BT-203 (BME)

CS-3
NOTES UNIT - 1

Classification of Engineering Material:

Engineering materials are substances used to construct machines and structures,
classified into metals and non-metals. Engineering materials are broadly classified into
metals and non-metals like polymers, ceramics, and composites. This classification
helps in understanding the properties and applications of each material group.

Examples of metals include silver, copper, gold, aluminum, iron, zinc, lead, and tin.
Metals can be further divided into two groups-

Non-Metal materials are non-crystalline in nature. These exists in amorphic or

mesomorphic forms. These are available in both solid and gaseous forms at normal
temperature. Normally all non-metals are bad conductor of heat and electricity.

Examples: Plastics, Rubber, Leathers, Asbestos etc.

As these non-metals are having very high resistivity which makes them suitable for
insulation purposes in electrical machines.

Detailed Classification:

1. Metals: Metals conduct heat and electricity well and are usually solid and crystalline
structure at room temperature.

Ferrous Metals: Iron-based materials like steel and cast iron.

Non-Ferrous Metals: Aluminium, copper, magnesium, and nickel.

2. Polymers:
Thermoplastics: Can be repeatedly softened by heating and hardened by cooling, like
polyethylene and PVC.
Thermosets: Undergo irreversible chemical changes upon heating and hardening, like
epoxy and polyester.

3. Ceramics:
Inorganic, non-metallic materials like glass and silicon nitride.

4. Composites:
Combinations of two or more materials, like fiber-reinforced polymers (FRP).
Difference between Metals and Non Metals

Sl. Property Metals Non-Metals

No.

1. Structure All metals are having All Non-metals are having amorphic
crystalline structure & mesomorphic structure

2. State Generally metals are State varies material to material.

solid at normal Some are gas state and some are in
temperature solid state at normal temperature.

3. Valance Valance electrons are Valence electrons are tightly bound

electrons and free to move within with nucleus which are not free to
conductivity metals which makes move. This makes them bad
them good conductor conductor of heat & electricity
of heat & electricity

4. Density High density Low density

5. Strength High strength Low strength

6. Hardness Generally hard Hardness is generally varies

7. Malleability Malleable Non malleable

8. Ductility Ductile Non ductile

9. Brittleness Generally non brittle in Brittleness varies material to

nature material

10. Lustre Metals possess Generally do not possess metallic

metallic lustre lustre (Except graphite & iodine)
Composition of Cast Iron:
It is iron-carbon alloys. The carbon content lies between 2-4%. Also the cast iron
contains 1-3% silicon, for improving casting performance. Besides, it contains trace of
manganese and impurities like phosphorus and sulfur.

The few common mechanical properties of cast iron include hardness, elasticity,
ductility, and toughness. The different types of cast iron include：

Gray Iron: a type of cast iron characterized by its grey-colored fracture surface,
due to the presence of graphite flakes in its microstructure. It's known for its good
thermal conductivity, machinability, and vibration damping capabilities. However,
it has a low tensile strength and ductility compared to other types of cast iron.
Grey cast iron finds use in various industries due to its unique properties and
cost-effectiveness:
● Automotive: Cylinder blocks, brake rotors, and other components.
● Industrial: Machinery bases, pump housings, valve bodies, and other
components.
● Construction: Manhole covers, cinder blocks, and other construction
materials.
● Consumer Goods: Cookware and other household appliances.

White Iron: is a hard, brittle, and wear-resistant metal alloy used in many
industries. It's made from iron and carbon, and is known for its white fracture
surface.
Properties High compressive strength, Retains strength and hardness at high
temperatures, and Light appearance due to lack of graphite.
Uses in Construction: Excavator buckets, bulldozer blades, and rock crushers
Aerospace: Turbine blades and casings
Marine: Propellers, shafts, and fittings
Transportation: Train car wheels and brake shoes
Other: Shot blasting nozzles, mill liners, pump impellers

Malleable Iron: is a type of cast iron that undergoes a special heat treatment to
improve its ductility and ability to be shaped without cracking. It is produced from
white cast iron by a heat treatment process called annealing, which converts the
brittle cementite structure into graphite nodules, making it more ductile. This
process results in a material that is more malleable than standard cast iron, gray
iron, or white iron.

Ductile Iron: is a strong, durable, and malleable alloy of iron, carbon, and silicon.
It's also known as spheroidal graphite iron or nodular iron. Ductile iron is used in
many industries, including automotive, plumbing, and machinery.
Carbon Steels:
Steel is an alloy of iron that contains a small percentage of carbon, usually between
0.15 to 2%. The carbon content of steel makes it stronger while improving its
resistance to breakage. It could also include other elements that will enhance its
qualities, including silicon, manganese, phosphorus, Sulphur, and oxygen. For
instance, stainless steel resistant to oxidation and corrosion often contains 11%
chromium.

Steel has high tensile strength, which gives it application in producing tools, vehicles,
machines, weapons, and even building infrastructure. It also has application in the use
of steel guides for custom prototyping.

There are different types of steel. These include:

Carbon Steel: a type of steel alloy primarily composed of iron and carbon, with
carbon being the main alloying element. It can be further categorized into low,
medium, and high carbon steels, each with varying mechanical properties
influenced by carbon content. Carbon steel is known for its high strength,
affordability, and versatility, making it a widely used material in manufacturing and
construction.

Alloy Steel: Alloy steel is steel that contains at least one element in addition to
iron and carbon. These alloying elements improve the steel's strength, hardness,
and resistance to corrosion.

Stainless Steel: is a family of iron-based alloy steels containing a minimum of

10.5% chromium by weight, which gives it its corrosion resistance. The chromium
reacts with oxygen to form a passive film, preventing rust and corrosion. Other
elements like nickel, molybdenum, and manganese can be added to further
enhance its properties.

Tool Steel: is a type of carbon or alloy steel that's used to make tools, dies,
molds, and other machinery parts. It's known for its ability to hold an edge, resist
abrasion, and withstand high temperatures.
Iron Carbon diagram:

The iron-carbon phase diagram is widely used to understand the

different phases of steel and cast iron. Both steel and cast iron are
a mix of iron and carbon. Also, both alloys contain a small amount
of trace elements.
Alloy steels their applications (Cast Iron Vs Steel):

Property Cast Iron Steel

Carbon content 2% to 4% Less than 2%

Melting Point 2200 degree Fahrenheit 2500 – 2800 degrees Fahrenheit

Strength More Compressive strength More Tensile strength

Castability Easy to cast because of low Less easy to cast than cast iron
shrinkage and good flowability as it has low flowability and more
shrinkage.

Corrosion Resistance Moderate to Low corrosion Higher corrosion resistance

resistance

Impact Resistance Low impact resistance High impact resistance

Cost Cheaper because of the lower More expensive than cast iron,
material cost, labor, and energy although there are cheaper
needed to produce the final alternatives, like prefabricated
product steel forms like; rods, bars,
beams, and tubes.

Applications Pipe fittings, washers, farm Infrastructure, vehicles, electrical

equipment, machine parts, appliances, rockets, tools, and
mining hardware, hand tools, weapons
and electrical fittings.
Mechanical properties like strength, hardness, toughness , ductility,
brittleness , malleability etc. of materials

Strength:
Strength is an important property of a material for engineers to understand. Strength is
a measure of how much force an object experiences per unit area, and strength is a
material's ability to withstand stress. This resistance offered by the body is known as
strength of material. 1 N/mm2 =106N/m2 1 bar = 1x105N/m2

The strength of materials is determined using various methods of calculating the

stresses and strains in structural members, such as beams, columns, and shafts.

Elasticity:
The elasticity of an engineering material is its ability to deform and then return to its
original shape. It's a measure of how much stress is required to deform a material.

Elasticity of a material is commonly measured using a tensile test, where a sample is

stretched under a specific load. This measures the material's reaction to stress or
strain. The resulting stress-strain curve informs the material’s elastic limit, modulus of
elasticity, and other parameters.

Plasticity:
Plasticity refers to a material's ability to undergo permanent deformation, meaning it
won't return to its original shape after a load is removed. This behavior, also called
plastic deformation, is crucial in various metal-forming processes like rolling and
forging. It's the opposite of elasticity, where a material returns to its original shape.

Plasticity enables a solid under the action of external forces to undergo permanent
deformation without rupture.

Ductility:
Ductility measures how much a material can deform before breaking. It's a mechanical
property that's important for engineers and manufacturers to consider when choosing
materials for construction and other applications.

Ductility is a material's ability to deform plastically, or permanently, under stress. Ductile

materials can be stretched, bent, or twisted without cracking or breaking. Ductility is
measured as the percentage of elongation from the material's original length.

Examples of ductile materials

Mild steel, Aluminum, Gold, Nickel, Copper, Platinum, and Silver.

Malleability:
Malleability is a material's ability to deform or be shaped without breaking. It's a
physical property of metals and alloys that's important in engineering and
manufacturing. Malleability is used in metalworking to form metals into different shapes,
such as sheets, rods, tubes, and profiles. The shapes that can be produced depend on
the malleability of the metal. Malleability is a physical property, like hardness or color,
that can be observed without changing the identity of the matter.

Examples of malleable materials:

Lead: Has the highest malleability of the commonly used engineering materials
Soft steel: Commonly used in engineering
Wrought iron: Commonly used in engineering
Copper: Commonly used in engineering
Aluminum: Commonly used in engineering
Gold: Highly malleable
Silver: Highly malleable

Toughness:
Toughness measures how much energy a material can absorb before breaking, and it's
a combination of strength and ductility. Tough materials are less likely to fracture or
deform when stressed. Toughness is usually measured in joules per cubic meter (J/m3).

Toughness is often used in applications where impact resistance is important, such as

in construction materials or safety equipment.

Creep:
Creep in engineering materials refers to the time-dependent deformation of a solid
under a constant stress, particularly at elevated temperatures. It's essentially a slow,
progressive deformation that occurs when a material is subjected to sustained stress
below its yield strength.

Factors influencing creep:

Material Properties:
Temperature:
Stress Level:
Time:

Fatigue:
Fatigue in engineering materials refers to the weakening and eventual failure of a
material due to repeated or fluctuating stresses, often at levels well below its static
strength. This progressive damage, characterized by crack initiation and propagation,
can lead to sudden and unexpected failures in structures and components subjected to
cyclic loading.

Factors afftcting:
 Cyclic Loading:
Stress Levels:
Crack Initiation and Propagation:

Hardness:
Hardness in engineering materials refers to a material's resistance to localized plastic
deformation, meaning its ability to withstand indentation, scratching, or abrasion. It's a
crucial property in determining a material's suitability for various applications,
particularly those involving wear, friction, and impact.

Types of Hardness:
Indentation Hardness: The resistance to permanent deformation under a
concentrated load, often measured using methods like Vickers or Brinell hardness
tests.

Scratch Hardness: The resistance to scratching by a harder material.

Rebound Hardness: Measures the rebound height of a diamond hammer after striking
a surface, providing an estimate of hardness.

Resilience:

It is the ability of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically, and

release that energy upon unloading. Proof resilience is defined as the maximum energy
that can be absorbed up to the elastic limit, without creating a permanent distortion.

Resilience is an important property for materials used in springs and other load-bearing
applications. Materials with high resilience can store energy without permanent
deformation, and release that energy when the load is removed.

Examples of resilient materials:

Materials like spring steel, titanium alloys, and rubber are highly resilient.
Tensile test- Stress-strain diagram of ductile and brittle materials
A tensile test measures how much a material can stretch and how much force it can
withstand before breaking. It's a common mechanical test used to evaluate the
properties of materials like metals, plastics, and composites.

Tensile testing is a destructive test process that provides information about the
tensile strength, yield strength, and ductility of the metallic material. It measures
the force required to break a composite or plastic specimen and the extent to
which the specimen stretches or elongates to that breaking point.

We can measure Tensile strength, Yield strength, Ductility, Elastic modulus, Elongation,
Strain hardening characteristics, Young's modulus, and Poisson's ratio.

Applications of Stress-Strain Curve

The various applications of the stress-strain curve are:

Material Characterization
Engineering Design
Engineering Material Selection
Quality Control
Failure Analysis
Elastic Limit Determination
Yield Strength Calculation
Ductility Assessment
Stress-strain diagram of ductile

Proportional Limit: Indicated by point P on the graph, stress and strain remain directly
proportional up to this limit, adhering to Hooke's law. Beyond this, stress no longer
maintains a linear relationship with strain.

Elastic Limit: Point E signifies the elastic limit, where the material demonstrates
elasticity. The specimen fully regains its original form upon removing the external load
without any residual deformations. Beyond this juncture, plastic behaviour emerges.

Yield Point: The yield point is a region delimited by the upper yield point 'Y' and the
lower yield point 'E'. The stress-strain curve here is nearly horizontal, signifying a
significant strain increase for a minor stress rise. Yielding transpires from 'E' to 'Y'.
Subsequent to E', due to strain hardening, the curve ascends as the material carries
the load, marking the transition to plastic deformation of a nearly permanent nature.

Ultimate Tensile Stress: Represented by point 'Y', this is the peak stress a material
withstands prior to failure. Notably, the specimen doesn't fail at this juncture, and the
curve commences descending thereafter.

Rupture or Breaking Point: The point of specimen failure, post the ultimate stress, is
the breaking point. After the ultimate tensile stress, necking occurs, reducing the
load-bearing capacity and eventually causing failure. This critical point is denoted on
the curve by point 'R'.
Stress-strain diagram of Brittle Materials

A stress-strain diagram for a brittle material shows how the material deforms and fails
when stressed. It's a key tool in engineering and materials science.

Steep elastic region: The curve's elastic region is steeper than that of ductile materials.
Sudden failure: Brittle materials fail suddenly and catastrophically without significant
plastic deformation.
Poorly defined yield point: Brittle materials don't have a well-defined yield point.
Linear curve: The stress-strain curve for a brittle material is typically linear.

Examples of brittle materials

Ceramics
Certain metals
Glass
Concrete
High carbon steel
High strength light alloys
Cast iron
Hooks law and modulus of elasticity
Hooke's law states that stress and strain are proportional to each other within the
elastic limit of a material. The modulus of elasticity is the constant of proportionality in
Hooke's law.

It's also known as Young's modulus of elasticity. Hooke's law equation

Stress = k × Strain

● k is the constant of proportionality and is the Modulus of Elasticity

Young's modulus equation

Y = (F×l)/(A×Δl)

F is applied force

A is the area on which force F is applied

l is the original length

Δl is the change in length due to applied force

We can understand

Strain (ε) = Change in Length / Original Length

Hardness and Impact testing of materials, BHN etc.
Hardness and impact testing are methods used to evaluate a material's durability and
resistance to deformation. Hardness testing involves pressing a steel ball into the
material's surface, while impact testing measures how much energy a material absorbs
when it fractures.

Hardness of materials refers to a material's resistance to localized plastic deformation,

meaning its ability to resist indentation, scratching, or other forms of deformation.
Examples of hard materials include diamond, boron carbide, quartz, tempered steel,
and granite.

Conversely, soft materials like plastics or wood are easily deformed.

Testing of hardness is done by observing a steel ball pressed against the other
material's surface under tremendous pressure. Testing of hardness is done through the
Rockwell Hardness test and the Brinell Hardness Test.

Hardness Testing of materials(BHN)

Involves pressing a steel ball into a material's surface under pressure. Measures the
material's resistance to indentation. Results in a hardness value that indicates the
material's strength. Commonly used tests include Rockwell, Brinell, and Vickers
Rockwell is the most common test because it's quick and simple

BHN Testing:

The Brinell hardness test (BHN) measures how resistant a material is to indentation.
It's used to test the hardness of many materials, including metals, alloys, and castings.
Impact testing of materials:
Study of behaviour of a component material under sudden loads. Most commonly used
tests include Izod and Charpy. This involves striking a notched specimen with a
weighted pendulum hammer at a fixed radious. Measures the energy absorbed by the
specimen.

Specimen Position
Position of specimen is both the experiment is different from each. In the Izod method,
the test material was placed in a vertical position, while in the Charpy method, the test
material was placed horizontally.

Point of Strike
Point at which the hammer strike the specimen is different for both of them. In Izod test
hammer strike at the upper tip of specimen while in Charpy test hammer strike at point
of notch but in opposite direction

Direction of Notch
Face of specimen which faces the striker is different. The notch face in the izod test is
facing the striker, fastened in a pendulum, while in the charpy test, the notch face is
positioned away from the striker.