ELECTRONICS PAPER-|

ELECTRONIC DEVICES
(PART-B
ESSAY QUESTIONSWITH SOLUTIONS
1.1 FORMATION OF PN JUNCTION
Q7. State the formation of PN-Junction diode.
Answer :

Formation of PN-Junction Diode

APN-iunction diode is a two terminal
Over a semiconducting material. semiconductor devicc, which consists of a PN-junction formed
PN-junclion is lormed when two extrinsic semiconductors (one P-type and
one N-type) are doped into asemiconducting material, such as Germanium or Silicon
Figure represents the formation of a PN-junction diode.
Immobile
ooo Depletion
layer charge carriers

Barrier
potential

Figure
During the formation of PN-junction, the free electrons from N-region diffuse into the P-region to
combine with holes.
This combination of holes with free electrons creates a negative potential (i.e., negative charge
at P-side near the junction.
carriers)
Similarity, the holes from P-region diffuse into the N-region to combine with electrons.
This combination of free electrons with holes creates a positive potential (i.e., positive charge carriers)
at N-side near the junction. Therefore, the region near the junction becomes free from charge carriers. This
region of immobile positive and negativecharge carriers at the junction is known as depletion layer (orn)
depletion region. The depletion region acts as a barrier and thus prevents further motion of charge carriers
near the junction. This potential difference possessed by the depletion region at the PN-junction is called
barrier potential (V).
1.2 DEPLETION REGION
Explain the formation of depletion region. How it is effected in forward bias and reverse bias.
(ModelPaper-1, Q13(a) | MarchiApril-16, Q3(a))
OR
Explain the formation of depletion region in a PN junction and how it varies in forward and
reverse biases in a junction diode.
Oct.-15,Q3(a)
OR
MaylJune-18, Q1
Explain the formation of depletion region in P-N junction diode.
Refer upto figure (3))
Answer :

APN junction is formed by doping a single crystal silicon semiconductor with Pand N-type impurities
as shown in figure (1).
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UNIT-1: PN JUNCTION
ELECTRONICS PAPER-II
Arccptor ion Junction
Donor on

Hole

oO o0

P-side N-side

Figure (1): PN Junction

One hal of the semiconductor is doped with P-type impurities and other half is doped with N-type
impuritics. The meeting point of Pand N-type regions is known as junction. The part of semiconductor doped
with P-typeimpurities have holes as majority carriers and acceptor ions that are changed negatively. Similarly,
the N-type part have electrons as majority carriers and donor ions that are positively charged. Since, it is a
singlecry stal semiconductor there is aconcentration gradient of holes from Pto Nside as well as there is a
concentration gradient of electrons from Nto Pside. Whenever there is a concentrationgradient then the carrier
that is holes and clectrons move(flow) from higher concentration region to a lower concentration region.
Junction
Acceptor ion Donor ion

Electron

Hole

Figure (2): Flow of Electrons and Holes due to Concentration Gradient

Therefore, the holes will be moviny lromlefl sde lo rght sIde and he elecirons will be moving from
electrons
riohi side to left side as shown in ipure (2). Dunp hs Ilow of cariers, thc holes get recombined by
and donor
and electrons get recombincd by holes. Because oflhe recombationofcharpe cariers the acceptor
ions in Pand N type regions bccome uncovere. hat ieOs thcie are l0 CrTICS akone With thc ions, This is
as shown in figure (3).

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ELECTRONIC DEVICES
Juncton
Donor on

Oo
Electron
Oo
Hole

Oo Oo Oo

Oo

Pside N-side

Figure (3): Formation of Depletion Region

This region where there are no mobile charges and only bound or fixed
charges are present is called
depletion region. It isalso known as space charge region. The immobile charges are forming
laver on P-side and positively charged layer on N-side. In other words, a positive negatively charged
potential is developed on
the \-xide and negative potential is developed on P-side as shown in figure (4)and figure
(5)respectively.

Electrostatic potential V

P-side

V=0

Figure(4); Positive Potential on :side

E-0
Potentialenergy barrier for
ckctrons

Figure (5): Negative Potential on P.side

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 supply. Pof Forward
conditiondonor Side. igure(6). ThiJUNCTION
potential s UNIT-1:PN
under terminal
Auncovered, andjunction Reverse Due the potentia
Thisis
away ions The A
reverse In pnBiasing
toBiasing is to
S Thisfromattracts
reverse
positive respectively. junction n
junction
aspositive
repulsion, known
is
bias shown
Acceptorion the
uncovering the the biasing the to is PN prevent
willthe
conditionjunction. of o o o o interminal
electronsPN-Junct
the ion figure This holespositive saidJunction
barrier
as
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AND is of connect
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Space
as As
bound froma
Figure P-side (7). repels of be
reduces Regon
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electrons biased the
RS shown result,supply.
orN-side. P (7):
the
the
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(6):
Electric
further
ofPN-junction holes if
hXed
in The the Depletion
Region width move it or
figure more This Junction supply
on
is contact flowof
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annegative
d of
towardsP-side
(8). causes Under the Across
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PVT. increases terminal
the to Forward
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the the from P
acceptor the of Ekcttk
inteng ficld
ity, E
carriersnegative
lattracts N-side junction voltagethe Depletion This
LTD.. the Bias region.negative pn toN
width and potential
andjunction
source.
on of Condition Donoron
Region electrons
sideand
donor Pthe the A
terminal
of and holes neutralize
pn
depletion ionsN-sidesvoltage junction to In is
ELECTRONICS
creatingPAPER-ll
from forward
the
repels
on
to
supply Electron
tnegative
he
region. PP-side under a
and
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and
and electrons of
AN forward as
further
side positivethe
PN N the we
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junction
become the voltage sue
away bias and on in
7 pn N
ELECTRONICS PAPER-I!

Figure (8): PN-junction Under Reverse Bias Condition

1.3 JUNCTION CAPACITANCE 1.4 DIoDE EQUATION (MO DERIVATIOM),
EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON REVERSE
as. Explain the junction capacitance.
Mayl June-19, Q2 SATYRATION CURRENT
OR
Q. Explain the effect of terperature
reverse saturation current

Explain junction capacitance' of a p-n May Jure-'2 Va

junction diode.
OR
Answer : March-13 Q12

In aPN Junction diode, the two types of capaci Discuss the effect of ternoer2re
tances which occur at the junction due to brasing are reverse saturatior Currerta
junction.
(1) Diffusion Capacitance (
OR
(i) Transition Capacitance ()
Explain the dependency of reserse
(i) Diffusion Capacitance (C) saturation current on temperatures
When a forw ard biased diode is reverse biased Answer :
all of asudden, the forw ard current lF flowing through
The V-Icharacteristics of adiodeir the
it ceases instantly. leav ing some majority charge
carriers in the depletion region. Due to sudden reversal bias region is closely approximated by ihe eaa
of the biasing, initially a large reverse current flows
through the diode and itdecreases slowly to the level Where.
of thereverse saturation current IS. The large reverse
currentoccurs due to the presence of majoritycarriers 1-The current fiowing through diode
in the depletion region.This effects may beviewed as I-Reverse saturatior curreoidrce
adischarge of a capacitor. Therefore. it is represented -Externally applied voltage io dide
by a capacitance known as the diffusion capacitance
n-Aconstant
CD. The diffuston capacitance is also termed as the
storage capacitance. V-Thermal voltage
The equation for the diffusion capacitance is, The reverse saturation current /in equztion1
is astrong function of ternperature As 2 rule
C = of thumb. the value of / double for every c
rise the temperature
(iü) Transition Capacitance (C-) 2 The thermal voltage I, in equation (l) is
The space charge region of a PN junction given by.
diode is a layer of immobile charge carriers located
between two blocks of low resistance material (i.e, T
P and N type bars). This describe the qualities of a 11.600
capacitor. Theretore. the depletion region clearly has Where.
a capacitance associated with it. T-The absolute temperature in Kelvin
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 RRCTONICS PAPER M

1.5 H CHARACTERISTICS AND

SIMPLE APPLICATIONS OF (0)
JUNCTION DIODE () ZENER DIODE ( )
TUNNEL DIODE (0v) VARACTOR DIODE
QZHow PN junction diode is fomed? Explain
V characteristics with suitable circuit
QT1 sing the diode equation, fnd the p-n diagram. Mention its applications,
jctiogermanium) diode curent for a NayJune-t a)
ioraard bias of 022Vatroom temperature
OR
25C wireverse saturation currentequal
How is PN junction diode fomed? Ex
plain its characteristic curves and types
ofbreak downs.
MayJune-19, Q9a)
diode.
cario
OR
Draw and explain the V4 characteristics
of junction diode in forward and reverse
bias. Model Paper. Q13ja)

Reer ony H characteristies)

Aczordmg t the daode-cent euation (p-n) Answer :

Fermstion of PN Junction Diode

For answ er reter Lnit-1. Page No. 4.QNo.

DHCharacteristics
Diode is the most fundamental wo terminal
non-linear cinuit element. The relationship be en
the curent fiowing through the diode and the voltage
isvohage or) applied appeanng cross it is non lincar. In other words.
che diode has non-linear \-l character1stics Figure
clage iliustrates the \-l characteristics of a pn junction
diode. The charactenstics cunecontains three distint

Here Fonard bias region

Reverse bias rego:
Breakdown gn
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Forward

0.7V

Breakdown Reverse

Figure: V-1 Characteristics of Diode

1. Forward Bias Region

Forward bias region is the characteristics shown by the pn junction diode when it is forward biased. In
forward biasing p side of the pn junction is connected to the positive of the voltage supply and n side of the pn
junction is connected to the negative of the voltage supply. Simply, forward bias region is the characteristics
of the diode for v > 0. From the figure it can be seen that (in the FB region) the diode current is very small
for first fewtenths of a volt. This is because the barrier potential prevents the flow of current through it.
When the external applied voltage is greater than the barrier potential small increase in the voltage produces
a sharp increase in the current. The voltage at which the current starts to increase rapidly is called cut-in or
knee voltage of the diode. It is denoted as V.
For silicon PN diode V= 0.7 V and Germanium diode V
Y
= 0.3 V.
2. Reverse Bias Region
Reverse bias region is the characteristics shown by the pn diode when it is reverse biased. In reverse
biasing Pside of the pn junction is connected to the negative of the voltage supply and Nside of the pn junction
isconnected to the positive of the voltage supply. Simply, reverse bias region is the characteristics of the diode
for v <0. From figure it can be seen that (in RB region) the diode current is very small, almost equal to zero
for allvalues of voltage less than the break down voltage V, This is because in reverse bias the width of the
potential barrier increases. As a consequence, the junction resistance becomes very high and practically no
current flows through the circuit.
3. Breakdown Region
The diode enters the breakdown region when the magnitude of the reverse voltage exceeds a threshold
value that is specific to the particular diode, called the breakdown voltage. It is denoted as 'V,' in figure. In the
breakdown region for very small variation in voltage the current increases rapidly, this can be seen in figure.
Applications
For answer refer Unit-1, Page No. 2,Q.No. 3.
Q13. Explain the characteristics of zener diode.
Answer : March-15, Q3{c)
Zener Diode

The power dissipated at the junction of anormal PN diode operating in breakdown region is very large.
Due to large power dissipation, the diode gets damaged. The diode which is designed to operate in breakdown
region under certain conditions is known as Zener diode. Zener diode is heavily doped than normal PN junction
diodes. The circuit symbol of zener diode is as shown in figure ().
10
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Characteristies
Figure (2) illustrates that V-] characteristics of Zener diode.

(mA)

V,
V(forward)
V(reverse)

Figure (1): Symbol of Zener Diode Figure (2): V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode
During forward bias condition, the Zener diode acts as normal PN junction diode. The diode is heavily
doped, it means that the width of depletion layer is small. Consequently at lower voltages breakdown occurs
it leads to sharp increase in reverse current is as shown in
figure (2).
The applications of zener diode are,
1. Voltage regulators
2. Switches in logic circuits
3. Communication circuits.
Q1K Discuss the V- characteristics of Zener diode. Explain avalance and zener breakdowns.
Oct.-13, Q3(a)
OR
Explain avalanche and zener breakdown mechanisms and explain the forward and reverse
characteristics of a zener diode.
Oct.-12, Q3(a)
Answer :
V-ICharacterisitcs of Zener Diode
For answer refer Unit-1, Page. No. 10, Q.No. 13, Topic: Characteristics.
Avalanche and Zener Breakdown
The diode enters the breakdown region when the magnitude of the reverse voltage exceeds a threshold
value that is specifc to the particular diode, called the breakdown voltage. In the breakdown region for very
smallvariation involtage the current increases rapidly. There are two types of breakdown mechanisms.
1. Avalanche breakdown
2. Zener breakdown.
1. Avalanche Breakdown
In this mechanism, thermally generated electron-hole pairs gains energy from the external voltage
applied and breaks the covalent bonds to produce new electron-hole pairs. This new electron-hole pairs
inturn, generates more electron-hole pairs by disrupting bonds and the process continues cumulatively This
cumulative proccss is known as Avalanche Multiplication. Due to this large current is seen at the terminals of
diodes for small variations in voltage.
2. Zener Breakdown
In this mechanism, electron-hole pairs are generated by applying strong electric field.
Because of the
presence of strong electric field direct rupture of covalent bonds takes place. Due to this new electron-hole
pairs are generated. The breakdown 0ccurring due to application of strong electric fields is known as zener
breakdown.

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Qr5. What is zener breakdown? How does it Answer i

concentration?
varies with doping TunnelDiode
MayfJune-17, Q2
Answer ! Tunnel dode is a two terminal PN Junction
For answer refer l'nit-I, Page No l1.0 No 14, diode which is having
high conduct1vity and high
Topc Zener Breakdown doping dens1ty The dop1ng density is 10 times
greater than normal PN junction diode. This was first
For heavily doped PN junction, at an input introducedby DR lw Esaki in 1958. hence it is also
voltage of e\ or less, the intensity of electric field at esaki diode. The circuit symbol of tunnel diode is as
denletion region ancreases tremendously and results shown in figuret ).
in zener breakdown.

For lightly doped PN junction, zener breakdown

voltage is very high. At this voltage. breakdown is
majorly occured due to avalanche multiplication.
. Explain the working and characteristics
of aTunneldiode.
MaylJune-18, Q9(a) Figure (1): Symbol of Tunnel Diode
OR Explanation With Energy Band Diagrams
Write a note on tunnel diode. The operation of tunnel diode is explained with
the help of energy band diagrams. Tunneldiode exhibit
(Model Paper-1, Q13(b) | March-15, Q3(d) three distinct levels with respect to biasing and those
OR are explained as follows,
Zero Bias Voltage
What is tunneling effect? Explain the V-!
characteristics of a tunnel diode with Atzero biasing voltage. the energy levels are
reference to negative resistance region. at the same heights untilthe electrons are excited (or)
activated from the external source. The energy of
Oct.-14, Q3(a)
electrons in N-side is insuficient to cross the junction
OR barrier for reaching P-side. According to quantum
mechanics, there is finite probability for electrons
Explain the tunnelling phenomenon. reaching one side to another side through junction
Explain the construction and working of provided there is allowed empty energy status in P-side
a tunnel diode. of the junction at the same energy level therefore
March-13, Q3(a) forward current is zero and it is shown in figure (2).
OR

What is tunnelling? Discuss the charac Llectrons in conduetion band Emply coergy level
teristics of atunneidiode.
Electrons in
March-12, Q3(b) Valeny band
OR

Explain tunneling phenomenon. Figure (2): Zero Bias Voltage

MaylJune-19, Q1 Forward Bias Voltage
(Refer excluding Applications) When snall forward bias voltage is applied
lo the junction the energy levels of N-side are higher
Draw the V-l characte ristics of tunnel than P-side. Due to empty energy levels in P-side,
diode and explain its negative resistance tunneling of clectrons takes place from Nside to P
region. side. Tunneling in reverse direction is not possible
because the valeney band electrons on P-side are
March/April-16, Q3(b)
opposite to the forbidden energy gap on the N-side.
(Refer Only VI Charucteristics of Tomel The energy levels diagram during forward bias is as
Diode) shown in figure (3).
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Afterattaining peak pont the forward current
decreases slowly due to tunneling phenomenon, this
region is indicated by pointsA and B in figure (5) and
is referred as Negative Pesistance Region'". After
reaching certain point it again start to increase, the
voltage at that point is referred as valley voltage and
it is shown in figure (5).
Applications
Nsak Tunneldiode is used as,
Figure (3): Peak Voltage Ultra high speed switch
High Forward Bias Voltage: As logic memory storage device
When the forward bias(Negative Resistance)
is increased beyond 3 Asmicrowave oscillatory
the limit the process of
tunneling will decrease. The
energy of P -side is depressed 4 In relaxation Oscillator circuit
conduction electrons on N-side and it results fewer 5. As an amplifier.
unoccupied electrons on P-side are opposite to the
leads to decline of forward bias energy levels and it Qn. Describe the construction and
working
the negative resistance region in current, this results in of avaractor diode. DrawW and explain its
The energy level diagram as diodeincharacteristics. characteristics.
shown figure (4). (Model Paper-2, Q13(b) | MaylJune-19, Q9(b)
OR
Explain the
and uses of construction,
varactor diode. characteristics
MaylJune-17, Q9(b)
OR

P
Explain V- characteristics of varactor
diode.
Figure (4): Valley Voltage Oct.-15, Q10 |March-13, Q9
V-I
Characteristics of Tunnel Diode OR
Figure (5)
of tunnel diode. illustrates the typical characteristic Explain the
diode. construction of varactor
(MA)
CurTent March-15, Q11
OR
Negative Draw the V-l
Resistance
region
characteristics
diode and explain. of
varactor
Oct.-14, Q3(b)
OR
Write short notes on
varactor diode.
V
V (Oct.-13, Q3(b) |Oct.-12, Q3(b))
Voltage(mV) OR
Explain theworking
Figure (5): V-4
Characteristics of Tunnel diode and draw its principle of varactor
Forward current
with increase in applied
Diode
increases sharply in accordance OR characteristics.
maximum voltage and it reaches the
point. The voltage Explain the working of a
point (or) peak point is (or) ascurrent at maximum Varactor diode.
peak current. referred peak voltage (or)
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PUBLISHERS AND (Refer exchuaing Applicattons)MayiJune-18, Q9(b)
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Answer :

A-n junction diode that actsas a voltage variable chpancitor under reverse biasconditon is known as
()
varactor diode. The symbol of varactordiode as show in figure

A K

Figure (1)
Working Principle
Junction capacitance present in allreverse biased diodes because of depletion region is optimized in
avaractor diode and used in high frequencies and switching applications. In other words, the dependence of
junction capacitanceC, on the reversed bias voltage V, is made useful in a number of applications.
Concept
The depletion layer created in the p-n junction acts as an insulator and the p-region and n-region act
as plates of the capacitor. When the reverse voltage increases, the width of depletion layer increases and ca
pacitance becomes smaler. The capacitance C, ofa varactor diode is determined using the equation.
A
.. (1)
Where,
¬-Permittivity of semiconductor material
A-Cross-sectional area of the junction
W,- Width ofthe depletion layer
The characteristic of varactor diode are as shown in figure (2).
CTpF)

capacitance
Junction

Reverse bias voltage

Figure (2)
Applications
Varactor diode is used as,
1. Voltage controlled oscillators
2. RF filters
3. Self balancing bridge circuits
4. Automatic frequency control circuits and
5. Voltage tuning of LC resonant circuits.
 4.1 SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER(SCR)
4.1.1 Construction and Working of SCR, Two Transistor Representation,
Characteristics of SCR
Q12 Explain the construction and working of sR IMayl hue 12 012layi MaylJune 17. Q12(a))
OR

Discuss the construction and wotkung of SCR md deavttbatar.tersstcs

OR

Describe the construction and working of SCR. Discuss characteristics

OR

Discuss the construction, working of SCR and draw the characteristics of SCR
Gct-12 Q4c)

OR

Draw and explain characteristics of SCR. March-12. Q11

(Refer Only V-1 Characteristics of SCR)
Answer :

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

Silicon controlled rectifier is a four layered ,three terminal device with three junctions namely Jl. J2. and B
as shown in figure (1 ). The end P-layer acts as anode and end N-layer acts as cathode. A P-layer nearer to \-lay er
acts as gate. The circuit symbol of SCR is as shown in figure (2).
9 Anode

PI
JI
NI
J2
Bate o P2
J3
N2

Cathode
Figure (1): Basic Structure

K
A

Figure (2): Circuit Symbol

 UNIT-4:
IHULLED RECTIFIER (SCR) AND
The operation of
-nTDnNIr nEVICES ELECTRONICS PAPER-!

is PHOTOELECTRONIC
siliconcontrolled DEVICES ELECTRONICS PAPER-I|
V-I Characteristics of SCR: Figure (3) rectifier explaincd with the help of its characteristics. 'ER-|
of operation,
illustrates the
(i) Forward blocking region voltape-currcnt
characteristics of SCR. It has three modes plain
and
(ii) Forward conduction Tegion
(ii) Reverse
blocking region. 212(a)

Wave

Torward conduLtin
(on statc)
Reverse Latching current
leakage Holding current
current mA

V
Reverse Forward Forward
blocking blocking leakage
current

ge
or
ng
Figure (3): V-1 Characteristics of SCR
(i) ForwardBlocking Region: In this region of operation, anode terminal is
cathode and the gate terminal is open circuited (i.e., I, = 0). In this mode made positive with respect to the
of operation, junction Jl and J3
are forward biased and J2 is reverse biased. Due to depletion layer at
the junction J2 (gate), no
through the circuit. But some small leakage current flows through the circuit due to drift of current fiows
mobile charge
carriers. From the above point, it is clear that SCR is in forward biased condition but it does not conduct.
(i) Forward Conduction Region: If the applied voltage is increased further keeping gate terminal open circuited.
Then the reversed biased junction J2 leads to avalanche breakdown and SCR turns into high conduction
mode. The voltage at which junction J2 gets breakdown is known as forward break over voltage (V, ).
From the forward break over point SCR switches to ON state. Once SCR started conducting means that the
forward current is higher than minimum leakage current. The gate current is not required to maintain SCR
inconducting state. The current at which the conduction of SCR starts is known as holding current (1).
ii) gale
Reverse Blocking Region: When the cathode is made positive withi spectto the anode and open circuiting
makes SCR to operate in reverse biased mode. The junction JI and J3 are reverse biased and junction J2
Is forward biased therefore small leakage current flows at junction "J2' and that current is referred as reverse
voltage an avalanche breakdown
Teakage current. If the reverse voltage is increased to reverse breakdown
is reterred as reverse blockine
0ccurs at junction JJ and J3 and reverse current increases sharply. I his region
Tegion.
transistors. Discuss its
Cxplain how SCR is represented as a combination of two
characteristics.
Answer : Oct.-15, Q4a)

explain the principle of operation of thyristor. Since, athy ristor is a four

Two-transistor
layered PNPN
used to
model is considered as a combination of two transistors, one transistor as PNP andthe other
deVICe, it can be
iransistor as NPN. thyristor((as shown in figure (a)) into
separatingthetwo middle layer of
model is obtained by
TvO-tshown
ransistoinr figure (b).
as
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4.2.1 Construction and Characteristics of Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

Q8. Describe the construction and working of LDR. MaylJune-18, Q12(b)
OR

Explain the construction, working and characteristics of LDR. MaylJuna-17,Q12(b)

OR
Write a note on LDR. March.-15. Q11
OR
Write short notes on LDR. Oct.-13, QA(b
Answer :

Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

Light dependent resistor is an opto electronicdevice (or)optical sensitive device in which its characteristics
are varies in accordance with the light. The principle LDR is that the resistance of LDR varies with variations in
the light intensity. The circuit symbol of LDR is as shown in figure (1).

Figure (1): LDR Symbol

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 UNIT-4:SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIER (SCR) AND PHOTOELECTRONIC DEVICES ELECTRONICS PAPER-Il
Construction
Thebasic structure of LDR is as shown in figure (2). It consistsof two metalliccontacts which are separatea
by light sensitive material is used to provide thc maximum available contact area in bet ween the metallic contacts.
Generally used light sensitive material is aCds (Cadmium sulphide)film, it is desipgned in the shape of snake like
track structure as shown in figure (2). The overallstructure is placed in plastic or resin case to cxpose to the light.
Metal film contact

-CdsO, track
Metal film contact

Resin case
Figure (2): Basic Structure of LDR
Characteristics
Typicalcharacteristic curves of light dependent resistor is as shown in figure(3). The plot is drawn in between
the values of resistance and intensity of light plot willgive the full picture regarding the variation of resistance with
intensity of light. The resistances of LDR reaches high values under dark conditions.

10 K
Bright Sun light
(Ohn1s)

Resistance
1000

100

10 100 1000 10,000

Figure (3) :Typical Characteristics of LDR

Applications
Light and dark activated switch.
2 Alarms
3 Light beam alarms
4 Reflective smoke alarms etc.

4.2.2 Construction and Characteristics of Photo-voitaic Cell

Q7. Explain the construction and operation of a photovoltaic cell. Mention its applications.
MaylJune-19, Q12(b)
OR
Explain construction and workingof photo voltaic cell. (Model Paper-2, Q16(a)Oct.-15, Q12)
OR
Explain the construction and working of photovoltaic cell.
Answer :
Photovoltaic Cell
Oct.-13, Q4d)
Adevice in which solar energy is directly converted intoelectrical energ is krowp p'hc:cvc taic cell or
solar cell. The symbol of solar cell is as shown in figure (1 ).
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Construction and Working
Figure (2) illustrates that the cross sectional vicwof solar ccll and as shown bclow

Light
Glass

Metal W
Tng
A

Junction

Metal contact

Figure (1): Symbal Figure (2): Cross-sectional View

It consists of PN junction diode which is surrounded by a glass window on the top of P-type material. The
glass layer is made extremely thinso that the light energy is directly reach PN junction casily.
When the light is incident on the PN junction, the photons from light energy colides with Valances electrons
from this the valency electron gets suflicient energy toseparate from parent atoms. In this manner free electrons
causes the current low at the junction and that is referred as minority current. This current is directly related to the
lightof illumination and surface area in which light is illuminated
Characteristics: The typicalV-I characteristics curves of solar cell is as shown in figure (3). For obtaining maximum
(nA)
current
Output
output the cell must operated at knee voltage.
H= 125 mw/cm

60
H= 100 mw/cm
50
40
30
20
10

0.2 0.4 0.6

Output vo ltage
Figure (3): Characteristics of Solar Cell

Applications
Solar cells are broadly used in
Board satellites to recharge their batteries
Caleulator

Watches and toys

4 To drive agriculture pumps
Streetlights, signals lights etc.
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4.2.5 Construction and Characteristics ELECTRONICS PAPER-II
Light cm1tted
of
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Q26. Write a note on LED. Anode

S MaylJune-17, Q8
(Charge
recombination
-P-type layer
OR -n-type layer

Write a note on LED.

March/April-16, Q11 Cathode

OR Figure (2): Construction of LED

Practical view of LED is as shown in figure (3 ). The
Describe the construction and working of PN junction
LED and mention itsapplications. is placed on the cup shaped reflector
connectedto anode and which is
cathode by using wires the whole
(Model Paper-1, Q16(b) | Oct.-15, Q4(d)) device is placed in dome shaped epoxy lens as shown in
figure (3 ).
OR
Write short note on LEDs.
Cpoxyl ens
(Oct.-14, Q12 | Oct.-13, Q12 | March-12, Q12)
PN Junction
OR
+ Reflector
Describe the operation of LED and mention
its applications. MaylJune-18,Q8
Refer only Operation and Applications Cathode

Anode
Answer :

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Figure (3): Practical LED
Light emitting diode is an light sensitive diode Working Operation
which emits light when it is forward biased. Figure (1)
shows the symbol of LED. When the PN junction is forward biased, the
process of charge carrier recombination occurs at the
junction.An electron crosses from n-type layer top-type
layer recombine with holes on the p-type layer. Free
electrons have higher energy levels than holes.And some
A
of this energy is dissipated in the form of heat and light
during recombination process.
Figure (1): Symbol of LED Characteristics

Construction Figure (4) illustrates that the typical characteristics

of LED
Figure (2) illustrates that the cross sectional view ight
output
(Lumens)
oflight emitting diode. The Semiconductor material used
for construction ofLED's is GaAs (or) GaP (or)) GaAsP.
An n-type epitaxial is ayer is formed on the substrate and
P-type layer is formed by the process of diffusion. The
process of charge carrier recombination occurs in P-type
layer so P-type layer is the uppermost layer for emission
of light.The metalicanode connection is provided such
that the light is freely escape from the surface .A gold 20 40 60 80
flm cathode connection is established at the bottom of Forward Current (mA)
the substrate such that light is easily reflected towards
surface. Figure (4): Characteristics of LED

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4.2.4 When diode is forward biased, the current flows through diode is inereases As the raise in
current results
raise in intensity of light at the output side.
Following table gives the information regarding which material produces which coloured light.
Ansy S.No. Mixture Colour
Phote GaAs IR, Invisible
2. GaP Red (or) Green
3 GaAsP Red or Yellow
transi
takes Applications
curre
acts Digital watches
2. Optical communication system
Phot
3 Microprocessor systems
phot
in fi; 4 Digital computers
S. Calculators

6. Multimeters.