. Water resists
motion, due to the force of friction, similar to any other matter.
The main source of friction in a pumping operation results from the turbulence
created by the pressurized water stream contacting the inside of the hose.

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Pumping operations measure friction by the amount of water pressure lost due to
it. Pressure loss due to friction is expressed in: psi per 100 ft. length of hose or
kPa per 30 m length of hose.
Friction is influenced by:
• Volume of water flowing through the hose The more water flowing the more water in
contact with the sides of the hose, the greater the pressure loss.
• Size of the nozzle opening (related to the volume of water) The larger the nozzles opening
the more water flowing through the hose, the greater the pressure loss due to friction.
• Diameter of the hose The smaller the hose diameter the more water forced to come in
contact with the hose walls the greater the pressure loss due to friction.
• Type of hose lining The rougher the surface interior of the hose the greater the turbulence
in the water flow which results in a greater pressure loss due to friction. Lined hose loses
2 psi/100 feet, while unlined hose looses 4 psi/100 feet.
• Number of in-line appliances Water delivery appliances, placed in-line in the hose lay, such
as back check and gated wye valves create turbulence. The greater the number of
appliances the greater the pressure loss due to friction.

Pump Classifications
There are two pump classifications that wildland fire fighters may encounter.
They are:
• Centrifugal pumps – common and well-suited to wildland fire fighting.
• Positive displacement pumps – rarely used.

The terms ‘centrifugal’ and ‘positive displacement’ describe the way the pump
takes water into the pump chamber and discharges it.

Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal pumps have curved impellers that rotate inside the pump chamber.
Water is drawn into the suction inlet and water pressure is increased as the water
is thrown outwards (by means of centrifugal force) through the discharge outlet.
Advantages of centrifugal pumps include:
• Ability to pump from muddy water sources with minimal impeller
damage.
• Capable of pumping ‘in-tandem’.
• Pressure can be changed by adjusting RPM.
• Fewer moving parts.
Disadvantages:
• Must be primed.
• Requires back check valve between pump and head.
• Requires foot valve on suction hose.

Positive Displacement Pumps

Positive displacement pumps (sometimes called rotary or gear pumps) are rarely
used for wildland fire fighting. Positive displacement pumps are usually vehicle-
mounted, power from the vehicle engine through a power take off (PTO). Positive

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displacement pumps have different operating requirements than centrifugal

pumps.
Advantages:
• Self-priming.
• Better suction lift than centrifugal pumps.
Disadvantages:
• Subject to internal wear.
• Fixed output performance.
• May stall under heavy load.
• Relief valve required.

Pump Engines
There are two types of pump engines commonly used to power portable fire
pumps.
• The two-cycle engine.
• The more powerful four-cycle engine.
Two-Cycle Engines
Two-cycle engines require ‘mixed-gas’ – the pump engine is fueled and
lubricated by a gas/oil mixture. Forest Service two-cycle pump engines use a
24:1 gas/oil mix ratio.

Fire fighters should be sure that only properly mixed gas (tagged ’24:1 MIXED
GAS’) is used to fuel two-cycle pump engines – if a two-cycle engine is operated
without mixing oil in the gas, it will seize.

Four-Cycle Engines
Four-cycle engines require ‘straight-gas’ – the pump engine is fueled with gas
and a crankcase is filled with oil for ‘splash-sump’ or oil pump lubrication.

Fire fighters should be sure that only straight gas is used to fuel four-cycle pump
engines and that the oil level of four-cycle pump engines is checked before
starting and frequently during engine operation. Oil is critical to all engines – if
the pump’s crankcase is allowed to run completely dry – the engine will seize.

Four cycle engines should be operated in a level position to ensure oil is

distributed properly to all engine parts.

Portable Fire Pumps

The following pages provide a brief summary of the technical specifications of the
most common fire pumps used in British Columbia.

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Wildfire Mark III

Applications:
• High Pressure / Medium Volume
• The most common fire pump on the
fireline.
Performance:
• 9 hp - 2 cycle engine
• Fuel consumption:1 gal/hour
• Fuel capacity: External tank
• 300 psi @ shut-off
• 75 gpm @ free flow
• Weight: 55 lbs

Wildfire Mark 26
Applications:
• High Pressure / Low Volume
• A "scaled down" version of the Mark III.
• Commonly used on "slip-on tank" units.
Performance:
• 5.0 hp - 2 cycle engine
• Fuel consumption: 0.6gal/hour
• Fuel capacity: External tank
• 170 psi @ shut-off
• 70 gpm @ free flow
• Weight: 38 lbs

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Hale Fyr-Pak
Applications:
• High Pressure / Low Volume
• Backpack frame C easily carried.
• Pump is primed using compact
hand-operated piston type pump.
Performance:
• 8.0 hp - 2 cycle engine
• Fuel consumption: 1 gal/hour
• Fuel capacity: External tank
• 220 psi @ shut-off
• 75 gpm /min. @ free flow
• Weight: 38 lbs

Shindaiwa GP-25 + Shindaiwa GP-45

Applications:
• Low Pressure / Low Volume
• Used for low intensity fires, mop-up and pumping from small, portable reservoirs.
• Normally used with 5/8 " econoflo hose with smaller 1/ 8 " econoflo nozzles.
Performance:
GP-25
• 1.3 hp - 2 cycle engine
• Fuel consumption: 1 litre/hour
• Fuel capacity: 1 litre integral tank
• 40 psi @ shut-off
• 37 gpm @ free flow
• Weight: 5.8 kg (13 lbs)

GP-45
• 2.3 hp - 2 cycle engine
• Fuel consumption: 1.4 litres/hour
• Fuel capacity: 1.5 litre integral tank
• 50 psi @ shut-off
• 66 gpm @ free flow
• Weight: 17 lbs

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Wildfire Moskito
Applications:
• Low Pressure / Low Volume
• Used for low intensity fires, mop-up and pumping from
small, portable reservoirs.
• Normally used with 5/8 " econoflo hose with smaller 1/ 8
" econoflo nozzles.
Performance:
• 1.5 horsepower 4 cycle engine
• Fuel consumption 0.4 litres/hour
• 82 psi @shut-off
• 50 gal/min
• Weight: 13.5 lbs

Hale 'Fyr-Flote' and Waterous 'Floto Pump' (similar units)

Applications:
• High Pressure / Low Volume
• Floating pumps require only 10 - 15 cm (4 - 6 inches) of water.
• Useful in swamps, swimming pools and reservoirs.
• On open water, secure pump unit to shore with safety line.
• Self-priming through screened suction inlet-no suction hose is used.

Hale 'Fyr Flote'

Performance:
• 8.0 hp - 2 cycle engine
• Fuel consumption: 1 gal/hour
• Fuel capacity: 1.5gal integral tank
• 220 psi @ shut-off
• 75 gpm @ free flow
• Weight: 46 lbs

Waterous 'Floto Pump'

Performance:
• 8.0 hp - 2 cycle engine
• Fuel consumption: 4.5 litres/hour
• Fuel capacity: 5 litre integral tank
• 210 psi @ shut-off
• 75 gpm @ free flow
• Weight: 44 lbs

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Wildfire BB4
Application:
• High Pressure / Medium-High Volume
• Useful for defensive sprinkler systems and
slip-on vehicle wildland fire fighting
systems
• Can use the same pump heads as the
Mark III
• Performance:
• 450 psi @shut-off
• 23 HP
• Fuel consumption: 6.8 litres/hr
• Fuel capacity: external tank
• 110 gpm @ free flow
• Weight: 165 lbs

Gorman-Rupp Backpack

Forest Fire Hoses

Discharge hoses are 30 metres (100 feet) in length and fitted with standard
‘quick-connect’ couplings. Forest Service lined and unlined discharge hoses are
available in three sizes:
• 38 mm – 1 ½ inch – ‘inch-and-a-half’
• 25 mm – 1 inch – ‘big-inch’
• 16 mm – ¾ inch – ‘econoflo’ (50 feet)

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Lined Hose
Lined hose has a lining that does not weep and is more susceptible to fire
damage. The lining increases hose strength and reduces friction loss
considerably. Friction loss is approximately 2 psi/100 ft
Unlined Hose
Unlined hose has no lining, weeps through the hose jacket and is not as
susceptible to fire damage. The lack of lining reduces the strength and increases
friction loss considerably. Friction loss is approximately 4 psi/100 ft

Modern “Hybrid” Hose

Most modern forestry hose is lined hose that has been perforated, resulting in a
lower friction-loss hose with the ability to weep- the best of both worlds.

Hose Care and Maintenance

Protect hose from abrasion – this is especially important close to the pump
(where pressure and vibration are the highest).
• Never drag hose behind vehicles or heavy equipment.
• Protect hose lays from being run over by vehicles or heavy equipment.
• Protect hose lays from contact with oils, grease, rust and direct sunlight.

Rolling Hose
When retrieving hose from the fireline, it is rolled for transport. The “banana roll”
is normally used for unlined hose and the “melon roll” is used for lined hose.
These two temporary methods of rolling hose are only used when bringing hose
in from the fireline. Once the fire hose has been washed and thoroughly dried it is
normally coiled before being warehoused.
Banana Roll – Unlined Hose
You will need a stick 60 – 90 cm (2-3 feet) in
length to roll hose into a banana roll. Once the
hose length is laid out completely, double the
hose back about 1m (3 ft) from the end. Walk
this fold end-over-end along itself, giving a
slight twist each time to secure the end of the
banana. Continue this procedure to the end of
the hose length and tuck the loose end under a
couple of the folds.
Melon Roll – Lined Hose
The melon roll technique basically follows the
same rolling procedure as outlined for the
banana roll minus the use of the stick. But
instead of producing the familiar and compact
banana roll, a more globular and melon-like
shape results when bulkier lined hose is rolled.

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Couplings
Couplings serve to connect the ends of two independent pieces of equipment
together (e.g., the pump to the hose; two hoses). They are available in various
sizes of which the most common to the Forest Service are 25 mm (1 in), 38 mm
(1 ½ in), and 50 mm (2 in).

Fire hose coupling – standard equipment affixed to all

fire hoses. Used to connect two lengths of fire hose
together. Usually called “quick connect couplings”, they
are sometimes also referred to as “instantaneous
couplings”.

Nozzles
The Forest Service stocks many nozzles, several of which are combination
nozzles. Combination nozzles allow the nozzle operator to modify the manner in
which water is being applied without finding it necessary to change the nozzle, or
to stop the flow of water from the pump.

Threaded Nozzle or ‘Forestry’ Nozzle

This nozzle has no shut-off capability and can be equipped
with one of three nozzle diameter tips. It includes a .95 cm
(3/8 in) opening in its body and when reversed, it has two
additional tips. Opening sizes of .635 cm (1/4 in) and .7937
cm (5/16 in) tip.

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Hansen or ‘All-in-one’ Nozzle

This nozzle can be adjusted from shut-off to a
number of straight stream nozzle diameters. An
‘in-between’ setting will create a spray stream.

Valves
The function of valves is as critical to the water delivery system as nozzles or
couplings. There are several types of valves stocked by the Forest Service, each
designed to perform a specific task. Friction loss per appliance is 5 psi. Valves
illustrated below include:

3-way valve – used to split the discharge hose from

one line into two separate discharge lines.

Back check valve – an invaluable

piece of equipment standard in all hose
lays. This valve prevents water inside
the hoses from running back into the
pump and damaging the pump.

Foot valve and strainer – combination equipment which incorporates both the
foot valve and strainer into one piece of equipment. Used on the intake side of
suction hose. This valve prevents water flowing out of the pump (losing prime)
during pump shut down or breakdown.

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Standard Hose Lay

The Standard Hose Lay is the basis for all water delivery on the fireline.
Variations or adaptations to the Standard Hose Lay may be required for practical
reasons. Every firefighter must know the components and set-up of the Standard
Hose Lay.
After priming the pump, fire fighters connect the discharge hose and required
accessories to the pump using the Standard Hose Lay. To accomplish this, you
will need the following –

Short Length of Lined Hose

Used between the discharge outlet of the pump and the valve assembly (back
check/three way valve). If it is not provided, attach the valve assembly to the end
of the first length of hose.

Valve Assembly – Back Check Valve/Three-way Valve

The back check valve is a one-way valve fitted in-line on the hose lay
immediately after the short lined or first length of hose. Back check valves (used
whenever water is pumped uphill) prevent back pressure damage or re-starting
difficulties at the pump. Ensure the back check valve is correctly installed – it is
possible to install it backwards.

The three-way valve is attached ‘upstream’ of the back check valve – on the
nozzle side – this allows rapid bleed-off of back pressure to allow hose repair or
replacement.

Bleed-off Line
The bleed-off line is a length of hose attached to the three-way valve. The bleed-
off line directs water being bled off of the hose lay away from the pump site.

Lined Hose
Lined Hose is used between the pump and the fire as it is better able to
withstand the high pressures generated in this portion of the hose lay and
provides less friction loss. Lined hosed is less fire-resistant so this portion of the
hose lay is not inside the fire area.

Unlined Hose
Unlined hose is used inside the fire area as it ‘weeps’ and is more fire resistant.
Unlined hose has lower strength but this portion of hose lay is further from the
pump where in-line water pressures are lower.

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Standard Hose Lay – Assembly

After priming the pump, couple the short length of lined hose to the discharge
outlet. Connect a back check valve to the opposite end of this hose.

Connect a three-way valve to the back check valve. The three-way valve allows
you to attach the necessary bleed-off line away from the pump site.

Connect the first full-length of lined discharge hose to the other three-way valve
outlet (best condition hose used closest to the pump). Lay out enough lengths of
lined hose mainline to reach the base of the fire.

Connect a second three-way valve on to the discharge side of the mainline.

Finally, couple the two required unlined hoses to each of the three-way outlets,
for direct use on the fire.

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The Pump Site

The objective of any fire suppression operation is to control the fire safely and
efficiently. Firefighters should be aware of a number of variables to ensure that
an adequate water supply to the fireline is consistently being provided:

Locating water sources

Water sources should be scouted for and identified during line location. The
location of a water source can change control tactics so taking the time to locate
the best water source.

Establishing a Pump Site

Establishing a safe pump site is particularly important because firefighters will be
spending lots of time at the pump site. A primary safety consideration is that a
firefighter's hearing defense is essentially non-existent when pump engines are
running. Extra precautions should be taken to ensure the pump site is well
protected from all fireline hazards. This may mean taking the time to extend the
hose lay along the edge of the water source to a safer pump site. Other pump
site hazards include high concentrations of carbon monoxide at poorly ventilated
pump sites and pump site fires started in dry fuels by the pump exhaust.

Effective Pump Site

Ideally, select level, solid ground, close to and preferably at the same level as the
water source. This will allow the pump to be set up quickly and minimizes suction
lift requirements. While you should never accept a pump site that compromises
safety, you often have to adapt to establish an effective pump site. For instance it
is common to have to build a platform of logs for the pump to sit on in boggy
ground.

Managing the Pump site

A well managed will be orderly and clean. The following are considerations:
• pump is secure, supported off of soft or wet ground-staked or roped as required
• fuel cans-secure ideally in a berm and sufficient quantities of fuel available
• bleed off line is well away from pump
• tool box secure and complete, no tools lying on ground
• foam is being used in accordance with established safety and environmental procedures
• consider theft adjacent to roadways

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The Mark III Pump

In Canada, the Mark III is the most common wildland fire pump. It is used
extensively in British Columbia. As a basic wildland firefighter you need to
familiar with the features and operation of this unit.
Understanding how to operate the MKIII will provide a solid foundation that can
be applied to the operation of all fireline pumps.

Features of the Wajax Mark III

The Wajax Mark III is a four-stage centrifugal pump connected to a 8.5
horsepower, two-cycle, single-cylinder, air-cooled engine.
Fuel is supplied from an external fuel tank via a quick-connect fuel line to a
diaphragm-type carburetor, which has an integral fuel pump and filter. The
engine is controlled with a choke lever and throttle lever. All fuel valves are
located on the fuel tank.
The Mark III's ignition system uses a high-tension flywheel-type magneto. The
engine is protected from excessive speed by an automatic cut-out switch, known
as the reset switch’. A toggle switch or a push-button ‘kill-switch’ are the only
other switches that are found on the pump.
The engine is equipped with a manual recoil starter assembly.

The
Mark III
Pump

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Pump Equipment Required

A portable fire pump is just one part of the pump system. You must have all of
the parts of the system or it will not function. Even the most seasoned of
firefighters have left without the entire system.
As a memory aid remember your hand – 5 digits:
1. The Pump
2. Fuel
3. Suction hose
4. Tool Kit
5. Discharge hose(s)

When traveling to fires or receiving equipment on the fireline you should develop
the habit of checking that all parts of the pump system are accounted for.
All pumps require the correct type of gasoline. Running a two-cycle engine with
straight gas or a four-cycle engine with mixed gas will seriously damage
expensive equipment. If there is any doubt as to the type of gasoline in a fuel
can, firefighters should not use it.

Pump Set-up Procedure

You should develop the habit of checking all pump system components for
serviceability and completeness. Pumps are tested, checked, and tagged before
being sent from the warehouse. Never take a pump that is not tagged.
Experienced firefighters leave nothing to chance and double check the condition
of the pump and other components as well as the contents of the tool box before
they are in the field.
The pump set-up procedure is a standard routine that you should be thoroughly
familiar with. The key to efficient pump set-up is hands-on practice. You should
practice this procedure until it can be performed quickly with no steps being
forgotten or overlooked.
The following steps will be broken down and specific details given:
• Fuel supply to the engine
• Water supply to the pump
• Starting the engine
• Once the Engine is Running
• Stopping the Engine

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Fuel supply to the engine

Gas and Oil Mixture
The Wajax Mark III uses mixed gasoline. The correct gas/oil mix ratio is 24:1,
that is, 24 parts gasoline to 1 part mix oil. This coincides with the common fuel
tank being a 5 gal or 24 liter capacity size.
Using less than the recommended proportion of mix oil in the mixed gas will not
provide adequate lubrication to the engine. This will result in the engine
overheating and causes excessive wear. If no mix oil is used, after a short time
the engine will seize and require a total overhaul.
Using more than the recommended proportion of mix oil in the mixed gas will
cause excessive carbon deposits in the engine and on the spark plug. Fouled
spark plugs cause poor engine ignition and reduce pump performance.
Excessive amounts of exhaust smoke are a symptom of too much mix oil in the
mixed gas.
Connecting the Fuel Line
A flexible fuel line with a quick-connect adapter will be attached to the fuel tank or
provided in the toolbox. Be sure the fuel line is unobstructed and connect it to the
fuel tank. Open the fuel tanks supply valve. There are a number of different fuel
tanks present on the fire line but the most common has a screw cap that is
opened by turning it counterclockwise. Open the air vent on top of the fuel tank
by turning it counterclockwise. Opening the valve and the vent allows fuel to flow
into the fuel line.
Before attaching the fuel line to the pump, depress the ball valve located inside
the quick-connect fitting on the end of the fuel line. Use a screwdriver from the
tool kit not a stick that could break off. This allows air in the fuel line to be
displaced with fuel and allows you to check and ensure you have fuel flowing.

Remove the plastic protective cap from the fuel fitting on the pump. Be certain
that there is no dirt or debris in either of the fuel fittings and connect them with a
push and turn motion.
Squeeze the fuel line-priming bulb until mixed gas is observed moving up the
clear plastic fuel line and into the carburetor.

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Starting tip: Tilt the pump base slightly so that the air filter/carburetor unit on the
pump is directed slightly downwards. This allows any excess fuel to drain out of
the carburetor rather than into the cylinder where it can cause flooding and
difficult starting.

Water supply to the pump

Priming the Pump -- A Three-Step Procedure
The Mark III pump must be primed before it will pump water. When the pump and
suction hose are primed with water and the engine is started, water will be
discharged from the pump and a vacuum created within the pump chamber and
suction hose. As soon as the 'suctioned' water enters the pump chamber it is
compressed and pressurized by the impellers forcing it out the discharge outlet.
Step 1 -- Connecting the Suction Hose and Foot Valve

Ensure that the suction hose is free of material that might damage the pump or
restrict water flow. Hold the hose vertically, give it a shake and a quick visual
check.
If the foot valve is separate from the suction hose attach it tightening it with a
wrench.
Check that the return spring on the foot valve is functioning. Completely
submerge the suction hose in the water source and allow it to fill with water. Do
not allow debris to enter the open end of the suction hose. Ensure the foot valve
is properly placed in the water source. (Under at least 6 inches of water, free of
debris and not resting on the bottom).

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Check that the gasket in the female suction hose coupling is installed and in
good repair and attach the female coupling to the pump suction inlet. Ensure
cams are fully set. Where there isn’t a cam setup be careful not to cross-thread
this fitting and always wrench tighten this fitting for an airtight fit.
Step 2 -- Priming the Pump
After connecting the suction hose (full of water), the pump is ready to be primed.
There are two methods of priming the pump chamber with water.
1. Grasp the suction hose in the middle and thrust it vigorously back and forth
under the surface of the water source. This action causes the foot valve to
open and close. Water is forced into the suction hose on the down stroke
(pushes the foot valve open) and retained within the suction hose on the up
stroke (closes the foot valve). The operator continues this process until water
is forced through the discharge outlet. The pump is now primed. Re-attach
the discharge hose.

Thrusting the suction hose (as described above) into a water source that is
muddy and debris-filled will likely plug up the foot valve and prevent the pump
from being primed. To prime the pump in these situations, operators should
remove the priming inlet cap and pour water directly into the pump chamber
until it is full. The priming inlet cap is then replaced and wrench tightened. Be
very careful not to allow any debris into the pump chamber.
2. Ensure the suction hose is placed so it falls away (downwards) from the
suction inlet. If any part of the suction hose is higher than the top of the pump

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chamber, air pockets will be trapped in the suction hose and the pump will
start but will over rev and ‘cut-out’ when the air pocket reaches the pump
chamber.
Step 3 -- Connecting the Discharge Hose(s)
The discharge hoses are fitted with ‘quick connect’ couplings and are coupled to
the pump discharge outlet. Attach the vibrator hose to the discharge outlet and
proceed with the rest of the standard hose lay.
Leave a 6 -10 feet ‘half-loop’ of slack in the first length of discharge hose before
laying the hose up to the fire. This will allow the pump to be moved around the
pump site (closer to a receding water source) without having to disconnect and
pull back the entire hose lay. Also during nozzle shutoff the hose tends to shift
and could shift the pump setup if not enough slack is present

Starting the Engine

Starting the engine is a four-step process involving three basic controls (the
choke lever, the throttle lever and the starter rope)
Safety Note: Prior to starting any small engine equipment you should put on
approved hearing protection.
1. Check that the cut out or override switch is pushed in.

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2. Close the choke by placing the choke lever in the "START" (OPEN) position if
the engine is cold. (The choke should be left open with the lever in the
"RUN"(CLOSED) position if the engine is warm.)

3. Move the throttle lever to the "START/WARM-UP" position.

Place one foot on the base of the pump frame and with one hand on the spark
plug protector (to maintain balance), grasp the starter rope grip with the other
hand. Start turning the engine over with quick, steady and short pulls of the
starter rope.

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Once the Engine is Running

Most pumps should start with four to six pulls of the starter rope. Once the engine
is running, you should:
• re-position the choke lever to the "RUN" position. This must be done slowly as pump engines
are rough-running after a cold start and can easily be stalled by rapid changes to the fuel/air
mixture entering the engine;
• allow the engine to warm up by leaving the throttle in the
"WARM-UP" position. This will require 1 –3 minutes (when the
cooling fins on the cylinder head are hot to the touch, the
engine is warmed up). If the engine is not warmed up before
running it at full power-damage will result
• once the engine is warmed up, open the throttle lever slowly to
the "RUN" position.

Safety Note: Always signal the nozzle team to ensure

they are ready, before running the pump at full power.

Stopping the Engine

To stop the engine, you should:
• gradually close the throttle reducing the engine to an idle, before placing the throttle in the
"STOP" position;
• depress the stop switch and hold it in firmly until the engine is completely stopped. If the
switch is released before the engine is stopped, there is a chance of backfiring which can
damage the engine;
• if you do not intend to restart the pump immediately, the fuel line should be disconnected and
the pump allowed to shut down while burning up all the fuel remaining in the carburetor. Fuel
left in the carburetor for a period of time, (even overnight), will break down and clog the
carburetor. This can make restarting very difficult or impossible;
• when shutting down after pumping from salt water, alkaline lakes or using foam concentrates
- rinse out the pump chamber by pumping fresh water for 20 minutes at varying r.p.m's. If
there is a chance of freezing temperatures overnight. Drain the pump chamber and uncouple
hose lengths along the hose lay.

Safety Note: The muffler on any pump will be hot after extended use. Be sure to
avoid the hot muffler when handling the pump after it has been running.

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General Maintenance and Troubleshooting Procedures

Many pump problems can be fixed in the field. Troubleshooting a portable pump
is best done by thinking of the pump as two separate units:

...an engine unit coupled to... ....a water pump unit.

After determining which unit is causing the problem, proceed with specific
troubleshooting steps as described below.
It is very important to understand your own limitations and to recognize the time
and place for extensive field trouble shooting. If time is of the essence and your
pump will not start check the basic trouble shooting issues and if it still will not
start call for another pump. If you have more time and field conditions are
suitable pursue the more involved trouble shooting exercises.
Note: A piece of colored flagging tape and a tag outlining the problem should be
tied on all unserviceable items. The item should then be sent back to the base for
repair.

Pump Unit Problems

There are a number of common problems specific to the pump end of the MK III.
• Suction problems
• Pump seized
• Pump overheating

Suction Problems - Engine Over-revving/Lost Prime

Over speeding of the engine occurs when the pump loses prime. With no load on
the engine the engine over-revs and the cut-out switch is activated, stopping the
engine. Before you re-start the engine it is important to check for the cause of the
stoppage, fix the problem, re-prime the pump (if necessary), reset the cut-out
switch by pushing it in and finally, re-start the engine. When the engine over-revs
and cuts out due to lost prime there are several possible causes.
1. The suction hose and foot valve are not under at least 15 cm (6 inches) of
water. This can occur if the suction hose is lifted or floats up in the water. It

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can also occur as the water source is depleted. Another potential problem is
that the foot valve is equipped with a strainer screen that can become
clogged with weeds or debris. This restricts the flow of water into the pump
and over-revving can occur.
To correct these problems: Clean the foot valve strainer and re-position the foot
valve to prevent it happening again. (E.g., Place rocks under and over the foot
valve, tie the suction hose to a stake, or place the foot valve inside a bucket or
toolbox.)
2. The foot valve is no longer operating properly – allowing water to flow out of
the suction hose.
To correct this problem: Check the foot valve itself to make sure it is not jammed
by a stick or in some other way inoperable
3. The suction hose to suction inlet connection is not airtight. The priming inlet
cap connection may not be airtight. When air enters the pump chamber,
prime is lost and over-revving occurs.
To correct this problem: Check the connection for cross-threading, gasket
presence and condition (spare gaskets in toolbox), grease the threads (with
pump grease in tool box) and wrench-tighten all fittings.
Pump Seized
Occasionally pumps will seize. You will be unable to pull the starter cord but will
not know if it is the engine or the pump unit that has seized. The engine and the
pump heads of the Mark III and Mark 26 pumps are easily separated. Undo the
pump clamp that holds the pump head to the engine head and separate the
halves. Determine which side is seized. Other than attempting to clear any
physical blockages there is little that can be done in the field. At least you will
have one half of the pump in working condition and may be able to repair another
pump with the serviceable half.
When joining the pump head to the engine head with the pump clamp never use
excessive force on the pump clamp lever. If more than finger pressure is required
to close the clamp, it is not properly lined up with the pump and engine units. The
clamp adjustment knob may require adjustment.
Pump Overheating
The centrifugal pump head has impellers that continue to spin at high speeds
when water flow is shut down at the nozzle. It is possible for the water in the
pump chamber to become very hot when no water leaves a pump unit that is
operating at full power for ten minutes or more.
Safety Note: If this condition is detected, the pump should be shutdown
immediately with no repairs attempted until the pump chamber has cooled down.
Serious injury (scalds and burns) can result if the pump chamber is opened when
still hot.

Engine Unit Problems

Basic engine troubleshooting starts with by remembering the very basic point that
all small engines require Gas Air and Spark. Engine failure (assuming that no
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major internal damage or failure exists) is a result of problems with one or more
of these things:
G Gas/Fuel Supply Problems
A Air Supply Problems
S Spark / Ignition Problems

Gas/Fuel Supply Problems

The first item that you should check is that fuel is reaching the engine cylinder.
Check for fuel flow between the fuel tank and the end of the fuel supply line.
Specifically, check that there is gas in the fuel tank, the air supply vent is open,
the fuel supply valve is open, and the fuel supply line is not kinked or flattened.
Use a blunt tool to depress the ball valve recessed in the end of the
quick-connect fitting and with the fitting held below the level of fuel in the tank,
ensure that fuel flows freely out of the fuel line.
If there is fuel supply to the pump you must determine if fuel is reaching the
cylinder head. Remove the spark plug and check it for wet or dry condition. If the
spark plug is wet with gasoline, proceed immediately with the "Spark/Ignition
Problems" outlined below.
If the spark plug is dry, pour a very small amount of fuel into the cylinder through
the spark plug opening, replace the plug and attempt to start the engine. If the
engine starts and stops, fuel is not reaching the cylinder. To correct this problem,
check the following:
1. The clear plastic fuel line that runs vertically from the quick-connect fitting on
the pump frame to the carburetor may be cracked and leaking air. If too much
air is leaking into this line, the carburetor will not receive enough fuel to keep
the engine running.
You may be able to fix this problem with materials at hand (electrical tape in
toolbox). As a last resort the fuel supply line can be cut and attached directly onto
the carburetor fuel inlet. (This will bypass the quick-connect couplings and the
clear plastic fuel line).
2. The fuel pump may not be working.
To correct this problem: Secure the fuel tank slightly higher than the carburetor.
This allows fuel to gravity feed into the carburetor.
3. The carburetor may be loose where it attaches to the intake manifold. If the
carburetor is loose, air rather than fuel will be taken into the cylinder.
To correct this problem: Tighten the two nuts with the special offset wrench
provided in the tool kit.
4. The carburetor may be gummed or clogged from old gas and oil deposits.
When stopping the pump for a period of time, (even overnight), you should
always disconnect the fuel line and run the engine until all fuel is burned up
and the carburetor is dry. If this isn't done, the gas evaporates leaving the mix
oil component of the mixed gas to clog the carburetor. The oil build-up makes
it difficult to start the engine and servicing will be needed.

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This situation is difficult to correct in the field and you should order another unit.
Air Supply Problems
During continuous use on the fireline, the engine air filter may become partly
clogged and air intake reduced. You will note that discharge pressures are lower
and fuel consumption is increased. Check and, if necessary, clean or replace the
air filter. Cardboard replacement filters are disposable. Foam sponge filters
should be rinsed in mixed gasoline and squeezed out -put a few drops of mix oil
in the filter element before reinstalling it. Be careful not to install replacement air
filters incorrectly -this will reduce air intake and pump performance.
Spark/Ignition Problems
Flooding occurs when fuel continues to be pumped into the cylinder without
ignition. It occurs when the engine is over-choked or repeated attempts at
starting the pump do not succeed. To help avoid flooding, tilt the pump base
slightly so that the air filter/carburetor unit on the pump is directed slightly
downwards. This allows any excess fuel to drain out of the carburetor (through
the air filter) rather than into the cylinder. Flooding can be common with some
pumps and you should be capable of performing the following procedure very
quickly. It may be necessary to perform this procedure several times before the
engine starts.
1. Having already removed the spark plug. Remove excess fuel from the
cylinder-turn the pump upside down and drain excess fuel through the spark
plug opening. Disconnect the fuel supply line at the quick-connect.
Completely open the choke (to "RUN'') and the throttle (to "RUN"). (This will
allow maximum airflow into the engine.) Clean and dry the spark plug and
check the electrode gap clearance for the correct distance - 0.4 mm or 0.016
inches (matchbook cover thickness). Place the spark plug back into its rubber
holder and ground the plug against a steel component of the pump. This is
done to prevent damaging the ignition system during the following test for
spark condition. Pull the starter cord by hand (rapidly) until all the excess fuel
in the cylinder has been blown out through the spark plug opening and
exhaust system.
2. Pull the cord and watch for spark.
Safety Note: Do not stand over the spark plug opening when pulling the starter
cord. The gas vapor being vented is harmful and very flammable (may explode if
ignited).
3. If no spark is visible at the spark plug electrode when the starter cord is
pulled, check that the cut off switch is fully pushed in. To correct simply push
in the cut off switch.
4. If there is still no spark:
the spark plug should be replaced (spare plugs are provided in the toolbox).
Burnt or carboned-up spark plugs can result from engine overheating or

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incorrect fuel mix ratios. Carbon deposits on the spark plug can result in poor
engine performance.
5. If there is still no spark, check that the rubber spark plug holder and the high-
tension lead that connects the spark plug to the ignition system are dry and
properly connected. The holder can be unscrewed from the lead.To correct
repair any obvious damage using tape.

Broken Pull-cord
If the starter rope breaks, is pulled out of the rewind mechanism or if the rewind
mechanism fails, the Mark III's starter cover can be unbolted, (four bolts),
exposing a conventional slotted starter pulley which allows the operator to start
the engine manually. Ensure correct direction of pull, clockwise.

Fireline Pump Maintenance

• The MK III pump is very durable and requires very little maintenance
during day to day operations. The shut down procedures outlined above
should be followed so as to avoid fuel build up in the carburetor and fuel
lines. If the pump will be left out overnight during a time when there is any
chance of the temperature dropping to freezing the pump head should be
thoroughly drained to avoid damaging the seals in the pump head.
• If the pump has a grease nipple it should be greased once a day. Newer
pumps do not have grease nipples as the bearings are sealed.

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Multi Pump Systems

Fire fighters use multi-pump systems to increase water volume or pressure when
a single pump is no longer capable of providing adquate volume or maintaining
the minimum effective nozzle pressure of 172.5 kPa (25 psi).
The two most common multi-pump systems are the tandem and the relay
systems:

Tandem Pump Systems

In a pumping operation, the term ‘tandem’ describes two or more pumps (one in
line behind the other) pumping together.

Advantages of a short-coupled system include:

• No relay tank needed; and
• Both pumps can be serviced at one location.

Disadvantages of the short-coupled system include:

• High pressures generated on the discharge side of Pump B will exceed the bursting pressure
of older hose.
• If either pump fails – the system will not deliver water to the fire.
• A ‘tandem coupler’ on the intake side of Pump ‘B’ is required.
No matter what type or combination of pumps are to be used in tandem,
remember to place the more powerful of the two pumps closest to the water
source.

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Relay Pump Systems

Pump A supplies water to a relay tank – located on the hose lay at a point where
the water supply from Pump A is just sufficient to fill the relay tank and supply the
intake requirements of Pump B.
Relay tanks may be collapsible reservoirs designed for fireline use or on-site
materials can be used to construct or adapt a serviceable relay ‘tank’.
Advantages of the relay system include:
• Consistent water supply to the nozzle (if Pump A fails, water remains in the relay tank to
supply the nozzle team while Pump A is restarted).
• Excessively high pressures are not generated anywhere in the system.
• No ‘tandem coupler’ is required.
Disadvantages of the relay system include:
• Pump B serviced at a separate location from Pump A.
• Relay tank must be set-up or constructed.

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Gravity System
The gravity system is a
reliable and useful water
delivery system with
numerous applications in
hilly or mountainous
terrain.

Some tips for using gravity systems:

• Tie off hose lays – the weight of filled hose lays pulling directly on funnel
couplings can destroy the gravity funnel.
• When gravity system hose lays are initially filling – close the shut-off nozzle to
allow the hose lay to ‘charge’ itself with water.
• Gravity water systems can generate excessive nozzle pressures. Install
three-way valves along the length of the hose lay and open them to bleed off
excess pressure.
• Gravity systems can also be established to feed directly off slip-on tanks,
porta-tanks or collapsible reservoirs.

Crew organization
The Water Delivery Crew consists of a pump operator, nozzle team and hose
layers.

Pump Operator
The pump operator ensures that water is available to the nozzle team and that
any complications that may effect water supply are relayed to the nozzle person
in order that the nozzle team may change tactics. This is important as the team
may be engaged in a high fire activity area where water supply is critical.

The nozzle team

This team will normally consist of two or three firefighters consisting of a nozzle
person and one or two hose handlers.
The nozzle person handles the nozzle, applying water to burning. It is the
nozzle person that sends communications to the pump operator to order water
on or off.
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The hose handler pulls hose loop forward, keeps it free of kinks and off of any
sharp or burning surfaces. Charged 1 ½ hose is heavy and difficult to maneuver.
The hose handler assists the nozzle person so that they can focus on the job of
applying water to the fire. The hose handler works to ensure that the nozzle
person only has to pull a 3-7 meter (10-20 foot) half loop of hose length forward
as the fire edge is hosed down. The hose handler will also carry the hose
strangler and perform all hose strangling and uncoupling and recouping of hose
lengths. When available a second handler/layer pulls hose slack forward for the
first hose handler.
Hose layer(s)
The hose layers pack hose up to and forward of the nozzle team and to establish
a progressive hose lay ahead of the nozzle team. Hose layers will accomplish
patrol of the hose lay when they are returning to the equipment staging area for
additional hose supply. Hose layers should be equipped to break the hose line
(strangler, three way valve, one or two lengths of hose and nozzle), to prevent
restarts from burning through the hose lay and spreading around the nozzle team
trapping them from behind. Hose should not be laid out too far ahead of the
nozzle person in case the fire reaches the hose before he/she gets there.

Using Water Effectively on the Fireline

Fire fighters recognize that effective use of water for fire suppression is
dependent on how water is applied to the fire rather than how much water is
applied to the fire.

Effective water application starts with selecting the right nozzle(s) and nozzling
technique(s) for the fire situation.

Some general rules for nozzle selection:

• Use nozzles that have shut-off capability when water supply is limited.
• Use fog or spray nozzles when cooling areas of intense heat – water droplets
have more surface area that a solid stream and can absorb more heat
through this surface area – this cools more effectively.
• Use straight stream nozzles to extend water stream reach (to get water into
treetops) or to penetrate and saturate burning fuels along the fire edge (called
‘hydraulic fireline construction).
• Use an ‘all-in-one’ or ‘Hansen’ nozzle when shut-off, spray and straight
stream capabilities are all required.

Some notes on nozzling techniques:

• ‘Jet-streams’ use the greatest amount of water, provide a poor cooling effect
for the amount of water used and increase the chance of spreading burning
embers and sparks into unburned fuels – avoid using this nozzling technique
unnecessarily.

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• ‘Hydraulic fireline’ constructed with a jet stream is not as secure as hand-tool

constructed fireline. Fire fighters using hand tools should always follow up
and construct the fireline to mineral soil.
• ‘Soaking’ wets down fuels ahead of a fire to slow fire spread. When soaking
fuels – avoid wetting fuels in the ‘burn-off strip’ just inside the fireline. These
fuels need to be kept dry so burn-off fires can be quickly established.
• ‘Puddling’ is a mop-up technique. A nozzleperson and a second fire fighter
with a hand tool maintain safe working distance (3m to 10m) and work as a
team – digging out burning fuels and saturating them with water.

Safety Considerations for the Water Delivery Crew

With the water delivery crew,
communication is key, as the control
strategy and crew safety are often
dependent on a consistent water supply

Firefighters must use all water judiciously to

achieve maximum effectiveness from each
liter. This is particularly important with ’dry’
fires where water is limited. A very critical
function is that of the nozzle person, the crew leader may monitor nozzle use and
correct poor technique or replace the nozzle person with a more experienced
firefighter.
Firefighters should be aware that if the water delivery system fails or sufficient
water is not available they need to have alternative control capability. The most
efficient fire control occurs as a combination of hand tool work and water
delivery.

Water Tenders and Portable Resevoirs

The absence of water sources at many fire locations has led to the development
of a number of different systems for providing water to the fireline.

Water tenders and portable reservoirs are commonly used by wildland fire
fighters when water must be transported to the fireline and temporarily stored.

Water Tenders
Water is delivered to fires by a variety of
water tenders ranging from pick-up trucks
with slip-on tank units to large water
carriers (tank trucks).

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Skidder Tanks
Rubber-tired skidder tanker units (skid
tankers) are very mobile and can quickly
access flare-ups along the fireline.
Tanks are mounted on the skidder
winch and are equipped with small fire
pumps and a small quantity of fire hose.

Portable Reservoirs
There are several types of portable reservoirs used by wildland fire fighters.

Helicopter Transportable Reservoirs

Helicopter transportable reservoirs
include stillwells bags which are filled
with water and then long-lined in by
helicopter to smaller initial attack fires.
The relatively small quantities of water
they contain (60-110 gallons) are
adequate for application by fire fighters
using backpack pumps and hand tools
or mini (Shindaiwa type) fire pumps and
econoflo hose.

The ‘Rapattack 300’ is another

helicopter transportable reservoir that
can also be filled by a hovering, medium
helicopter delivering 680 litres (150
gallons) of water through a hose
dropped from its ‘belly tank’.

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Self-supporting Tanks – ‘Pumpkins’

Pumpkins are self-supporting, open-topped
reservoirs that can be set up on any
reasonably flat surface and filled with water by
tank trucks, bucketing helicopters or pump
systems.

Porta- Tanks
Porta-tanks are square, ‘swimming pool’ style
reservoirs usually capable of holding 4,500
litres (1,000 gallons). The fabric liner is roped
into the folding metal frame and filled with
water by tank trucks, bucketing helicopters or
pump systems.

Sprinkler Systems
A valuable tool in wildfire suppression is the sprinkler. These are a few uses for
sprinklers:
• to prepare or reinforce a control line during
ignition operations by pre-wetting the green
fuels reducing the short distance spotting
potential
• for holding operations after the control line
has been completed, by delivering sustained
moisture coverage of fuels on one or both
sides of line
• to defend structures or entire communities in
a Wildland/Urban Interface situation in
conjunction with other wildand/urban
interface defense tactics

Sprinkler Basics

• Sprinklers are available for use with inch and- a- half (most popular is the
Rainbird) or ¾” econoflo hose (most popular is the Sun Mate)

• Generally, one Mark III pump should operate up to 10- 1 ½ coupled

sprinklers or up to 40- ¾” inch coupled sprinklers on flat ground and with
800-1,000 feet of hose. Although this will vary with pump condition.

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• Sprinklers should always be used in a “closed loop system” in order to

maintain constant pressure to all sprinkler heads

Closed Loop System

• Account for wind when establishing the coverage of spray

• Ensure that sprinklers are set-up for maximum coverage between each
head
• Ensure sprinklers are firmly secured for maximum effectiveness
• Watch for “water shadows” created by trees and other objects blocking the
sprinkler spray pattern.

Fire Extinguishing Agents

Uses of Fire Extinguishing Agents
The most common method of fire control today is the use of water as heat
absorption or cooling agent. However, water is a very short-term fire-
extinguishing agent and ineffective on more intense fires This has necessitated
the use of a variety of fire-extinguishing agents or fire retardants that enhance
the suppression capabilities of water. However, the agent’s capacity to
completely extinguish a fire depends on a number of variables, of which the most
critical are the size and intensity of the fire.

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A fire retardant is any substance that, by physical or chemical action, reduces

the flammability of combustible materials. Fire retardants are classified into two
types: long-term and short-term.

Long-Term Fire Retardants

Long-term retardants utilize
"flame-inhibiting" chemicals
such as phosphates (liquid or
dry fertilizers) and sulfates
(dry salt fertilizers). Burning is
slowed or stopped due mostly
to chemical reactions between
the fuel and the retardant.
Long-term retardants are
normally applied to fuels
ahead of the moving flame
front and remain effective
even after the water in them
has evaporated.
Application of long-term fire
retardants is accomplished
using air tankers or helicopter bucketing. This section deals primarily with ground
application water delivery and the fire-extinguishing agents used with them.

Short-Term Fire Retardants

Short-term retardants include "water-modifying" chemicals such as wet-water,
thick water, gels, gums, clays, and foams. Water-modifiers inhibit combustion by
increasing the effectiveness of water.
Short-term fire retardants are considered to be suppressants as only the water
component of the mix has an effect on the combustion process. Fire
suppressants are applied directly onto the burning fuels. Application of foam is
accomplished by air attack (air tankers or helicopter bucketing) or by ground
attack using water delivery systems.

Class B Foams (Flammable Vapor Suppressants)

Class B foams are designed for use on flammable liquid fires. They are primarily
used by structural firefighters and rescue personnel. Most commonly seen by
wildland fire fighters during inter-face fires.
Because the water component of the Class B foam is effectively held within the
foam blanket, the application of Class B foam does not spread the flammable
liquid. The fire is extinguished by suppressing flammable vapors with a blanket of
very dry, "stiff" foam. Class B foam is not intended to be used on Class A fires
where wetting and cooling of fuels is required for complete extinguishment.

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Class A Foams ("Wildland Foams")

Class A foams are designed for use on fires of porous fuels such as wood and
paper, as well as rubber and plastic. They extinguish fire by increasing the
wetting and cooling capabilities of water. This foam should not be applied to
Class B fuels (gas, oil and grease) because the high water content of the foam is
likely to spread the fire.
In wildland fuels, the effectiveness of water as a fire suppressant is increased
approximately 300 per cent when firefighting foam concentrate is added to the
water supply. Currently, the most common and widely used suppressant is Class
A foam. Class A foams are essentially high density soaps.

How does foam work?

Foam solution and the foam created by agitating that foam solution, increase the
fire suppressing effectiveness of water in a number of ways:
Foam Solution Makes Water "Wetter"
Pure water has strong molecular bonds and forms droplets. The surface of these
droplets resists rupture (high surface tension). Surface tension prevents water
from effectively penetrating into fuels.
A wetting agent or "surfactant" added to the water will weaken this molecular
bond. Surfactant stands for "surface active agent." Foam concentrate mixed
with water; forms foam solution with a surface tension 60% less than straight
water. This foam solution (not foam yet, just "wet" or soapy water) is much better
at penetrating and wetting the forest fuels.
Reduced surface tension also increases the
surface area of water available for heat
absorption. The surfactant qualities of foam
solution are also effective in breaking down
the water repelling "waxy cuticle layer" found
on tree surfaces. This further enhances the
wetting ability of foam solution.
Foam Causes Water to "Stick" to Fuels
Water adheres poorly to forest fuels. Unless the fuel surface is very rough and
porous, up to 95% of the water applied to a fire is ineffective because it ricochets
or runs off of the fuels and into the ground.
Foam solution, when agitated, forms a foam which is viscous; it will not drain off
but will flow gradually. Foam can be made to cling to vertical or underside
surfaces of fuels or structures.
The bubble structure of foam contains water in the bubble walls, as the bubbles
break down over the heat of the burning fuels, the water flows onto the fuels
wetting and absorbing heat.
Foam Reduces Heat
The foam "blanket" is a reflective, insulating barrier for the fuels it is applied to.

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Foam bubbles are white and form an opaque layer on the surface of the fuel.
This layer reflects radiant heat away from fuels, reducing the rate of spread of the
oncoming fire.
Foam bubbles insulate fuels from the radiant heat of the fire. The foam bubbles
will breakdown when exposed to more heat; in doing so, the foam absorbs and
dissipates heat energy.
Foam Cuts Oxygen Supply
The foam bubbles flow onto and enclose the fuels, isolating them from oxygen.
Air in the bubbles has a very high relative humidity (it contains water vapor and
therefore less oxygen). As the water in the foam extinguishes the fire, water
vapor (steam) is produced. The foam blanket holds this water vapor in contact
with the fuels, which speeds up the extinguishing process.

How is Firefighting Foam Made?

Production of foam is easily accomplished using a few accessories engineered
for use with standard water delivery systems.
Three basic methods are used to mix foam concentrate with water and produce a
foam solution:
• Hand Mixing or "batching"
• Eduction -- Suction side (also "in-line" eduction)
• Injection -- Discharge side
Hand Mixing or "batching"
Pump foam solution through the water delivery system. Foam solution is
expanded into foam by using a foam nozzle on the discharge hose.
Eduction (Suction side)
This is the most common method
of mixing foam solution using
portable fire pumps. Eduction
refers to drawing foam
concentrate from its container
and mixing it with water at a
known mix ratio.
Injection (Discharge side)
Injection of foam concentrate is
the most effective foam
proportioning system available. Currently, the injection systems (called foam
proportioners) are primarily used on more specialized tank trucks (interface
response and compressed air foam system (CAFS).

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Foam Application
A higher percentage of foam concentrate added to the water will provide a stiffer,
dryer foam with less wetting and cooling ability but providing more insulating
value
A lower percentage of foam concentrate added to the water will provide a sloppy,
wetter foam with greater wetting and cooling ability but providing less insulating
value

Tactics
Direct Attack
Foam is used like water to
apply the foam to the flame
base with some consideration
for fireproofing adjacent fuels.
Foam is three times as
effective as straight water. It
is not necessary to apply, as
much foam to the fire as is
required with straight water. It
is important to keep the
nozzle team moving.
When applying foam to burning fuels, wait until the steam shows and then move
the nozzle stream to cover more fuel so the foam will continue working while the
nozzle team works ahead. Any additional application can be performed on a
second pass (which will yield surprisingly few hotspots).
Foam is highly visible and coverage is readily apparent. Wasting water by
re-applying it to areas already wetted is less likely to occur when the water
applied can be seen so easily. Firefighters should not walk through and leave
footprints in the foam blanket. The unfoamed areas left by the footprints reduce
the extinguishing capabilities of the foam blanket.
Indirect Attack
Foam' s ability to hold water onto
fuels, allows it to be used (for
limited periods) as a "wet line" from
which firefighters can apply parallel
control methods. It is possible to
burn-off from a wet line or "foam
guard" if the fuels are light. Use of
a wetter foam type allows for
adequate wetting of all surface
fuels and prevents the burn-off fire
from creeping under the foam
guard.

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The use of "dry foam" to insulate fuels against a fire's advance can be quite
successful. This is a particularly useful technique in the Wildland Urban Interface
(WUI). The WUI occurs where vegetation fuels and structures intermix. Homes,
outbuildings, fences, log decks and firewood piles can all be protected for some
time with an application of "dry foam."

Safe Working Practices for Foam Use

• Foam concentrate is severely irritating to the eyes and moderately
irritating to the skin. Prolonged or repeated contact with the concentrate
may produce skin irritation and inhalation of its mists may irritate the lining
of the nose and throat.
• Eye protection must be worn when handling foam concentrate. A quantity
of fresh water, for immediate flushing of eyes, should be available at the
mixing site should accidental contact occur.
• Spills of foam concentrate on clothing will require that the clothing be
removed and the affected area washed out with water.
• The use of gloves is recommended when handling the concentrate.
Exposed skin should be washed as soon as possible. These precautions
are similar to those that are used with any heavy-duty detergent.
• Use of a barrier cream (provided with most "foam kits") on the skin, is
recommended to prevent skin irritation.
• Rubber boots or shoes are recommended for firefighters working with
foam as the wetting properties of even dilute solutions of foam
concentrates will result in penetration of leather footwear, and the
discomfort and problems arising from having wet feet for prolonged
periods.
• Never re-use foam concentrate containers for other liquids.
• Never mix different foam concentrate products together.

Environmental considerations when working with retardants

Class A foam concentrate is highly biodegradable when placed in the natural
environment; more than 85% reverts to carbon dioxide within 28 days. The
toxicological properties of foam concentrate have been evaluated by a number of
agencies and meet standard requirements.
However:
• Avoid use of foams in environmentally sensitive areas such as
watersheds, hatchery drainage’s or near water intakes. If foam
concentrate enters the water supply, harmful effects to aquatic life in the
immediate vicinity are likely

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• Take all precautions to prevent concentrate spills near the water source.
Use foam injection systems that allow foam concentrate jugs to be placed
further away from the pump at the water source.
• Always use a back check valve below the point where foam concentrate is
introduced to the water system. This prevents back flow or siphoning of
foam solution into the water source after pump shutdown. It is a good
practice to pull the pump and suction hose away from the water source
after shutdown if foam concentrates have been used.
• Extend the bleed-off line and lead it well away from any water source.
• Before shutting down the pump at the end of the day, firefighters should
turn off the metering device and allow time for the system to flush itself of
concentrate (20 minutes). Failure to do this can allow foam concentrate to
seep back through the suction hose and into the water supply. Unflushed
pump heads are prone to corrosion.

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12. HELICOPTER USE & SAFETY

Section Learning Objectives:

Upon completion of this section, the participant will demonstrate a basic
understanding of safe work practices used when working around helicopters on
the fireline through knowledge of:
1. The 3 main helicopter danger areas
2. The procedure for approaching and departing a helicopter
3. When a helicopter safety briefing should be delivered
4. Helicopter bucketing and long-lining safety

Helicopter Uses
Helicopters are used extensively on the fireline for water delivery, ignition
operations, reconnaissance, personnel and equipment transportation and fire
crew deployment. There are several different models of helicopters a firefighter
may encounter, but the basic principals are the same for all.

Fireline personnel will fly in helicopters and work around them on a regular basis,
therefore it is important that firefighters have a basic understanding of helicopter
safe work practices.

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Helicopter Danger Areas

There are three main danger areas around any helicopter:

Main Rotor
While the main rotor is centered some 3 meters (10 ft) above the ground, the tips
can, at times dip to within 1.25 meters (4 ft) of level ground, creating a hazard to
any person under it’s span. In addition, an uphill slope or a subtle rise in terrain
can also expose a person to the main rotor. The main rotor will kill you if it strikes
you. Factors which can cause a decrease in main rotor height are:
• Wind gusts
• Landing on a off-level site
• Landing near slopes or on uneven
ground
• Pilot manipulating controls to maintain
stability or maneuver

Tail Rotor
The tail rotor is an extremely dangerous area. It is almost impossible to see when
it is spinning at a high rate. On most helicopters the tail rotor is located at a
height where it can strike the head or chest and instantly kill you- never go near
the tail rotor. Never walk any further back than the baggage compartment.

Exhaust
Several models of helicopters have exhaust ducts that are located close to the
ground where exhaust gases and metal shrouds can instantly and seriously burn
a person with exhaust temperatures of several hundred degrees. The location of
the exhaust will be identified by the pilot during the helicopter safety briefing.

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Helicopter Safety Briefing

One of the most important safety practices that is used to reduce the risk of
incidents associated with working around helicopter is the helicopter safety
briefing. A pre-flight meeting or “briefing” with the pilot and the personnel
working around the helicopter provides an added safety margin and will generally
streamline subsequent flight operations. The briefing is usually carried out by the
pilot who provides all of the safety and operational information pertinent to their
machine.
You should expect a briefing when:
• A new pilot or helicopter is to work
with the crew
• A new person (firefighter/ground
crew) is to work with the helicopter
• Procedures have changed
• The pilot, crew leader, or individual
requests a briefing.

Approaching the Helicopter

When approaching or departing the helicopter:

• Never approach or depart a helicopter without pilot’s approval – obtain a
signal (usually a nod).
• Always approach or depart a helicopter from or towards the downhill side.
• Always approach and depart from the front (unless it slopes uphill) so you are
visible to the pilot and well away from the tail rotor.
• Develop the habit of crouching when in the vicinity of helicopters – remember
to look where you are walking – even when crouched over.
• Never raise anything above your head.

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• Carry tools low to the ground – never upright or resting on your shoulder.
• Never throw anything in the vicinity of a helicopter – objects striking the rotors
will damage the helicopter and can become dangerous projectiles.
• Walk – don’t run when working around helicopters.

• Keep motor vehicles well back from helicopters and keep dogs and animals
tied when helicopters are landing or taking-off.

Helicopter Bucketing Safety

Bucketing operations often take place in relative close proximity to ground
operations. This creates a potentially hazardous situation. It is important to
ensure separation between the bucketing operation and ground operations.
• Firefighters must be alert during
bucketing operations
• Firefighters must stay clear of the
drop zone- the impact of retardant
or water can cause injury if it
strikes a person on the ground.
• There is a risk of accidental release
of the entire bucket assembly,
which can cause serious injury if it
strikes a person on the ground
• Out-of control buckets, or rotor
wash can topple ‘widow makers’ or
unstable trees on to firefighters
below.
• Rotor wash may increase fire
activity following bucketing drops-
creating fire entrapment situations.

Helicopter Long-line Safety

Helicopters are commonly used to pick-up, transport and deliver equipment and
supplies, using a system of hanging loads on a line below the helicopter.
• Only trained personnel should be involved in hooking and hooking these
loads.
• Always keep a safe distance from these operations.
• Be aware that these loads can be accidentally released at any time
• Uncontrolled loads or rotor wash can topple widow makers or unstable
trees onto firefighters below

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13. FIRELINE AIRCRAFT (FIXED WING)

Section Learning Objectives:

Upon completion of this section, the participant will demonstrate a basic
understanding and knowledge of safe work practices used when working with
fixed wing air tankers on the fireline.

Airtankers in British Columbia

The BC Forest service relies heavily on a fleet of fixed-wing airtankers as part of
it’s fire suppression capability. All of the airtankers in British Columbia are land-
based and configured to deliver long term retardant, with the exception of the
Martin Mars amphibious aircraft (privately owned and based out of central
Vancouver Island), which is capable of scooping water out of large water bodies
and delivering it to the fire.
The land-based airtanker fleet consists of several different aircraft types which
can carry a wide range in volume of retardant. They are very effective in fire
fighting, but fire-fighters can be killed or injured if they get caught in a drop zone.
In addition, the retardant is very slippery and can result in injuries if extreme
caution is not used.

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Drop Notification
The incident commander and the aircraft may be in radio contact, in which case
you will be told when the tanker(s) is coming in for a drop. Additional steps are
also taken to notify ground crews of impending drops:

Air tankers are usually (but not always) preceded by a smaller lead plane (bird-
dog) over the drop zone. The bird-dog plane will make a pass following the flight
path of the drop and use it’s PA system to warn fire fighters of an impending
aerial drop and completion of the drop as follows:

Drop Warning - Warbler (yelping sound)

Warns of an impending drop. Clear the area and take cover.
To move safely out of the drop zone, walk, don’t run, to a location at right angles
to the drop path about 100 feet away from the target. Get clear of dead snags,
rocks or other materials that may be dislodged by the drop, especially if you are
downhill. Stay clear of powerlines and poles.
If you are caught by surprise in a drop zone- place your hand tools to the side,
behind or downhill from your body. Lie on the ground, face down, hard hat on,
with your body facing the approaching plane. Grasp something firm to prevent
being carried or rolled around. If you do get covered with retardant, keep it out of
your eyes.

All Clear- Siren

Indicates all clear, return to normal activities.

Single Airtanker (No Birddog)

If the tanker is alone, they will also make one pass, following the flight path of the
drop, before dropping.

Airtanker Effectiveness
Retardant dropped from an aircraft will rarely work as a fireline by itself, nor will it
stop a hot moving fire. Typically, it is used on spot fires, small fires and hot spots
along the edge of larger fires in order to cool them down so that you, as a fire
fighter, can keep building the line. It is important that fire fighters keep working
after a retardant drop, if a hot spot rekindles or the fire gets away, the drop was
wasted.

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14. WILDLAND/URBAN INTERFACE SAFETY

Section Learning Objectives:

Upon completion of this section, the participant will demonstrate a basic
understanding of fireline heavy equipment through knowledge of:
1. What a wildland/urban interface fire is
2. Structure triage priorities and factors
3. Six main hazards to firefighter safety specific to the wildland/urban interface
4. Basic Sprinkler set-up and structure preparation

A wildland/urban interface fire (interface fire) can ignite within a building and
spread to nearby forests, or spread from burning vegetation to ignite homes,
communities, or commercial structures. From the perspective of fire suppression
and safety, wildland/urban interface fires are not simply wildfires and structure
fires combined; they present challenges and safety concerns to fire fighters,
unique to these types of fires.
As a wildland firefighter, you must recognize that you are not trained, or equipped
to suppress structural fires and therefore will not engage in suppressing burning
structures. You may, however, be required to suppress wildland fires burning
near structures, or help prepare structures before the fire arrives. Therefore you
must be aware of the basic principles of structure triage, site prep and firefighter
safety in the interface.

Structure Triage
On interface fires, trained personnel will evaluate and triage structures into the
following priorities:
1. Needing little or no attention
2. Threatened, but have potential for being saved
3. Hopeless or too dangerous to protect

Factors That Affect the Triage Decision

1. Firefighter safety
2. Structure Characteristics
3. Surrounding Fuels
4. Fire Behaviour
5. Available Resources

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Firefighter Safety in the WUI

Access
When responding to interface fires keep in mind that narrow or congested road
access with oncoming fleeing residents and poor visibility will create hazardous
driving conditions.
• Some residential street bridges may not be engineered for heavy truck
(engines, water tenders) or equipment (bull-dozers, skidders, excavators)
• Remember that driveways and residential streets may not have adequate
turn-around space for your vehicle. Always back your vehicle in.

Power Lines
Power Line Hazards - Overhead powerlines pose
several threats to firefighters. The risk of
electrocution from downed lines is the most obvious.
A more insidious risk comes from electrical current
transferred through smoke, a risk that may not be as
obvious as a downed wire, but can be just as
deadly.
Utility companies should be contacted immediately
to deactivate any power lines in the fire area that
may endanger firefighters. Identify electrical lines
and hazards and notify your crew leader
Firefighter safety briefings should review safe
work procedures for firefighting near
powerlines:
• DON'T park under power lines.
• DON'T direct nozzle streams onto power lines.
• DON'T stand near power lines during retardant drops.
• DON'T stand or work in dense smoke near power lines.
• DON'T go near or move downed power lines - stay at least 30 metres
away - even deactivated power lines may continue to pose a hazard due
to induction.
• Stay away from any downed powerline, exposed underground cable or
where there has been contact with an overhead powerline.
• DON'T fuel vehicles under power lines.
• DON'T drive under power lines with long antennas.
• Minimize operation of heavy equipment under power lines.

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If a power line falls on your vehicle:

• DON'T leave vehicle until the power company arrives.
• If the vehicle is on fire or fire is near, jump clear without touching the
vehicle.
• DON'T hang on, keep feet together and bunny hop away (keeping your
feet together at all times), or shuffle your feet (making sure your shoes
touch each other at all times).
• If you fall stay down and roll away, keeping your arms and legs together.
• DON’T return to the vehicle or turn around to close the vehicle door.

Propane and Natural Gas Hazard

Propane tanks and natural gas lines are found in
many interface areas, and can become an
explosive hazard when they are burned over, or
when they are damaged by equipment used in the
suppression effort.
Propane: Most rural structures have a propane
tank. Firefighters should be on the lookout for propane tanks, especially in areas
of heavy smoke. Ideally, residents will have located propane tanks a minimum of
10 metres from the structure and maintained a fuel free surrounding adjacent the
tank.

Fire impingement on the tank will vary with the type of fuels located adjacent the
tank.
• Where fuels are light and burn out rapidly (eg. dry grass) danger to the
propane tank is minimal.
• Where fuels are heavier and will burn hot and for extended periods (eg.
structures or firewood piles) danger to the propane tank is significant.

Firefighter safety briefings should review safe work procedures for

firefighting near propane installations:
• Clear out fuels within 10 metres of propane
tanks where fuels can be moved easily.
• Where propane tanks have been under low
levels of fire impingement for brief periods –
extinguish the fire where possible and
continue to cool the tank.
• Where propane tanks have been under heavy
fire impingement for longer or indeterminate periods of time - evacuate the
area inform your crew leader immediately and move to safe ground.
• Recommended distance for safety from pressurized gas tank explosions is
1,000 metres. Attempt to evacuate uphill and upwind from the installation.

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• Your crew leader will inform the Air Attack Officer or any aircraft operating
on the incident of the potential hazard.

Firefighters can protect propane tanks from fire impingement in some

situations:
• Protect uninvolved propane tanks from radiated heat by the application of
water spray.
• If it becomes necessary to withdraw from the area, firefighters may
consider lashing nozzles into place for continued cooling of the propane
tank during the firefighters retreat.
Natural Gas: If natural gas lines are located in areas threatened by interface fire
the Incident Commander should contact the gas utility company and request to
shut down gas service to the area affected.
Gas transmitted to an individual structure can be shut off at the meter if
accessible. If the structure becomes fully involved there is little that you can do.
Wait for the appropriate authorities to deal with it. Firefighters should be aware
that it is safer to have a gas supply burning than to have a gas cloud. Do not
extinguish gas flames. A gas cloud could become an even bigger problem.

H2S – Hydrogen Sulphide Gas

In the wildland urban interface fire environment, you may be
near oil and gas installations. The oil and gas or geophysical
industry is common in the northeast corner of BC. One of the
most prominent potential hazards from this industry is
exposure to hydrogen sulphide gas (H2S or “Sour” gas).
H2S is a deadly, colorless gas that smells like rotten eggs in low concentrations
(1 – 2 ppm). H2S gas is heavier than air, so it sinks to low spots such as well
sites and pits. Exposure to this gas can be fatal at concentrations of 100 ppm
(lethal exposure concentrations will not be smelled).
Avoidance is the best protection from H2S exposure. Interface supervisors must
follow safe work procedures such as – BC Forest Service Operational Safe Work
Standard #8- Hydrogen Sulphide and Geophysical Operations- for H2S gas
detection and avoidance when conducting fire suppression operations in areas
subject to gas H2S hazard.

Vehicle fires
Vehicles on site or abandoned during evacuation
may catch fire, posing a hazard from the
increased fire intensity when gas tanks rupture or
melt, and from the toxic smoke they generate.
Firefighting efforts should concentrate on limiting
fire spread to adjacent areas, as required.

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Firefighter safety briefings should review safe work procedures for

firefighting near vehicle fires:
• Stay upwind, uphill, and avoid breathing smoke.
• DON’T – attempt vehicle firefighting without full structural firefighting PPE
and specific training.
• Never stand in front of the shock absorbing bumpers on newer vehicles as
they may explode.
• If the fire is in the vehicles interior, windows can be blown out. Tires may
catch on fire and rupture with an explosive sound.
• Vehicles may have hazards such as auxiliary fuel or propane tanks and
explosives.

Suspected Hazardous Materials

Hazardous materials are commonly found in many interface areas. When they
burn, hazardous materials are often highly toxic.
Hazardous materials include: pesticides,
explosives, solvents, garden/farm chemicals and
ammunition.
Consider all interface responses as incidents with
potential hazardous material exposure threat.
Fires in barns and storage sheds should not be
approached without appropriate respiratory
protection. Explosives, such as dynamite or
gunpowder, are often found in intermix areas.
Any indication of explosives should be viewed as
an extreme risk.
Most interface firefighters will not be trained or equipped to identify and deal with
hazardous materials, your primary responsibility is to prevent yourself and others
from being adversely affected or injured.
If you encounter what you suspect may be hazardous materials-take the
following precautions:
• Stay upwind, uphill, and avoid breathing smoke.
• Isolate the area - deny entry.
• Warn others in the immediate vicinity.
• Notify your immediate supervisor of the potential problem - hazardous
material specialists can be brought in to evaluate and deal with the
problem.
• Unless properly trained and equipped, do not get involved.

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Sprinklers in Structure Protection

Basic Guidelines:
• normally four to eight sprinklers are used per house, depending on its
size, type of construction type, decks, etc,
• hose — a 1 ½ inch and 5/8 inch nylon hose will be required.
• pumps — the distance, topography, and type of sprinklers used will affect
the number of pumps you will need. Mark III pumps will effectively
operate only a certain number of sprinklers. A safe number to use is 10
heads if using Rainbird sprinklers, and 20–40 heads if using Sun Mate.
Both should have 800–1000 feet of hose. Avoid using pumps that have to
be re-fueled hourly,
• fuel — two tanks for each pump,
• relay tanks will be required for areas that do not have a water supply,
• chainsaw and axes will be required for fuel modification or notching poles,
• hammer, double headed nails, duct tape, bailing wire should also be
included, and
• tarps and plastic bags or pails will be required to protect items or areas
from water damage or from airborne embers, and to cover chimney and
other vent openings.

Site Preparation Tips

• removing wood piled against any structure,
• scattering wood piles that may pose a threat,
• remove propane tanks if possible, and flammable products,
• remove other values, R/Vs and ATVs, livestock, etc.,
• advise the owner to keep the house blinds closed,
• leave any items outside that will assist with sprinkler setup; i.e., ladders,
• shut off propane valves,
• turn off electrical power, and
• remove fuels next to structures (get permission to fell trees in yard).

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Equipment Setup
There is no set way to install sprinklers since structures can vary significantly.
The basic idea of using a sprinkler system is to wet flammable fuels on and
around the structure(s) to where they cannot ignite. Remember, however, that
hot, dry, windy days can prevent sprinklers from doing their job. Sprinklers do not
aerate foam well, so water is often your best option. Also, foam is corrosive and
may affect the metal finish on homes. Remember that water and foam will make
wood swell and warp, which can result in cracking and shifting.
Depending on the construction material, sprinklers on the roof may not be
required; however, sprinklers placed at this height will be able to cover additional
distance in wetting the surrounding area. Water needs to get into areas that were
not designed to shed water; i.e., under decks and houses. Pay particular
attention to overhangs and alcoves, since these areas may require special
consideration when positioning sprinkler heads.
Sprinkler placement will vary depending on the complexity of the structure.
Consider your options and what you have to work with, and be creative in setting
up the sprinklers (within reason). Before you install the sprinkler heads, check
them to make sure they move freely.
Generally you will start with the roof, where you need to place sprinklers on the
roof peaks at each end of the structure. Use double-headed nails so the
sprinklers can be removed
easily later on. Poles can also
be used to support the
sprinklers. To do this, cut an X
into the end of the pole with a
chainsaw, and then insert the
spike of the sprinkler into the
end of the pole. Place the pole
against the wall of the house
and wire-wrap the pole to the
eaves trough.
While you are on the roof,
cover the chimney openings,
vents, etc., and plug the eave
trough drain so the water will
fill them and run over the sides.
Be aware of 90 degree kinks in
the 5/8 inch nylon hose. If this
occurs, use a 90-degree
elbow/adapter to allow the
water to flow more easily.

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When installing sprinklers in other places, remember that the spray distance will
be governed by the arc of the sprinkler. For this reason, sprinklers should be
placed four to eight feet off the ground to increase the spray distance. Again you
can notch poles or stumps and insert the spike of the sprinkler, or use wire or
duct tape to attach the sprinkler to free-standing ladders, swingset, trees or
fence. Try to keep sprinklers as vertical as possible as they are designed to
operate more effectively this way. The more off vertical the sprinkler is, the less
likely the trip arm will operate as designed
Remember, all sprinklers must be set up in a “closed loop” configuration to
ensure water pressure is maintained to each one. The main loop is 1½ inch hose
with 5/8 inch hose supplying the sprinklers. Run an“S” shape loop in the hoses to
take out any excess length of hose between sprinklers. There should be no more
than two sprinklers supplied off each thief, and only one of the two should lead to
the roof so the water pressure to each sprinkler is not decreased significantly.

Remember to keep direct attack capabilities in place by placing a three-way

valve with hose and nozzle into the hose lay. Once the fire has passed and the
smoke clears (which can be a considerable amount of time), firefighters can still
use the hose to direct water onto the structure.

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15. WHMIS & TDG

Section Learning Objectives:

Upon completion of this section, the participant will demonstrate a basic
understanding and recognition that additional training is required in:
• WHMIS, to recognize and safely work with hazardous materials in the
workplace
• TDG, to safely handle and transport dangerous goods, while complying
with Transportation of Dangerous Goods regulations

In the course of their duties, wildland firefighters will work with a number of
different classes of hazardous materials as well as being responsible for
transporting dangerous goods by ground and air.
To ensure that workers (firefighters) are provided with the appropriate information
to safely work around hazardous materials, the Workplace Hazardous Material
Information System (WHMIS) was developed.
To ensure that dangerous goods are safely transported by ground or air,
Transport Canada requires that Transportation of Dangerous Goods (TDG)
training is required for all workers transporting dangerous goods (pump gas,
helicopter fuel, drip torch fuel).

Firefighters should have the appropriate training in both these systems to comply
with regulations and ensure the safety of fire personnel, the public and the
environment.

Workplace Hazardous Material Information System (WHMIS)

WHMIS is an information system that ensures you know about hazardous
materials (controlled products) in your workplace.

WHMIS provides workers with information in three different ways:

1. Labels
2. Material Safety Data Sheet
3. Training requirements

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WHMIS covers six broad types, or classes of hazardous materials which are
lettered A through F. Divisions are provided in some classes to separate different
groups of hazardous materials within a class. Symbols are used for these
different types of hazardous materials as follows:

CLASS A: COMPRESSED GAS. Class D, Division 2: Materials Causing

This class includes compressed gases, Other Toxic Effects. This division covers
dissolved gases and gases liquefied by materials which cause immediate skin or
compression or refrigeration. Examples: eye irritation as well as those which can
gas cylinders for oxyacetylene welding or cause long-term effects in a person repeatedly
water disinfection. exposed to small amounts. Example acetone
(irritant), asbestos (cancer causing), toluene
diisocynanate (a sensitizing agent).

CLASS B: FLAMMABLE AND Class D, Division 3: Biohazardous

COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL. Solids, Infectious Material. This division applies to
liquids and gases capable of catching fire materials which contain harmful micro-
or exploding in the presence of a source of organisms. Example: cultures or diagnostic
ignition. Examples: white phosphorus, specimens containing salmonella bacteria
acetone and butane. Flammable liquids or the hepatitis B virus.
such as acetone are more easily ignited
than combustible liquids such as kerosene.

CLASS C: OXIDIZING MATERIAL CLASS E: CORROSIVE MATERIAL

Materials which provide oxygen or similar Acid or caustic materials which can destroy
substance and which increase the risk of the skin or eat through metals. Examples:
fire if they come in contact with flammable muriatic acid, lye..
or combustible materials. Examples: sodium
hypochlorite, perchloric acid, inorganic
peroxides.

CLASS D: POISONOUS AND CLASS F: DANGEROUSLY REACTIVE

INFECTIOUS MATERIALS MATERIAL. Products which can undergo
Class D, Division 1: Materials Causing dangerous reaction if subjected to heat,
Immediate and Serious Toxic Effects. This pressure, shock or allowed to contact water.
division covers materials which can cause Examples: plastic monomers such as
the death of a person exposed to small butadiene and some cyanides.
amounts. Examples: sodium cyanide,
hydrogen sulphide.

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Transportation of Dangerous Goods (TDG)

The Transportation of Dangerous Goods regulations were written to ensure that
the proper information is provided to people who handle, offer for transport or
transport dangerous goods, as well a people who respond to emergencies
involving dangerous goods.

Training and Certification

Under the Transportation of Dangerous Goods Regulations, anyone who
handles, offers for transport or transports dangerous goods must be trained and
certified.
The certificate of training is issued by your employer and is valid for 3 years- if
you change employers, a new certificate must be issued by your new employer.
You must carry your certificate at all times.

Classifications of Dangerous Goods

There are 9 classes of dangerous goods:
Class 1- Explosives

Class 2- Gases

Class 3- Flammable Liquids

Class 4- Flammable Solids, Spontaneously Combustibles and Substances that,

on contact with water, emit flammable gases

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Class 5- Oxidizing substances and Organic Peroxides

Class 6- Poisonous (toxic) and Infectious substances

Class 7 Radioactive materials

Class 8 Corrosives

Class 9 Miscellaneous products or substances

- miscellaneous identified dangerous goods

- certain specified goods considered dangerous to the environment
- dangerous wastes

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