OSI Model, TCP/IP Model and Data

Encapsulation

McGraw-Hill ©The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000

 THE OSI MODEL
• Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards.
• An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model.
• In 1977, work on a layered model of network
architecture was started and the ISO began to develop its
OSI framework architecture.
• OSI has two major components: an abstract model of
networking, called the Basic Reference Model or seven-
layer model, and a set of specific protocols.
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 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model.
• The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate
communication between different systems without requiring
changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software.
• The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding
and designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust,
and interoperable.
• The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of
network systems that allows communication between all types
of computer systems.
• It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which
defines a part of the process of moving information across a
network.
• An understanding of the fundamentals of the OSI model
provides a solid basis for exploring data communications.
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OSI model: Layered Architecture

• The OSI model is composed of seven ordered layers:

 Physical (Layer 1)
 Data Link (Layer 2)
 Network (Layer 3)
 Transport (Layer 4)
 Session (Layer 5)
 Presentation (Layer 6)
 Application (Layer 7).
• Figure 2.3 shows the layers involved when a message is sent
from device A to device B. As the message travels from A to B,
it may pass through many intermediate nodes.
• These intermediate nodes usually involve only the first three
layers of the OSI model.
2.4
Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

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 Layered Architecture
• Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services
of the layer just below it. Layer 3, for example, uses the
services provided by layer 2 and provides services for layer
4.
• Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates
with layer x on another machine.
• This communication is governed by an agreed-upon series
of rules and conventions called protocols.
• The processes on each machine that communicate at a
given layer are called peer-to-peer processes.
• Communication between machines is therefore a peer-to-
peer process using the protocols appropriate to a given
layer.
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 Peer-to-Peer Processes
• At the higher layers, communication must move down through
the layers on device A, over to device B, and then back up
through the layers.
• Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to
the message it receives from the layer just above it and passes
the whole package to the layer just below it.
• At layer 1 the entire package is converted to a form that can be
transmitted to the receiving device.
• At the receiving machine, the message is unwrapped layer by
layer, with each process receiving and removing the data meant
for it.
• For example, layer 2 removes the data meant for it, then passes
the rest to layer 3. Layer 3 then removes the data meant for it
and passes the rest to layer 4, and so on.
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 Organization of the Layers
• The seven layers can be categorize into three subgroups.
• Layers 1, 2, and 3-physical, data link, and network-are the
network support layers; - deal with the physical aspects of
moving data from one device to another (such as electrical
specifications, physical connections, physical addressing, and
transport timing and reliability).
• Layers 5, 6, and 7-session, presentation, and application-can
be thought of as the user support layers; they allow
interoperability among unrelated software systems.
• Layer 4, the transport layer, links the two subgroups and
ensures that what the lower layers have transmitted is in a
form that the upper layers can use.
• The upper OSI layers are almost always implemented in
software;
• Lower layers are a combination of hardware and software,
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except for the physical layer, which is mostly hardware.
Names for Data at Each Layer

2.9
Encapsulation

• Data is divided into Segments

• Add logical address, Segments become Packets.
• Add Physical address, Packets become Frames
• Lastly, Frames  Bits

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LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each

layer in the OSI model.

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The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

2.12
 Physical Layer
The physical layer is concerned with the following:
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium: defines the
characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission
medium
• Representation of bits: for data to be transmitted, bits must be encoded into
signals--electrical or optical. Defines the type of encoding
• Data rate. The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each
• Synchronization of bits: The sender and receiver must use the same bit
rate and must be synchronized at the bit level
• Line configuration: concerned with the connection of devices to the media
• Physical topology. The physical topology defines how devices are
connected to make a network –type topology
• Transmission mode: defines the direction of transmission between two
devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex
Layer 1 device – ex: hub

2.13
Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

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 Data Link Layer
• The data link layer is responsible for delivery of frames, within a
local network.
• Responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:
• Framing: divides the stream of bits received from the network
layer into manageable data units called frames.
• Physical addressing- e.g. MAC address (limited to local
network)
• Flow control : imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid
overwhelming the receiver.
• Error control: adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames ;
achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
• Access control: to determine which device has control over
the link at any given time.
Layer 2 device – ex: switch 2.15
Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery

Assume intermediate
Systems here are
hubs or switches. So,
only one network is
Involved.

2.16
Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

2.17
 Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination
delivery of packets, possibly across multiple networks (routing).
• Responsibilities of the network layer include the following:
• Logical addressing. (Ex: IP address)
• Path Selection: choose the best path to forward packets to
destination networks.
Layer 3 device – ex: router

2.18
Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery

Assume intermedia
systems are routers

2.19
Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.

2.20
Transport Layer
• Responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:
• Service-point addressing: The transport layer header must therefore
include a type of address called a service-point address (or port
address). The transport layer gets the entire message to the correct
process on that computer.
• Segmentation and reassembly. A message is divided into
transmittable segments, with each segment containing a sequence
number.
• Connection control: can be either connectionless or connection
oriented.
• Flow control: responsible for flow control is performed end to end
rather than
• across a single link(DLL).
• Error control: is responsible for error control is performed process-
to-process rather than across a single link.
• The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message
arrives at the receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss,
or duplication).
• Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission. 2.21
Session Layer
The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.

• The session layer is the network dialog controller.

• It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction
among communicating systems
• Responsibilities of the session layer include the following:
• Dialog control. The session layer allows two systems to
enter into a dialog.
• Synchronization. The session layer allows a process to add
checkpoints, or synchronization points, to a stream of data.

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 Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.

• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and

semantics of the information exchanged between two systems.
• Responsibilities of the presentation layer include the
following:
• Translation: the presentation layer is responsible for
• interoperability between these different encoding methods.
• Encryption: To carry sensitive information, a system must
be able to ensure privacy.
• Compression: Data compression reduces the number of
bits contained in the information -important in the
transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and video.
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 Application Layer
The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.
• The application layer enables the user, whether human or
software, to access the network.
• It provides user interfaces and support for services such as
electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distributed information services
• Services provided by the application layer include the
following:
• Network virtual terminal -telnet
• File transfer, access, and management-FTP
• Mail services
• Directory services: provides distributed database sources
and access for global information about various objects and
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services
Figure 2.15 Summary of layers

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 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

• The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those
in the OSI model.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four
layers: host-to-network, internet, transport, and application.
• However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link,
network, transport, and application.

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TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
CISCO Data Comm

• The first four layers provide physical standards, network

interfaces, internetworking, and transport functions that
correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model.
• The three topmost layers in the OSI model, however, are
represented in TCPIIP by a single layer called the
application layer 2.27
Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

2.28
Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

2.29
 The physical addresses change from hop to hop,
but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.

switch

router

switch

2.30