Module 6

DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF

FLEXURAL MEMBERS:
BEAMS

Lesson No.1: Design of Beams for Moments

Using Elastic Design or Allowable Stress
Design Method

I. LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, the student will be able to:
• know the classification of flexural members ;
• know the ASD formula used in designing and analyzing flexural members;
• use the ASD method in the design and analysis of flexural members.
• have knowledge about plastic analysis

II. OVERVIEW
1.0 General Provisions

This topic applies to members subjected to simple bending about one principal axis.
For simple bending, the member is loaded in a plane parallel to a principal axis that
passes through the shear center or restrained against twisting at load points and
supports.
Beams are structural members that support transverse loads. They may be
horizontal, sloping, or vertical. Depending upon their end connections, beams may
be termed simple, continuous or fixed. Simple beams have end connections which
are considered not to have any end moments with its ends free to rotate. Continuous
beams extend continuously across three or more supports. A beam is considered
fixed if its ends are rigidly attached to other members so that a moment can be
transmitted across connection.

1.1 Elastic Design

Until recent years, almost all steel beams were designed on the basis of the elastic
theory. The maximum load that a structure could support was assumed to equal the
load that first caused a stress somewhere in the structure to equal the yield stress
of the material. The members were designed so that computed bending stresses for
service loads did not exceed the yield stress divided by a safety factor (e.g., 1.5 to
2.0). Engineering structures have been designed for many decades by this method,
with satisfactory results. The design profession, however, has long been aware that
ductile members do not fail until a great deal of yielding occurs after the yield stress
is first reached. This means that such members have greater margins of safety
against collapse than the elastic theory would seem to indicate

.
III. COURSE MATERIALS
1.0 CLASSIFICATION OF FLEXURAL MEMBERS

Flexural members may be classified as follows:

a. Girders: usually indicates a large beam into which smaller beams are framed.
b. Joists: these are closely spaced beams supporting the floors and roofs of
buildings.
c. Lintels: these are beams over openings in masonry walls such as windows
and doors.
d. Purlins : these are roof beams spanning between trusses.
e. Spandrels: support the exterior walls of buildings and part of the floor and
hallway loads.
f. Girts: (horizontal) wall beams serving principally to resist bending due to wind
on the side of an industrial building.
g. Stringers: beams in bridge floors parallel to the roadway and frame into the
transverse floor beams.
h. Floor beams: these are larger beams in many bridge floors which are
perpendicular to the roadway of the bridge and transfer the floor loads from
stringers to the girders or trusses.
Other terms associated to beam are header, trimmer, and rafter.

Sections used as beams

W shape will normally prove to be the most economical beam sections. Channels
are sometimes used for beams subjected to light loads such as purlins

2.0 DEVELOPMENT OF STRENGTH IN BEAMS

To be able to determine the flexural strength 𝑀 of beam we must first examine the
behavior of beams throughout the full range of loading, from very small loads to the
point of yielding.

(a)
𝑓𝑏

(b)

Figure 1

Consider the beam shown in Figure 1 (a), for a linear elastic material and small
deformations, the distribution of bending stress is shown in Figure 1(b), with the stress
assumed to be uniform across the width of the beam.
The stress at any point can be found from the flexure formula:

𝑀𝑦
𝑓𝑏 =
𝐼𝑥

The maximum stress will occur at the extreme fiber, where 𝑦 is maximum (𝑦 = 𝑐) .

𝑀𝑐 𝑀 𝑀
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = =
𝐼𝑥 𝐼𝑥⁄ 𝑆𝑥
𝑐
where:
𝑀 = is the bending moment at the cross-section under consideration
𝑦 = is the perpendicular distance from the neutral plane to the point of interest
𝑐 = is the perpendicular distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber.
𝐼𝑥 = is the momentof inertia of the area of the cross section with respect to the
neutral axis
𝑆𝑥 = elastic section modulus of the cross section

The equation for 𝑓𝑏 and 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 are valid as long as the loads are small enough that the
material remains within the elastic range. This means that the stress 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 must not
exceed 𝐹𝑦 and that the bending moment must not exceed

𝑀𝑦 = 𝐹𝑦 𝑆𝑥

where, 𝑀𝑦 is the bending moment that brings the beam to the point of yielding.

3.0 FLEXURAL OR BENDING STRESSES IN BEAMS : 𝑭𝒃

3.1 Laterally Supported Beams

Items that need to be considered in beam design are moments, shears, crippling,
buckling, lateral support, deflection and perhaps fatigue. Beams will probably be
selected which satisfactorily resist the bending moments and then checked to see if
any of the other items are critical.

In the flexure formula f b is the fiber stress in the outermost fiber at a distance c
from the neutral axis, and I is the moment of inertia of the section. If a beam is to
be designed for a particular bending moment and for a certain allowable stress Fb ,
the section modulus required to provide a beam of sufficient strength can be
obtained from the flexure formula.

Mc M M
Fb = = =
I I S
c
M
S=
Fb

For ASD design, two important items should be remembered in selecting shapes:

a) Select the lightest possible shape having the required section modulus,
assuming that the resulting section will reasonably fit into the structure.
b) The section moduli values in the table are given about the horizontal axes for
beams in their upright positions.
3.1.1. Flexural Stress

In the design of rolled shapes, two factors affect the value of the allowable
bending stress Fb which are:

a. Section geometry depending on the ratio of: flange width-to-flange

thickness and beam depth-to-web thickness.
b. Lateral support to compression flange.

According to AISC specification, the geometry of a rolled shape may be such

as to produce a compact or non-compact section.

3.1.2. Allowable Bending Stress for Laterally Supported Beams

1) Members with Compact Sections:

A compact section is capable of developing plastic moment capacity

before any local buckling occurs and must satisfy the following conditions:

a) The compression flange on the member must be continuously

connected to the beam web.
b) The section must have the following flange width-to-flange thickness
ratio.

bf 170
b.1 Unstiffened projecting elements: 
2t f Fy
b 500
b.2 Stiffened projecting elements: 
tf Fy
where b is the actual width of the stiffened element

c) The depth-to-web thickness ratio is

  f
c.1
d 1680
 1 − 3.74 f a  when a  0.16
tw  Fy  Fy
Fy  
d 675 fa
c.2  when  0.16
tw Fy Fy
The term f a represents the stress caused by a concurrent axial
load (if any).

d) The laterally unsupported length of the compression flange Lb must be

adequately braced and does not exceed Lc. The value of Lc is the
smaller between

200 b f
L1 = (mm)
Fy

137,900
L2 = (mm)
 d 
 F
A  y
 f 

Note: The smaller value of L1 and L2 is termed Lc while the bigger

value is Lu.
 where : b f = width of the compression flange, mm
d = depth of the section, mm
t f = thickness of the flange, mm
t w = thickness of the web, mm
A f = t f b f = area of compression flange, mm2
Fy = yield stress of material, MPa

For members with compact sections that meet the preceding criteria
(excluding hybrid beams and members with yield points greater than 448
MPa) symmetrical about, and loaded in, the plane of their minor axis, the
allowable bending stress in both tension and compression is :

Fb = 0.66 Fy (MPa)

provided the flanges are connected continuously to the web or webs and
the laterally unsupported length of the compression flange L b does not
exceed Lc or ( Lb ≤ Lc).

For members with Lc ≤ Lb ≤ Lu : Fb = 0.60 Fy (MPa)

2) Members With Non-Compact (or Partially Compact) Sections

a) For members with Lb ≤ Lc except that their flanges are non-compact or

170 bf 250
  (excluding built-up members and members with
Fy 2 t f Fy
yield points greater than 448 MPa), the allowable bending stress in
both tension and compression is :

 bf 
Fb = Fy 0.79 − 0.000762 Fy  (MPa)
 2t f 

b) For members with a non-compact section but not included in the

above, and loaded through the shear centers and braced laterally in
200b f
the region of compression stress at intervals not exceeding ,
Fy
the allowable bending stress in both tension and compression is:

Fb = 0.60 Fy (MPa)

3.2 Laterally Unsupported Beams

3.2.1. Allowable Bending Stress, Fb : (For Members with Compact or Non-

Compact Section when the unbraced length Lb>Lu)

Some situations occur where the compression flange of the beams

supporting columns, crane runway girders, and continuous beams with
long spans is laterally unsupported for some length. For this condition, the
resulting column-type action may result in lateral buckling. Where the
occurrence of this situation is possible, the allowable bending stresses are
reduced.
a. Allowable bending stress in tension :

Fb = 0.60 Fy
b. Allowable bending stress in compression :

3
L
b.1 When : < 706 x 10 C b
rT Fy

Fb = 0.60 Fy (MPa) --------------------- (a)

706 x 10 3 C b L 3.54 x 10 6 C b
b.2 When :  
Fy rT Fy

2 F y (L rT ) 
2

Fb =  − 6
 Fy (MPa) --------- (b)
 3 10 .6 x 10 C b 

L 6
b.3 When : > 3.54 x 10 C b
rT Fy

1.17 x 10 6 Cb
Fb = (MPa) ------------------ (c)
(L rT )2

b.4 When the compression flange is solid and approximately

rectangular in cross-section and its area is not less than
that of the tension flange.

82700 Cb
Fb = (MPa) ----------------- (d)
L d Af

Important : The value of Fb is the greater from the equations (b) and (d),
or (c) and (d) as applicable but shall be less than o.60 Fy .
where :
bf = flange width, mm
tf = flange thickness, mm
d = depth, mm
tw = web thickness, mm
Af = bftf = area of compression flange, mm2
L = Lb = distance between cross-sections braced against twist
and lateral displacement of compression flange or the
unsupported length of compression flange, mm
rT = radius of gyration of the compression flange plus 1/3 of
the compression web area taken about an axis in the
plane of the web (y-axis).

1
Iy
rT =
2
1
A f + Aw
6

Cb = 1.75 + 1.05 (M1/M2) + 0.3 (M1/M2)2 ≤ 2.3

M1/M2 = ratio of the smaller end moment to the larger end moment
which is positive (+) for reversed curvature and negative (-)
 for single curvature.
Cb = unity (1) for simple support, or when the moment within the
unbraced length is larger than either of the end moments
M1 and M2 regardless of sign.

To simplify the use of the foregoing formulas, the following statements

may be applied.

a) If Lb ≤ Lc , : Fb = 0.66 Fy
b) If Lc ≤ Lb≤ Lu : Fb = 0.60 Fy

c) If Lb>Lc : Fb  0.60 Fy and can be determined by the

appropriate above formula.

4.0 SHEARING STRESS : 𝑭𝒗

Shear rarely controls the design of steel beams. However, it is wise to check them
specially if they are short and heavily loaded.

1. Unit Shearing Stress

The formula to calculate the longitudinal shear distribution across any section is
given by the equation developed in mechanics of materials

VQ
fv =
It

The AISC specification allow the use of the average shear stress based on

V
fv =
dt w
where :
fv = unit shearing stress
V = shear force
d = beam depth
tw = web thickness

2. Allowable Shearing Stress

On effective cross-sectional area (except at reduced cross section), where
the effective area of rolled and fabricated shapes may be taken as the
overall depth times the web thickness, the allowable shearing stress is :

Fv = 0.4 Fy