GENERATION AND TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

EEE 420
COURSE OVERVIEW
 LOAD FLOW PROBLEMS

• Fundamentals of Load Flow Studies

• Iterative Algorithms for Load Flow Solutions

The Gauss iterative method

The Gauss-Seidel iterative method

The Newton-Raphson iterative method

 PER UNIT SYSTEMS

• Power Transformers

• Instrumentation Transformers
 FAULTS ANALYSIS

• Causes and Types of Faults

• Analysis Faults
Balanced phases

Unbalanced phases
 POWER SYSTEM CONTROLS

• Active Power Control

• Reactive Power Control

VOLTAGE CONTROL- REACTIVE
POWER
• Excitation Systems
• Method of Voltage Control
• Shunt Reactors
• Shunt Capacitors
• Series Capacitors
• Synchronous Condensers
• Static VAR compensators
• Tap-changing Transformers
 FREQUENCY CONTROL- ACTIVE
POWER

• Important of Load-frequency Control

• Need for Supplementary Control

• Fundamental Speed Control

• Adjustment of Speed Changer

 STABILITY CONCEPT
• Rotor Angle and Steady State Stability
• Power Transfer
• Equal Area Criterion
 TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS
AND OPERATION
• Transmission Line Parameters
• Power System Protection
 TEXTBOOKS
1. Power System Analysis and Design 4/Edition, By: Duncan Glover, Mulukutla
Sama, and Thomas Overbye, CENGAGE Learning
2. Soni, Gupta, Bhavnagar and Chakrabarti, ‘A text book on Power System Engg.’
DhanpatRai and Sons, New Delhi, 1997.
3. Wadhwa, C.L (1990). Generator, Distribution and Utilization of Electrical Energy’,
Wiley Eastern Ltd, N.D.
4. Deshpande M.V. (1990) ‘Elements of Electrical Power system Design Pitman, New
Delhi’,
5. Nagarath, I. J. And Kothari D. P., Power Systems Engineering, Tata McGraw-Hill,
New Delhi, 1994.
6. Hadi Saadat, Power Systems Analysis, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 2002.
7. Prabha Kundur, Power System Stability and Control, McGraw-Hill Inc., 1994.
 SEARCH ENGINES FOR RESOURCE
1. Library genesis
2. Wiley online
3. pdfdrive.net
4. bookboon.com
5. PDFBooksWorld
6. ScienceDirect
7. Obooko.com
8. manybooks.net
 1.1 LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
• In a large integrated power system, it is difficult to

assess the voltages and currents associated with each

individual transmission line, although the positions of

power generation and consumption are known.

• The difficulty lies in the fact that the system

equations are nonlinear and cannot be solved directly.

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

SIMPLE
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

COMPLEX
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

MORE COMPLEX
‘LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS?’
 LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

Electric power systems very often have numerous paths

over which power can flow, and the term load flow
refers to techniques used to understand how power
flows and over what paths.

The principal information obtained from power flow

studies is the magnitude and phase angle of the voltage
at each bus, and the real and reactive power flowing in
each line.
 LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
The principal information obtained from power flow
studies are
1. the magnitude and phase angle of the voltage at each
bus (𝑉𝑉 < 𝛿𝛿),

2. the real power flowing in each line (𝑃𝑃) or element,

3. the reactive power flowing in each line or element

(Q), and

4. The reactive power loading on each generator.

1.2 Importance of Load Flow Studies
 To ensure that power system plant is not run above nameplate
rating.

 To keep voltage levels of certain buses within close tolerances

 For power system planning in other to be able to accommodate
future expansion.
 To assess if contingence fault conditions may potentially lead
to wide scale system outages.
 To ensure proper redistribution of power when a line is being
removed for maintenance.
 1.3 Load Flow Characteristics
• The nodal analysis is used in the load flow
study of large networks.
• A balanced three-phase network is assumed.
• The nodal equation for a system comprising n
buses can be expressed in a matrix form as:
[I ] = [Y ][V ]
[V] voltages at the nodes or buses,
[I] currents injected into the nodes or buses, and
[Y] bus admittance
 EXAMPLE
A. Draw a one line diagram from the figure shown below,
and
B. derive an expression for currents injected into buses
3(𝐼𝐼3 ) and 4 (𝐼𝐼4 ) respectively.
SOLUTION
 1.4 Admittance Matrix
• The admittance, 𝑌𝑌 of a transmission line is the
inverse of its impedance, 𝑍𝑍.
• The bus admittance matrix Ybus is an important
network description of an interconnected
power system.
• In the bus admittance matrix representation,
current injections at a bus are analogous to
power injections.
 Admittance Matrix
For a nodal equation comprising of four-bus system

 I1   y11 y12 y13 y14  V1 

I   y y 22 y 23 y 24  V2 
 2  =  21
 I 3   y31 y32 y33 y34  V3 
    
 I 4   y 41 y 42 y 43 y 44  V4 

the bus admittance matrix is given as

𝑦𝑦11 𝑦𝑦12 𝑦𝑦13 𝑦𝑦14

𝑦𝑦21 𝑦𝑦22 𝑦𝑦23 𝑦𝑦24
𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦32 𝑦𝑦33 𝑦𝑦34
31
𝑦𝑦41 𝑦𝑦42 𝑦𝑦43 𝑦𝑦44
 Admittance Matrix
where
𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 is self-admittance
𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 is transfer admittance
𝑦𝑦11 𝑦𝑦12 𝑦𝑦13 𝑦𝑦14
𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦22 𝑦𝑦23 𝑦𝑦24
𝑦𝑦𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑦𝑦21 𝑦𝑦32 𝑦𝑦33 𝑦𝑦34
31
𝑦𝑦41 𝑦𝑦42 𝑦𝑦43 𝑦𝑦44

y11 = Y10 + Y12 + Y13 + Y14 (The sum of all admittances connected to bus 1), and

y12 = y 21 = −Y12 (The negative of the admittance between buses 1 and 2),
 Admittance Matrix
Example 1
The diagram below is a 5-bus system with all the line
admittances in per-unit, Obtain the self-admittances and
transfer admittances.
 Admittance Matrix
Solution 1

0.5 − 𝑗𝑗0.5 0 0 0 −0.5 + 𝑗𝑗2

0 1 − 0𝑗𝑗0.5 0 −1 + 𝑗𝑗2 0
𝑌𝑌𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 0 0 3.5 − 𝑗𝑗3 −1.5 − 𝑗𝑗 −2 + 𝑗𝑗4
0 −1 + 𝑗𝑗2 −1.5 − 𝑗𝑗 4.5 − 𝑗𝑗4 −2 + 𝑗𝑗3
−0.5 + 𝑗𝑗2 0 −2 + 𝑗𝑗4 −2 + 𝑗𝑗3 4.5 − 𝑗𝑗9
 Admittance Matrix
Example 2
From the three-bus system shown be low, find the bus
admittance matrix.
Line (bus-bus) 𝑹𝑹𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 𝑿𝑿𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑
1-2 0.05 0.15
1-3 0.10 0.30
2-3 0.15 0.45
 Admittance Matrix
Solution 1

 3 − j9 −2 + j 6 −1 + j3 

Y =  −2 + j 6 2.67 − j8 −0.67 + j 2 
 −1 + j3 −0.67 + j 2 1.67 − j5 
 Admittance Matrix
TRY: 1. Given the following line impedances of a four-bus system, obtain its admittance matrix
Line (bus to bus) R pu Xpu

1-2 0.05 0.15

1-3 0.10 0.30

2-3 0.15 0.45

2-4 0.10 0.30

3-4 0.05 0.15

2. The line admittances of a 4-bus power system for load flow study are as follows:

Line (bus to bus) Series in per unit Shunt (Yc 2 ) in per unit
1-2 2 − j6 j 0.05

1-3 1 − j3 j 0.025

2-3 1 − j2 j0

2-4 1 − j3 j0

3-4 2 − j6 j0
 1.5 Load Flow Case
The complex power injected by the source into the 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡
bus of a power system is given by power
𝑆𝑆𝑖𝑖 = 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 − 𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖

n
∑ Vk Yik cos(θik + δ k − δ i )
(1)
Pi = Vi
k =1
n
Qi = − Vi ∑ Vk Yik sin(θ ik + δ k − δ i ) (2)
k =1
1. Equations give 2n power flow equations at n
buses of a power system.
2. Each bus is characterized by four variables P, Q,
V and δ giving a total of 4n variables. These
equations can be solved for 2n variables if the
remaining 2n variables are specified.
3. Practical considerations allow a power system
analyst to fix a two variables at each bus.
4. Depending upon which two variables are fixed,
the buses can be classified into three
categories:
 PV Bus
• The real power output of a generator is controlled
by the prime mover and the magnitude of the
voltage is controlled by the exciter.

• Therefore, P and V are specified at generators,

which are called PV buses.
NB:
This means that θ and Q are unknown at each
generator bus.
 PQ Bus
• The real and reactive power can be accurately
estimated at loads.
• Therefore, P and Q are specified quantities at
loads, which are called PQ buses.

NB:
This means that /V/ and θ are unknown at each
load bus.
 Slack Bus
• Since the system losses are unknown until a
solution to the load flow problem has been found,
it is necessary to specify one bus that will supply
these losses, this is called the slack or swing or
reference bus.
• Since P and Q are unknown, |V| and θ must be
specified.
• Usually, an angle of θ = 0o is used at the slack bus
and all other bus angles are expressed with
respect to slack.
Example 3
A transmission line joins two generating stations
1 and 2 as shown in the figure below. The
desired voltage profile is flat i.e. V1 = V2 = 1 pu .
The load demands at the two buses are
S D1 = (15 + j 5) pu and S D 2 = (25 + j15) pu
The station loads are equalized by the flow of
power in the cable. Determine the load flow
solution of the system if the cable has impedance
Z = (0.005 + j 0.05) pu
• It is given that generator G1 can generate a
maximum of 20.0pu real power.

G1 G2

1 2

S D1 SD2
Solution 3
From power flow equations

P1 = Y11 V1 cos θ11 + Y12 V1 V2 cos(θ12 + δ 2 − δ1 )

2

cos θ 22 + Y21 V2 V1 cos(θ 21 + δ1 − δ 2 )

2
P2 = Y22 V2

sin θ11 − Y12 V1 V2 sin(θ12 + δ 2 − δ1 )

2
Q1 = − Y11 V1

Q2 = − Y22 V2 sin θ 22 − Y21 V2 V1 sin (θ 21 + δ 1 − δ 2 )

2
Solution 3 cont’d
Specifying station 1 and given that PG1 = 20 pu .
And taking station two as slack, we have
P1 = PG1 − PD1 = 20 − 15 = 5 pu
Considering 𝑃𝑃1 equation,

5 = 19.9 cos(− 84.29) + 19.9 cos(95.7 + 0 − δ1 )

⇒ δ1 = 14.4 o
Solution 3 cont’d
Substituting 𝛿𝛿1 into the other three equations,
We have
Q1 = 19.9 sin(− 84.29 ) − 19.9 sin(95.7 − 14.4 ) = 0.13 pu

P2 = 19.9 cos(− 84.29 ) + 19.9 cos(95.7 + 14.4 ) = −4.86 pu

Q2 = 19.9 sin(− 84.29 ) − 19.9 sin(95.7 + 14.4 ) = 1.11 pu

Solution 3 cont’d
Again
Q1 = QG1 − QD1 = QG1 − 5 ⇒ QG1 = Q1 + 5 = 0.13 + 5 = 5.13 pu

P2 = PG 2 − PD 2 ⇒ PG 2 = 20.14 pu

Q2 = QG 2 − QD 2 ⇒ QG 2 = 16.11 pu

Therefore the line losses is given as

(PG1 + PG 2 ) − (PD1 + PD 2 ) = (20 + 20.14) − (15 + 25) = 0.14 pu
 An approximate load flow solution
1) Line resistances, being small, are neglected
(shunt conductance of overhead lines is
always negligible), i.e. PL, the active power
loss of the system is zero. Thus in equations 1
and 2, θ ik = 90 0 and θ ii = −90 0
2) (δ i − δ k ) is small [< (π 6)] , so that sin (δ i − δ k ) ≈ (δ i − δ k )
This is justified from consideration of stability
 An approximate load flow solution
3. All buses other than the slack bus are PV buses,
i.e. voltage magnitudes at all the buses,
including the slack bus, are specified.
Equations 1 and 2 then reduce to
n
Pi = Vi ∑V k Yik (δ k − δ i ) (3)
k =1
n
Qi = − Vi ∑ Vk Yik cos(δ i − δ k ) + Vi
2

k =i
Yii
(4)
k ≠i
 TRY
A load study shows the voltages at buses 1 and 2
as V1 = 1.04 + j 0 pu and V2 = 1.02 + j 0.04 pu respectively.
The transmission line connected between these
two buses has a series admittance of 2 − j6 pu
and shunt admittance ( y c / 2) of j 0.03 pu .
Calculate in the form P + jQ
• The power injected into the line at bus 1
• The power injected into the line at bus 2
• The loss in the line
 TRY
• Consider the four-bus sample system below,
wherein line reactances are indicated in per
unit. Line resistances are considered
negligible. The magnitudes of all four bus
voltages are specified to be 1.0pu. The bus
powers are specified in the table below.
Determine the load flow solution of the
system.
 V1 = 1.0 1 3 V3 = 1.0
S1 = 1.0 + jQ1 j 0.15 S3 = −2 + jQ3

j 0.1 j 0.2
j 0.1

S 4 = −2 + jQ4 S 2 = 3.0 + jQ2

j 0.15
V4 = 1.0 4 2 V2 = 1.0

Bus Real Reactive Real Reactive Generation

Demand Demand Generation
1. PD1 = 1.0 QD1 = 0.5 PG1 =? QG1 (unspecified)
2. PD2 = 1.0 QD2 = 0.4 PG2 = 4.0 QG2 (unspecified)
3. PD3 = 2.0 QD3 = 1.0 PG3 = 0.0 QG3 (unspecified)
4. PD4 = 2.0 QD4 = 1.0 PG4 = 0.0 QG4 (unspecified)
 ITERATIVE ALGORITHM FOR
LOAD FLOW SOLUTIONS
• Gauss Iterative method
• New-Rapson Method
 Gauss iterative method to multi-
terminal power systems
• To be of any use to a power system engineer,
the Gauss iterative method must be applicable
to more realistic power system configurations.
• It given by
1 𝑃𝑃𝑖𝑖 −𝑄𝑄𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛
• 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = − ∑𝑘𝑘=1(𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑘𝑘 ) , 𝑖𝑖 = 2, … , 𝑛𝑛
𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖∗
𝑘𝑘≠𝑖𝑖
We assume a starting value for 𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 (𝑖𝑖 = 2, … , 𝑛𝑛)
These values are then updated using the
equation
where 𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 is self-admittance
𝑦𝑦𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 is transfer admittance
 Example
Find the voltages at bus bars 2 and 3 of the
figure below after one iteration of the Gauss
method.
1 V1 = 0.99 + j 0 Y12 = 2 − j 4 V2 = ? 2
S =? 0.3 − j 0.1
Y13 = 1 − j 2 Y23 = 1 − j 2

1 + j2 0.2 + j 0.1

V3 = ? 3

0.7 + j 0.1
10.+99
3−
2
7 j+2
∠j0.o1

Cont’d
Bus bar Voltage Generation Load
1 0.99<0𝑜𝑜 ? 1+j2
2 ? 0.3-j0.1 0.2+j0.1
3 ? 0.7+j0.i 0

Assume that V2 and V3 are both set to 1 <0𝑜𝑜

Solution
The Gauss-Seidel iterative method
The name it bears a lot of resemblance to the
already described Gauss method.
It uses the same equations as the Gauss method
except that update of voltages takes place after
every step of iteration unlike the Gauss method
where updates do not take place within
iterations but only after iterations.
 Cont’d
• Thus with the Guass-Seidel iterative method, a
new value found is immediately used in the
next step this ensures speedy convergence of
solution.
 Example
Find the voltages at bus bars 2 and 3 of the
figure below after one iteration of the Gauss-
Seidal method.
1 V1 = 0.99 + j 0 Y12 = 2 − j 4 V2 = ? 2
S =? 0.3 − j 0.1
Y13 = 1 − j 2 Y23 = 1 − j 2

1 + j2 0.2 + j 0.1

V3 = ? 3

0.7 + j 0.1
 Solution

V2 is calculated the same way as in the Gauss-

Seidel iterative method. Because a new value
has been found for V2 , it is this new value that
will be used in calculating V3 and not the old as
was done in the case of the Gauss method.
 Cont’d

New V2
1  0.7 − j 0.1 
V3 =  − [(− 1 + j 2)(0.99 + j 0) + (− 1 + j 2)(0.973 + j 0.027)]
2 − j 4  1 + j0 
= 1.0715 + j 0.1435
 24 j+2
10.+99
25 −j00jo.0.11.1
∠

Try
Using the Gauss-Seidel iterative method,
determine the voltages of bus bars 2 and 3 after
one iteration. Assume the following initial
voltages V2 = V3 = 1∠0 0

 3 − j 6 −2 + j 4 −1 + j 2 

Y =  −2 + j 4 3 − j 6 −1 + j 2  
 −1 + j 2 −1 + j 2 2 − j 4 
 Cont’d
Bus bar Voltage Generation Load
1 0.99<0𝑜𝑜 ? 1+j2
2 ? 0.25-j0.1 0.2+j0.1
3 ? 0.4+j0.i 0

Assume that V2 and V3 are both set to 1 <0𝑜𝑜

The Newton-Raphson iterative
method