Flood

Urban flooding in a street in Morpeth, England

A flood is an overflow of water (or rarely other fluids) that submerges land that is
usually dry.[1] In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow
of the tide. Floods are an area of study of the discipline hydrology and are of significant
concern in agriculture, civil engineering and public health. Human changes to the
environment often increase the intensity and frequency of flooding, for example land
use changes such as deforestation and removal of wetlands, changes in waterway
course or flood controls such as with levees, and larger environmental issues such
as climate change and sea level rise. In particular climate change's increased
rainfall and extreme weather events increases the severity of other causes for flooding,
resulting in more intense floods and increased flood risk.[2][3]
Flooding may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies, such as a river, lake, or
ocean, in which the water overtops or breaks levees, resulting in some of that water
escaping its usual boundaries,[4] or it may occur due to an accumulation of rainwater on
saturated ground in an areal flood. While the size of a lake or other body of water will
vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt, these changes in size are
unlikely to be considered significant unless they flood property or drown domestic
animals.
Floods can also occur in rivers when the flow rate exceeds the capacity of the river
channel, particularly at bends or meanders in the waterway. Floods often cause
damage to homes and businesses if they are in the natural flood plains of rivers. While
riverine flood damage can be eliminated by moving away from rivers and other bodies
of water, people have traditionally lived and worked by rivers because the land is
usually flat and fertile and because rivers provide easy travel and access to commerce
and industry. Flooding can lead to secondary consequences in addition to damage to
property, such as long-term displacement of residents and creating increased spread
of waterborne diseases and vector-bourne disesases transmitted by mosquitos.[5]
Types

View of flooded New Orleans in the aftermath

of Hurricane Katrina. Flooding of a creek due to

heavy monsoonal rain and high tide in Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia.

Flood in Jeddah, covering the King Abdullah Street

in Saudi Arabia.
Areal

In spring time, the floods are quite typical

in Ostrobothnia, a flat-lying area in Finland. A flood-surrounded house in Ilmajoki, South
Ostrobothnia.
Floods can happen on flat or low-lying areas when water is supplied by rainfall or
snowmelt more rapidly than it can either infiltrate or run off. The excess accumulates in
place, sometimes to hazardous depths. Surface soil can become saturated, which
effectively stops infiltration, where the water table is shallow, such as a floodplain, or
from intense rain from one or a series of storms. Infiltration also is slow to negligible
through frozen ground, rock, concrete, paving, or roofs. Areal flooding begins in flat
areas like floodplains and in local depressions not connected to a stream channel,
because the velocity of overland flow depends on the surface slope. Endorheic
basins may experience areal flooding during periods when precipitation exceeds
evaporation.[6]
River flooding
Floods occur in all types of river and stream channels, from the smallest ephemeral
streams in humid zones to normally-dry channels in arid climates to the world's
largest rivers. When overland flow occurs on tilled fields, it can result in a muddy
flood where sediments are picked up by run off and carried as suspended matter or bed
load. Localized flooding may be caused or exacerbated by drainage obstructions such
as landslides, ice, debris, or beaver dams.
Slow-rising floods most commonly occur in large rivers with large catchment areas. The
increase in flow may be the result of sustained rainfall, rapid snow melt, monsoons,
or tropical cyclones. However, large rivers may have rapid flooding events in areas with
dry climates, since they may have large basins but small river channels, and rainfall can
be very intense in smaller areas of those basins.

Flash flood in Ein Avdat, Negev, Israel

Rapid flooding events, including flash floods, more often occur on smaller rivers, rivers
with steep valleys, rivers that flow for much of their length over impermeable terrain, or
normally-dry channels. The cause may be localized convective
precipitation (intense thunderstorms) or sudden release from an upstream impoundment
created behind a dam, landslide, or glacier. In one instance, a flash flood killed eight
people enjoying the water on a Sunday afternoon at a popular waterfall in a narrow
canyon. Without any observed rainfall, the flow rate increased from about 50 to 1,500
cubic feet per second (1.4 to 42 m3/s) in just one minute.[7] Two larger floods occurred at
the same site within a week, but no one was at the waterfall on those days. The deadly
flood resulted from a thunderstorm over part of the drainage basin, where steep, bare
rock slopes are common and the thin soil was already saturated.
Flash floods are the most common flood type in normally-dry channels in arid zones,
known as arroyos in the southwest United States and many other names elsewhere. In
that setting, the first flood water to arrive is depleted as it wets the sandy stream bed.
The leading edge of the flood thus advances more slowly than later and higher flows. As
a result, the rising limb of the hydrograph becomes ever quicker as the flood moves
downstream, until the flow rate is so great that the depletion by wetting soil becomes
insignificant.
Coastal flooding
Coastal areas may be flooded by storm surges combining with high tides and large
wave events at sea, resulting in waves over-topping flood defenses or in severe cases
by tsunami or tropical cyclones. A storm surge, from either a tropical cyclone or
an extratropical cyclone, falls within this category. A storm surge is "an additional rise of
water generated by a storm, over and above the predicted astronomical tides". [8] Due to
the effects of climate change (e.g. sea level rise and an increase in extreme
weather events) and an increase in the population living in coastal areas, the damage
caused by coastal flood events has intensified and more people are being affected.[9]
Flooding in estuaries is commonly caused by a combination of storm surges caused
by winds and low barometric pressure and large waves meeting high upstream river
flows.
Urban flooding

Flooding on Water Street in Toledo, Ohio, 1881

Urban flooding is the inundation of land or property in a built environment, particularly in
more densely populated areas, caused by rainfall overwhelming the capacity of
drainage systems, such as storm sewers. Urban flooding is a condition that is
characterized by its repetitive and systemic impacts on communities, that can happen
regardless of whether or not affected communities are located within designated
floodplains or near any body of water.[10] It is triggered for example by an overflow of
rivers and lakes, flash flooding or snowmelt. During the flood, stormwater or water
released from damaged water mains may accumulate on property and in public rights-
of-way, seep through building walls and floors, or backup into buildings through sewer
pipes, toilets and sinks.
In urban areas, flood effects can be exacerbated by existing paved streets and roads,
which increase the speed of flowing water. Impervious surfaces prevent rainfall from
infiltrating into the ground, thereby causing a higher surface run-off that may be in
excess of local drainage capacity.[11]
Catastrophic
Catastrophic riverine flooding can result from major infrastructure failures, often
the collapse of a dam. It can also be caused by drainage channel modification from
a landslide, earthquake or volcanic eruption. Examples include outburst
floods and lahars. Tsunamis can cause catastrophic coastal flooding, most commonly
resulting from undersea earthquakes.
Causes

Flood due to Cyclone Hudhud in Visakhapatnam

Floods are caused by many factors or a combination of any of these generally
prolonged heavy rainfall (locally concentrated or throughout a catchment area), highly
accelerated snowmelt, severe winds over water, unusual high tides, tsunamis, or failure
of dams, levees, retention ponds, or other structures that retained the water. Flooding
can be exacerbated by increased amounts of impervious surface or by other natural
hazards such as wildfires, which reduce the supply of vegetation that can absorb
rainfall.
During times of rain, some of the water is retained in ponds or soil, some is absorbed by
grass and vegetation, some evaporates, and the rest travels over the land as surface
runoff. Floods occur when ponds, lakes, riverbeds, soil, and vegetation cannot absorb
all the water.
This has been exacerbated by human activities such as draining wetlands that naturally
store large amounts of water and building paved surfaces that do not absorb any water.
[12]
Water then runs off the land in quantities that cannot be carried within stream
channels or retained in natural ponds, lakes, and human-made reservoirs. About 30
percent of all precipitation becomes runoff[13] and that amount might be increased by
water from melting snow.
River flooding is often caused by heavy rain, sometimes increased by melting snow. A
flood that rises rapidly, with little or no warning, is called a flash flood. Flash floods
usually result from intense rainfall over a relatively small area, or if the area was already
saturated from previous precipitation.
Periodic floods occur on many rivers, forming a surrounding region known as the flood
plain. Even when rainfall is relatively light, the shorelines of lakes and bays can be
flooded by severe winds—such as during hurricanes—that blow water into the shore
areas.
Upslope factors
The amount, location, and timing of water reaching a drainage channel from natural
precipitation and controlled or uncontrolled reservoir releases determines the flow at
downstream locations. Some precipitation evaporates, some slowly percolates through
soil, some may be temporarily sequestered as snow or ice, and some may produce
rapid runoff from surfaces including rock, pavement, roofs, and saturated or frozen
ground. The fraction of incident precipitation promptly reaching a drainage channel has
been observed from nil for light rain on dry, level ground to as high as 170 percent for
warm rain on accumulated snow.[14]
Most precipitation records are based on a measured depth of water received within a
fixed time interval. Frequency of a precipitation threshold of interest may be determined
from the number of measurements exceeding that threshold value within the total time
period for which observations are available. Individual data points are converted
to intensity by dividing each measured depth by the period of time between
observations. This intensity will be less than the actual peak intensity if the duration of
the rainfall event was less than the fixed time interval for which measurements are
reported. Convective precipitation events (thunderstorms) tend to produce shorter
duration storm events than orographic precipitation. Duration, intensity, and frequency
of rainfall events are important to flood prediction. Short duration precipitation is more
significant to flooding within small drainage basins.[15]
The most important upslope factor in determining flood magnitude is the land area of
the watershed upstream of the area of interest. Rainfall intensity is the second most
important factor for watersheds of less than approximately 30 square miles or 80 square
kilometres. The main channel slope is the second most important factor for larger
watersheds. Channel slope and rainfall intensity become the third most important
factors for small and large watersheds, respectively.[16]
Time of Concentration is the time required for runoff from the most distant point of the
upstream drainage area to reach the point of the drainage channel controlling flooding
of the area of interest. The time of concentration defines the critical duration of peak
rainfall for the area of interest.[17] The critical duration of intense rainfall might be only a
few minutes for roof and parking lot drainage structures, while cumulative rainfall over
several days would be critical for river basins.
Downslope factors
Water flowing downhill ultimately encounters downstream conditions slowing
movement. The final limitation in coastal flooding lands is often the ocean or some
coastal flooding bars which form natural lakes. In flooding low lands, elevation changes
such as tidal fluctuations are significant determinants of coastal and estuarine flooding.
Less predictable events like tsunamis and storm surges may also cause elevation
changes in large bodies of water. Elevation of flowing water is controlled by the
geometry of the flow channel and, especially, by depth of channel, speed of flow and
amount of sediments in it[16] Flow channel restrictions like bridges and canyons tend to
control water elevation above the restriction. The actual control point for any given
reach of the drainage may change with changing water elevation, so a closer point may
control for lower water levels until a more distant point controls at higher water levels.
Effective flood channel geometry may be changed by growth of vegetation,
accumulation of ice or debris, or construction of bridges, buildings, or levees within the
flood channel.
Coincidence
Extreme flood events often result from coincidence such as unusually intense, warm
rainfall melting heavy snow pack, producing channel obstructions from floating ice, and
releasing small impoundments like beaver dams.[18] Coincident events may cause
extensive flooding to be more frequent than anticipated from simplistic statistical
prediction models considering only precipitation runoff flowing within unobstructed
drainage channels.[19] Debris modification of channel geometry is common when heavy
flows move uprooted woody vegetation and flood-damaged structures and vehicles,
including boats and railway equipment. Recent field measurements during the 2010–11
Queensland floods showed that any criterion solely based upon the flow velocity, water
depth or specific momentum cannot account for the hazards caused by velocity and
water depth fluctuations.[20] These considerations ignore further the risks associated with
large debris entrained by the flow motion.[21]
Some researchers have mentioned the storage effect in urban areas with transportation
corridors created by cut and fill. Culverted fills may be converted to impoundments if
the culverts become blocked by debris, and flow may be diverted along streets. Several
studies have looked into the flow patterns and redistribution in streets during storm
events and the implication on flood modelling.[22]
Climate change

High tide flooding is increasing due to sea level rise, land subsidence, and the loss of natural barriers.[23]
Long-term sea level rise occurs in addition to intermittent tidal flooding. NOAA predicts different levels of sea
level rise for coastlines within a single country.[24]

Due to an increase in heavy rainfall events, floods are likely to become more severe
when they do occur.[25]: 1155 The interactions between rainfall and flooding are complex.
There are some regions in which flooding is expected to become rarer. This depends on
several factors. These include changes in rain and snowmelt, but also soil moisture.[25]:
1156
Climate change leaves soils drier in some areas, so they may absorb rainfall more
quickly. This leads to less flooding. Dry soils can also become harder. In this case
heavy rainfall runs off into rivers and lakes. This increases risks of flooding.[25]: 1155
Intentional flooding
The intentional flooding of land that would otherwise remain dry may take place for
military, agricultural, or river-management purposes. This is a form of hydraulic
engineering.
Agricultural flooding may occur in preparing paddy fields for the growing of semi-aquatic
rice in many countries.

Chinese Kuomintang soldiers during the 1938 Yellow

River flood
Flooding for river management may occur in the form of diverting flood waters in a river
at flood stage upstream from areas that are considered more valuable than the areas
that are sacrificed in this way. This may be done ad hoc, as in the 2011 intentional
breach of levees by the United States Army Corps of Engineers in Missouri,[26] or
permanently, as in the so-called overlaten (literally "let-overs"), an intentionally lowered
segment in Dutch riparian levees, like the Beerse Overlaat in the left levee of
the Meuse between the villages of Gassel and Linden, North Brabant.
Military inundation creates an obstacle in the field that is intended to impede the
movement of the enemy.[27] This may be done both
for offensive and defensive purposes. Furthermore, in so far as the methods used are a
form of hydraulic engineering, it may be useful to differentiate
between controlled inundations (as in most historic inundations in the Netherlands
under the Dutch Republic and its successor states in that area[28][29] and exemplified in the
two Hollandic Water Lines, the Stelling van Amsterdam, the Frisian Water Line,
the IJssel Line, the Peel-Raam Line, and the Grebbe line in that country)
and uncontrolled ones (as in the second Siege of Leiden[30] during the first part of
the Eighty Years' War, the flooding of the Yser plain during the First World War,[31] and
the Inundation of Walcheren, and the Inundation of the Wieringermeer during
the Second World War). To count as controlled, a military inundation has to take the
interests of the civilian population into account, by allowing them a timely evacuation, by
making the inundation reversible, and by making an attempt to minimize the
adverse ecological impact of the inundation. That impact may also be adverse in
a hydrogeological sense if the inundation lasts a long time.[32]
The Itaipu dam caused concern that in times of conflict could be used as a weapon to
flood Buenos Aires.[33][34][35][36]
Negative impacts

Flooded walnut orchards in Butte County after several

atmospheric rivers hit California in early 2023
Floods can also be a huge destructive power. When water flows, it has the ability to
demolish all kinds of buildings and objects, such as bridges, structures, houses, trees,
and cars. Economical, social and natural environmental damages are common factors
that are impacted by flooding events and the impacts that flooding has on these areas
can be catastrophic.[37]
There have been numerous flood incidents around the world which have caused
devastating damage to infrastructure, the natural environment and human life. [37] Flood
risks can be defined as the risk that floods pose to individuals, property and the natural
landscape based on specific hazards and vulnerability. The extent of flood risks can
impact the types of mitigation strategies required and implemented.[38]
Floods can have devastating impacts to human societies. Flooding events worldwide
are increasing in frequency and severity, leading to increasing costs to societies.[37] A
large amount of the world's population lives in close proximity to major coastlines,
[39]
while many major cities and agricultural areas are located near floodplains.[40] There is
significant risk for increased coastal and fluvial flooding due to changing climatic
conditions.[41]

Economic impacts
The primary effects of flooding include loss of life and damage to buildings and other
structures, including bridges, sewerage systems, roadways, and canals. The economic
impacts caused by flooding can be severe.[40]
Every year flooding causes countries billions of dollars worth of damage that threatens
the livelihood of individuals.[42] As a result, there is also significant socio-economic
threats to vulnerable populations around the world from flooding.[42] For example, in
Bangladesh in 2007, a flood was responsible for the destruction of more than one
million houses. And yearly in the United States, floods cause over $7 billion in damage.
[43]

Mud was deposited in this house by flooding in the 2018

Kerala floods in India. Flooding not only creates water damage, but can also deposit
large amounts of sediment.
Flood waters typically inundate farm land, making the land unworkable and preventing
crops from being planted or harvested, which can lead to shortages of food both for
humans and farm animals. Entire harvests for a country can be lost in extreme flood
circumstances. Some tree species may not survive prolonged flooding of their root
systems.[44]
Flooding in areas where people live also has significant economic implications for
affected neighborhoods. In the United States, industry experts estimate that wet
basements can lower property values by 10–25 percent and are cited among the top
reasons for not purchasing a home.[45] According to the U.S. Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA), almost 40 percent of small businesses never reopen
their doors following a flooding disaster.[46] In the United States, insurance is available
against flood damage to both homes and businesses.[47]
Economic hardship due to a temporary decline in tourism, rebuilding costs, or food
shortages leading to price increases is a common after-effect of severe flooding. The
impact on those affected may cause psychological damage to those affected, in
particular where deaths, serious injuries and loss of property occur.

Health impacts
 Coastal flooding in a community in Florida,

United States. Flooding after 1991 Bangladesh cyclone,

which killed around 140,000 people.
Fatalities connected directly to floods are usually caused by drowning; the waters in a
flood are very deep and have strong currents.[48] Deaths do not just occur from drowning,
deaths are connected with dehydration, heat stroke, heart attack and any
other illness that needs medical supplies that cannot be delivered.[48]
Injuries can lead to an excessive amount of morbidity when a flood occurs. Injuries are
not isolated to just those who were directly in the flood, rescue teams and even people
delivering supplies can sustain an injury. Injuries can occur anytime during the flood
process; before, during and after.[48] During floods accidents occur with falling debris or
any of the many fast moving objects in the water. After the flood rescue attempts are
where large numbers injuries can occur.[48]
Communicable diseases are increased due to many pathogens and bacteria that are
being transported by the water.There are many waterborne diseases such
as cholera, hepatitis A, hepatitis E and diarrheal diseases, to mention a
few. Gastrointestinal disease and diarrheal diseases are very common due to a lack of
clean water during a flood. Most of clean water supplies are contaminated when
flooding occurs. Hepatitis A and E are common because of the lack of sanitation in the
water and in living quarters depending on where the flood is and how prepared
the community is for a flood.[48]
When floods hit, people lose nearly all their crops, livestock, and food reserves and face
starvation.[49]
Floods also frequently damage power transmission and sometimes power generation,
which then has knock-on effects caused by the loss of power. This includes loss of
drinking water treatment and water supply, which may result in loss of drinking water or
severe water contamination. It may also cause the loss of sewage disposal facilities.
Lack of clean water combined with human sewage in the flood waters raises the risk
of waterborne diseases, which can
include typhoid, giardia, cryptosporidium, cholera and many other diseases depending
upon the location of the flood.
Damage to roads and transport infrastructure may make it difficult to mobilize aid to
those affected or to provide emergency health treatment.
Flooding can cause chronically wet houses, leading to the growth of indoor mold and
resulting in adverse health effects, particularly respiratory symptoms.[50] Respiratory
diseases are a common after the disaster has occurred. This depends on the amount
of water damage and mold that grows after an incident. Research suggests that there
will be an increase of 30–50% in adverse respiratory health outcomes caused by
dampness and mold exposure for those living in coastal and wetland areas. Fungal
contamination in homes is associated with increased allergic rhinitis and asthma.
[51]
Vector borne diseases increase as well due to the increase in still water after the
floods have settled. The diseases that are vector borne are malaria, dengue, West Nile,
and yellow fever.[48] Floods have a huge impact on victims' psychosocial integrity. People
suffer from a wide variety of losses and stress. One of the most treated illness in long-
term health problems are depression caused by the flood and all the tragedy that flows
with one.[48]
Loss of life
Below is a list of the deadliest floods worldwide, showing events with death tolls at or
above 100,000 individuals.

Death toll Event Location Year

2,500,000–
1931 China floods China 1931
3,700,000[52]

900,000–
1887 Yellow River flood China 1887
2,000,000

500,000–
1938 Yellow River flood China 1938
700,000

Banqiao Dam failure, result of Typhoon Nina. Approximately 86,000

231,000 people died from flooding and another 145,000 died during China 1975
subsequent disease.

230,000 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami Indonesia 2004

 Death toll Event Location Year

145,000 1935 Yangtze river flood China 1935

100,000+ St. Felix's flood, storm surge Netherlands 1530

North
100,000 Hanoi and Red River Delta flood 1971
Vietnam

100,000 1911 Yangtze river flood China 1911

Flooding near Key West, Florida, United States

from Hurricane Wilma's storm surge in October 2005.

Flooding in a street of Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil in April 2013.

Minor flooding in a parking lot in Atlanta following heavy

thunderstorms Flash flooding caused by heavy rain falling
in a short amount of time.
Positive impacts (benefits)
Floods (in particular more frequent or smaller floods) can also bring many benefits, such
as recharging ground water, making soil more fertile and increasing nutrients in some
soils. Flood waters provide much needed water resources in arid and semi-arid regions
where precipitation can be very unevenly distributed throughout the year and kills pests
in the farming land. Freshwater floods particularly play an important role in
maintaining ecosystems in river corridors and are a key factor in maintaining
floodplain biodiversity.[53] Flooding can spread nutrients to lakes and rivers, which can
lead to increased biomass and improved fisheries for a few years.
For some fish species, an inundated floodplain may form a highly suitable location
for spawning with few predators and enhanced levels of nutrients or food.[54] Fish, such
as the weather fish, make use of floods in order to reach new habitats. Bird populations
may also profit from the boost in food production caused by flooding.[55]
Flooding can bring benefits, such as making the soil more fertile and providing it with
more nutrients. For this reason, periodic flooding was essential to the well-being of
ancient communities along the Tigris-Euphrates Rivers, the Nile River, the Indus River,
the Ganges and the Yellow River among others.
The viability of hydropower, a renewable source of energy, is also higher in flood prone
regions.
Protections against floods and associated hazards
Flood control
In many countries around the world, waterways prone to floods are often carefully
managed. Defenses such as detention basins, levees,[56] bunds, reservoirs,
and weirs are used to prevent waterways from overflowing their banks. When these
defenses fail, emergency measures such as sandbags or portable inflatable tubes are
often used to try to stem flooding. Coastal flooding has been addressed in portions of
Europe and the Americas with coastal defenses, such as sea walls, beach nourishment,
and barrier islands.
In the riparian zone near rivers and streams, erosion control measures can be taken to
try to slow down or reverse the natural forces that cause many waterways to meander
over long periods of time. Flood controls, such as dams, can be built and maintained
over time to try to reduce the occurrence and severity of floods as well. In the United
States, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers maintains a network of such flood control
dams.
In areas prone to urban flooding, one solution is the repair and expansion of human-
made sewer systems and storm water infrastructure. Another strategy is to reduce
impervious surfaces in streets, parking lots and buildings through natural drainage
channels, porous paving, and wetlands (collectively known as green
infrastructure or sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS)). Areas identified as flood-
prone can be converted into parks and playgrounds that can tolerate occasional
flooding. Ordinances can be adopted to require developers to retain storm water on site
and require buildings to be elevated, protected by floodwalls and levees, or designed to
withstand temporary inundation. Property owners can also invest in solutions
themselves, such as re-landscaping their property to take the flow of water away from
their building and installing rain barrels, sump pumps, and check valves.
In some areas, the presence of certain species (such as beavers) can be beneficial for
flood control reasons. Beavers build and maintain beaver dams which will reduce the
height of flood waves moving down the river (during periods of heavy rains), and will
reduce or eliminate damage to human structures,[57][58] at the cost of minor flooding near
the dams (often on farmland). Besides this, they also boost wildlife populations and filter
pollutants (manure, fertilisers, slurry).[57] UK environment minister Rebecca Pow stated
that in the future the beavers could be considered a "public good" and landowners
would be paid to have them on their land.[59]
Flood risk management

A weir was built on the Humber River

(Ontario) to prevent a recurrence of a catastrophic flood.
Flood control (or flood mitigation or flood protection or flood alleviation) methods are
used to reduce or prevent the detrimental effects of flood waters.[60][61] Flood relief
methods are used to reduce the effects of flood waters or high water levels. Flooding
can be caused by a mix of both natural processes, such as extreme weather upstream,
and human changes to water bodies and runoff. A distinction is made between
structural and non-structural flood control measures. Structural methods physically
restrain the flood waters, whereas non-structural methods do not. Building hard
infrastructure to prevent flooding, such as flood walls, is effective at managing flooding.
However, increased best practice within landscape engineering is to rely more on soft
infrastructure and natural systems, such as marshes and flood plains, for handling the
increase in water. To prevent or manage coastal flooding, coastal
management practices have to handle natural processes like tides but also the human-
caused sea level rise.
Flood control and relief is a particularly important part of climate change
adaptation and climate resilience. Both sea level rise and changes in the weather
(climate change causes more intense and quicker rainfall) mean that flooding of human
infrastructure is particularly important the world over.[62]
In environmental engineering, flood control involves the management of flood water
movement, such as redirecting flood run-off through the use of floodwalls and flood
gates, rather than trying to prevent floods altogether. It also involves the management of
people, through measures such as evacuation and dry/wet proofing properties. The
prevention and mitigation of flooding can be studied on three levels: on individual
properties, small communities, and whole towns or cities.
Flood safety planning

Aftermath of flooding in Colorado, 2013

Flood rescue in Nangarhar, Afghanistan in 2010

In the United States, the National Weather Service gives out the advice "Turn Around,
Don't Drown" for floods; that is, it recommends that people get out of the area of a flood,
rather than trying to cross it. At the most basic level, the best defense against floods is
to seek higher ground for high-value uses while balancing the foreseeable risks with the
benefits of occupying flood hazard zones.[63]: 22–23 Critical community-safety facilities, such
as hospitals, emergency-operations centers, and police, fire, and rescue services,
should be built in areas least at risk of flooding. Structures, such as bridges, that must
unavoidably be in flood hazard areas should be designed to withstand flooding. Areas
most at risk for flooding could be put to valuable uses that could be abandoned
temporarily as people retreat to safer areas when a flood is imminent.
Planning for flood safety involves many aspects of analysis and engineering, including:

 observation of previous and present flood heights and inundated areas,

 statistical, hydrologic, and hydraulic model analyses,
 mapping inundated areas and flood heights for future flood scenarios,
 long-term land use planning and regulation,
 engineering design and construction of structures to control or withstand flooding,
 intermediate-term monitoring, forecasting, and emergency-response planning, and
 short-term monitoring, warning, and response operations.
Each topic presents distinct yet related questions with varying scope and scale in time,
space, and the people involved. Attempts to understand and manage the mechanisms
at work in floodplains have been made for at least six millennia.[64][page needed]
In the United States, the Association of State Floodplain Managers works to promote
education, policies, and activities that mitigate current and future losses, costs, and
human suffering caused by flooding and to protect the natural and beneficial functions
of floodplains – all without causing adverse impacts.[65] A portfolio of best
practice examples for disaster mitigation in the United States is available from the
Federal Emergency Management Agency.[66]
Flood clean-up safety
Clean-up activities following floods often pose hazards to workers and volunteers
involved in the effort. Potential dangers include electrical hazards, carbon
monoxide exposure, musculoskeletal hazards, heat or cold stress, motor vehicle-related
dangers, fire, drowning, and exposure to hazardous materials. Because flooded disaster
sites are unstable, clean-up workers might encounter sharp jagged debris, biological
hazards in the flood water, exposed electrical lines, blood or other body fluids, and
animal and human remains. In planning for and reacting to flood disasters, managers
provide workers with hard hats, goggles, heavy work gloves, life jackets, and watertight
boots with steel toes and insoles.[67]
Flood predictions
Mathematical models and computer tools
A series of annual maximum flow rates in a stream reach can be analyzed statistically to
estimate the 100-year flood and floods of other recurrence intervals there. Similar
estimates from many sites in a hydrologically similar region can be related to
measurable characteristics of each drainage basin to allow indirect estimation of flood
recurrence intervals for stream reaches without sufficient data for direct analysis.
Physical process models of channel reaches are generally well understood and will
calculate the depth and area of inundation for given channel conditions and a specified
flow rate, such as for use in floodplain mapping and flood insurance. Conversely, given
the observed inundation area of a recent flood and the channel conditions, a model can
calculate the flow rate. Applied to various potential channel configurations and flow
rates, a reach model can contribute to selecting an optimum design for a modified
channel. Various reach models are available as of 2015, either 1D models (flood levels
measured in the channel) or 2D models (variable flood depths measured across the
extent of a floodplain). HEC-RAS,[68] the Hydraulic Engineering Center model, is among
the most popular software, if only because it is available free of charge. Other models
such as TUFLOW[69] combine 1D and 2D components to derive flood depths across both
river channels and the entire floodplain.
Physical process models of complete drainage basins are even more complex.
Although many processes are well understood at a point or for a small area, others are
poorly understood at all scales, and process interactions under normal or extreme
climatic conditions may be unknown. Basin models typically combine land-surface
process components (to estimate how much rainfall or snowmelt reaches a channel)
with a series of reach models. For example, a basin model can calculate the
runoff hydrograph that might result from a 100-year storm, although the recurrence
interval of a storm is rarely equal to that of the associated flood. Basin models are
commonly used in flood forecasting and warning, as well as in analysis of the effects of
land use change and climate change.
In the United States, an integrated approach to real-time hydrologic computer modelling
uses observed data from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS),[70] various cooperative
observing networks,[71] various automated weather sensors, the NOAA National
Operational Hydrologic Remote Sensing Center (NOHRSC),
[72]
various hydroelectric companies, etc. combined with quantitative precipitation
forecasts (QPF) of expected rainfall and/or snow melt to generate daily or as-needed
hydrologic forecasts.[73] The NWS also cooperates with Environment Canada on
hydrologic forecasts that affect both the US and Canada, like in the area of the Saint
Lawrence Seaway.
The Global Flood Monitoring System, "GFMS", a computer tool which maps flood
conditions worldwide, is available online.[74] Users anywhere in the world can use GFMS
to determine when floods may occur in their area. GFMS uses precipitation data
from NASA's Earth observing satellites and the Global Precipitation Measurement
satellite, "GPM". Rainfall data from GPM is combined with a land surface model that
incorporates vegetation cover, soil type, and terrain to determine how much water is
soaking into the ground, and how much water is flowing into streamflow.
Users can view statistics for rainfall, streamflow, water depth, and flooding every 3
hours, at each 12-kilometer gridpoint on a global map. Forecasts for these parameters
are 5 days into the future. Users can zoom in to see inundation maps (areas estimated
to be covered with water) in 1-kilometer resolution.[75]
Flood forecasts and warnings
Anticipating floods before they occur allows for precautions to be taken and people to
be warned[76] so that they can be prepared in advance for flooding conditions. For
example, farmers can remove animals from low-lying areas and utility services can put
in place emergency provisions to re-route services if needed. Emergency services can
also make provisions to have enough resources available ahead of time to respond to
emergencies as they occur. People can evacuate areas to be flooded.
In order to make the most accurate flood forecasts for waterways, it is best to have a
long time-series of historical data that relates stream flows to measured past rainfall
events.[77] Coupling this historical information with real-time knowledge about volumetric
capacity in catchment areas, such as spare capacity in reservoirs, ground-water levels,
and the degree of saturation of area aquifers is also needed in order to make the most
accurate flood forecasts.
Radar estimates of rainfall and general weather forecasting techniques are also
important components of good flood forecasting. In areas where good quality data is
available, the intensity and height of a flood can be predicted with fairly good accuracy
and plenty of lead time. The output of a flood forecast is typically a maximum expected
water level and the likely time of its arrival at key locations along a waterway,[73] and it
also may allow for the computation of the likely statistical return period of a flood. In
many developed countries, urban areas at risk of flooding are protected against a 100-
year flood – that is a flood that has a probability of around 63% of occurring in any 100-
year period of time.
According to the U.S. National Weather Service (NWS) Northeast River Forecast
Center (RFC) in Taunton, Massachusetts, a rule of thumb for flood forecasting in urban
areas is that it takes at least 1 inch (25 mm) of rainfall in around an hour's time in order
to start significant ponding of water on impermeable surfaces. Many NWS RFCs
routinely issue Flash Flood Guidance and Headwater Guidance, which indicate the
general amount of rainfall that would need to fall in a short period of time in order to
cause flash flooding or flooding on larger water basins.[78]
Society and culture

People seeking refuge from flood in Java, c. 1865–1876.

Myths and religion
 "The Deluge", frontispiece to Gustave Doré's
illustrated edition of the Bible
A flood myth or a deluge myth is a myth in which a great flood, usually sent by a deity or
deities, destroys civilization, often in an act of divine retribution. Parallels are often
drawn between the flood waters of these myths and the primaeval waters which appear
in certain creation myths, as the flood waters are described as a measure for
the cleansing of humanity, in preparation for rebirth. Most flood myths also contain
a culture hero, who "represents the human craving for life".[79]
The flood-myth motif occurs in many cultures, including the manvantara-
sandhya in Hinduism, Deucalion and Pyrrha in Greek mythology, the Genesis flood
narrative, the Mesopotamian flood stories, and the Cheyenne flood story.
Etymology
The word "flood" comes from the Old English flōd, a word common to Germanic
languages (compare German Flut, Dutch vloed from the same root as is seen in flow,
float; also compare with Latin fluctus, flumen), meaning "a flowing of water, tide, an
overflowing of land by water, a deluge, Noah's Flood; mass of water, river, sea, wave,".
[80][81]
The Old English word flōd comes from the Proto-Germanic floduz (Old
Frisian flod, Old Norse floð, Middle Dutch vloet, Dutch vloed, German Flut,
and Gothic flodus derives from floduz).[80]
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