Chapter 2:

Protocols and Architecture

Learning Outcome
On completion of this subject, students will be
able to:

Explain the underlying protocol architecture of

the internet
Lecture Outline
→ Standards
→ Protocols and Architecture:
OSI Model
TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
Standards
Allow for interoperability between equipment.
Standards Organization
Internet Society
ISO
ITU-T
ATM forum

Asynchronous Transfer Mode

Protocols and Architecture
For communications between entities (user) in
a system (computer)
Must speak the same language
What’s a protocol?
human protocols: network protocols:
“what’s the time?” machines rather than humans
“I have a question” all communication activity in
introductions Internet governed by protocols

… specific msgs sent

… specific actions taken when
msgs received, or other
events protocols define format, order of msgs
sent and received among network
entities, and actions taken on msg
transmission, receipt

From Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach Featuring the Internet by Kurose & Ross
What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi TCP connection
req.
Hi
TCP connection
Got the reply.
time?
2:00 Get http://gaia.cs.umass.edu/index.htm

time <file>

From Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach Featuring the Internet by Kurose & Ross
In Summary, a protocol is ....
An agreement about communication between two or more entities

It specifies
– Format of messages
– Meaning of messages
– Rules for exchange
– Procedures for handling problems
Protocols and Architecture

It describes or tell you a story on

WHAT is happening during opening a
website or or when sending
an email
Protocols and Architecture
A protocol architecture is a layered structure of hardware and
software that supports the exchange of data between systems
and supports distributed application.
Key Elements of a Protocol:
Syntax ~ Data
Data formats
Signal levels
Semantics ~ Error
Control information
Error handling
Timing ~ Speed
Speed matching
Sequencing
 Communication Protocols
Protocols are the rules that both the sender and receiver and all
intermediate devices need to follow in order to communicate effectively.
Examples:
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): A client/server application
that uses TCP for transport to retrieve HTML pages.
Domain Name Service (DNS): A name-to-address translation
application that uses both TCP and UDP transport.
Telnet: A virtual terminal application that uses TCP for transport.
File Transport Protocol (FTP): A file transfer application that uses
TCP for transport.
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP): A file transfer application
that uses UDP for transport.
Network Time Protocol (NTP): An application that synchronizes
time with a time source and uses UDP for transport.
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP): An exterior gateway routing
protocol that uses TCP for transport. BGP is used to exchange routing
information for the Internet and is the protocol used between service
providers.
NOTE: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) vs User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
Protocol Architecture
Task of communication broken up into modules
For example file transfer could use three
modules
File transfer application
Communication service module
Network access module
Protocols and Architecture

(1) OSI Model (7 Layer)

(2) TCP/IP Protocol Architecture (5 Layer)

The OSI Model
International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational
body dedicated to worldwide agreement on international
standards.
ISO was established in 1947.
An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model.
OSI was first introduced in the late 1970s.

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OSI Model
Open Systems Interconnection Model
Developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO)
OSI 7 Layers:
Application (AWAY)
Presentation (PIZZA)
Session (SEAFOOD)
Transport (TAKE)
Network (NOT)
Data Link (DO)
Physical (PLEASE)
Seven Layers of the OSI Model

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OSI Model
Communication Protocols
• Different protocols are used in
different layers of basic network
model.
• Elements in communication
protocols:
Syntax
Structure or format of the
data
Indicates how to read the bits
- field delineation
Semantics
Interprets the meaning of the
bits
Knows which fields define
what action
Timing
When data should be sent
and what
Speed at which data should
be sent or speed at which it is
being received. 18
OSI Model
Actually, hmmm… it doesn’t really
exist!
OSI is just a MODEL!

→ OSI Model is used to describe how networks

work… yeah like what the last 3 slides stated… ☺
OSI Layer - Application

They need the NETWORK to work properly!

OSI Layer - Presentation
Configure DATA!
(1) Formats and coding
(2) Compression
(3) Encryption
OSI Layer - Session
To control the COMMUNICATION

→ Login Rights
→ Permissions
OSI Layer - Transport
To guarantee end-to-end data
delivery.
OSI Layer - Network
To find the shortest path to the
destination network.
OSI Layer – Data link
To decide the whose turn
To find the physical device on
the network.
OSI Layer – Physical
Describe the physical part of the
network…

→ Frequencies
→ Cable
→ Connectors
→ Bits and etc…
Interaction between Layers

http://www.webopedia.com/quick_ref/OSI_Layers.asp 27
An Exchange of Data using OSI

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Layer 1 – Physical Layer

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Layer 2 – Data Link Layer

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Layer 3 – Network Layer

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Hope-to-hope Delivery in Layer
1, 2 and 3

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Layer 4 – Transport Layer

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Layer 5 – Session Layer

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Layer 6 – Presentation Layer

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Layer 7 – Application Layer

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Let’s Summarize the OSI Model

37
So…
Concept of Layers in Real World
We use the concept of LAYERS in our daily life. As an example, let us
consider two friends who communicate through postal mail. The process
of sending a letter to a friend would be complex if there were no
services available from the post office.

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TCP/IP Protocols and Architecture
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol
Used by the global Internet
TCP/IP 5 layers:
Application layer (Air)
Transport layer (The)
Internet layer (In)
Network access layer (Not)
Physical layer (Pain)
Internet protocol stack
application: supporting network
applications
Application
FTP, SMTP, STTP
transport: host-host data transfer
Transport
TCP, UDP
network: routing of datagrams from network
source to destination
IP, routing protocols link
link: data transfer between
physical
neighboring network elements
PPP, Ethernet
physical: bits “on the wire”
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TCP/IP Layer - Application
Support for user applications
 Application
Layer

Session
Layer

Presentation
Layer
TCP/IP Layer - Transport
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
→ Guarantee end-to-end delivery of data

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

→ Send and Pray – hope the data arrives
Internet transport protocols
services
TCP service: UDP service:
connection-oriented: setup unreliable data transfer
required between client and between sending and
server processes receiving process
reliable transport between does not provide:
sending and receiving process connection setup,
flow control: sender won’t reliability, flow control,
overwhelm receiver congestion control, timing,
or bandwidth guarantee
congestion control: throttle
sender when network
overloaded Q: why bother? Why is there
does not provide: timing, a UDP?
minimum bandwidth
guarantees
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Internet apps: application, transport
protocols
Application Underlying
Application layer protocol transport protocol

e-mail SMTP [RFC 2821] TCP

remote terminal access Telnet [RFC 854] TCP
Web HTTP [RFC 2616] TCP
file transfer FTP [RFC 959] TCP
streaming multimedia proprietary TCP or UDP
(e.g. RealNetworks)
Internet telephony proprietary
teleconferencing (e.g., Dialpad) typically UDP

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TCP/IP Layer - Internet

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

TCP/IP Layer – Network Access

Fiber Optics

→Destination
TCP/IP Layer – Physical

Describe the physical part

of the network…
TCP/IP vs. OSI
• Application layer • Application layer
• Presentation layer
• Session layer
• Transport layer • Transport layer
• Internet layer • Network layer
• Network Access layer • Data Link layer
• Physical • Physical layer
Operation of TCP/IP
Operation of TCP/IP
Operation of TCP/IP
The process at A hands the message down
to TCP with instructions to send it to host
B.
TCP hands the message down to IP with
instructions to send it to host B. Note that
IP does not have to know the destination
port.
Next, IP hands the message down to the
network access layer with instructions to
send it to router J.
To control this operation, control information
as well as user data must be transmitted.
Operation of TCP/IP
Operation of TCP/IP
The sending process generates a block of data and
passes this to TCP. TCP may break this block into
smaller pieces to make it more manageable.

To each of these pieces, TCP appends control

information known as the TCP header, forming a
TCP segment.
Operation of TCP/IP
Next, TCP hands each segment over to IP, with
instructions to transmit it to B. These segments
must be transmitted across one or more subnetworks
and relayed through one or more intermediate
routers. This operation, too, requires the use of
control information. Thus IP appends a header of
control information to each segment to form an IP
datagram.
Finally, each IP datagram is presented to the
network access layer for transmission across the
first subnetwork in its journey to the destination.
The network access layer appends its own header,
creating a packet, or frame. The packet is
transmitted across the subnetwork to router J.
Operation of TCP/IP
Encapsulation
Communications on a network originate at a
source and are being sent to a destination.
Information that is sent on a network is
referred to as data.

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 source

message
segment Ht
M application Encapsulation
M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
Hl Hn Ht M link Hl Hn Ht M
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network Hn Ht M
M application H l Hn Ht M link Hl Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn H t M link router
physical

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Physical addresses
Addressing – An Example
A node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with
physical address 87. The two nodes are connected by a link (bus
topology LAN). As the figure shows, the computer with physical
address 10 is the sender, and the computer with physical address
87 is the receiver.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xIuBmOufbls

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IP addresses
Port addresses
OSI v TCP/IP
 TCP/IP OSI MODEL
Data

Segment Segment
Packet Packet
Frame Frame
Bits Bits

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