Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells

of revolution
Sotiris Koussios
Delft University of Technology
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering
Department of Production Technology
e-mail: [email protected]

Otto K. Bergsma
Delft University of Technology
Faculty of Aerospace Engineering
Department of Production Technology
e-mail: [email protected]

Glen Mitchell
Queens’ University of Belfast
Faculty of Aeronautical Engineering
e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The application of non-geodesic filament winding significantly enlarges the design space for composite

structures. The formulation and evaluation of these trajectories however, is a rather complicated problem. In

this paper, under the limitation of exclusively considering generic shells of revolution, we present the basic

equations supporting such a path description. These equations are already known but the emphasis of the

derivation presented here is mainly oriented towards the relation between basic geometric quantities

(metrics and curvatures) and the resulting fibre path orientation (winding angle distribution). In addition,

we propose here the idea of formulating the friction distribution along the tow on such a way that the

resulting path can analytically be described. Furthermore, we provide analytical results for some basic

shapes.

KEYWORDS: filament winding, curvature, (non-) geodesic, Clairaut, coefficient of friction

NOMENCLATURE
Latin symbols

A characteristic functions in the non-geodesic equation

a meridian profile function
B arbitrary function to enable the friction as an expression of the local radius
vector function describing a three dimensional curve
c pole opening radius
E coefficient of the first fundamental form (parallel direction)
F tangential fibre force, coefficient of the first fundamental form (relating the meridional and
parallel directions to each other)
f tangential fibre force per unity of length
G coefficient of the first fundamental form (meridional direction)
k curvature
R radius of curvature or equatorial radius (in section 3)
vector function describing a three dimensional surface
s coordinate in fibre length direction
u independent coordinate in the parallel (circumferential) direction
v independent coordinate in the meridional direction
Y dimensionless parallel radius
Z dimensionless coordinate along the axis of rotational symmetry
z coordinate along the axis of rotational symmetry

Greek symbols

 winding angle
 Christofell symbol
 first spherical coordinate
 = (equatorial radius / polar radius)
 coefficient of friction
 = 0.5*(cylinder length / cylinder radius)
 radius
 top angle of a conical shell of revolution
 second spherical coordinate
 angle associated with the normal curvature
 angle associated with the geodesic curvature

Indices (# = any presented symbol)

#0, #1, #2 respectively first, second and third characteristic equation

#11, #12, #22 distinction for Christoffel symbols
#1, #2 distinction for Christoffel symbols
#g geodesic
#m meridional
#max maximum value
#n normal
#p parallel

Operators

cosec(#) 1/sin(#)
#‘ first derivative
#“ second derivative
d# differential
# increment
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

1. INTRODUCTION

Filament wound objects increasingly become mass-production items [1, 7]. Originating as a

technique for producing rocket engine cases, this manufacturing method made considerable advancements

with the introduction of computational methods in the 80’s. An additional feature enabled by computer

techniques is the determination of non-geodesic trajectories on rotationally symmetric or continuous surfaces

in general. The most widely available filament winding simulation packages contain these possibilities

(CADFIL, CADWIND, CADPATH, and FIBERGRAFIX).

Several authors like Owen [14], Middleton [12], Wells [15], DiVita, Liang [11], Xiang [16] have

already formulated and evaluated non-geodesic winding. Since the associated calculations are considerably

more complicated (when compared to the formulation of geodesic trajectories), special emphasis has been

given to numerical solution techniques for their evaluation. The derivation and description of non-geodesic

trajectories can nowadays be considered as a completely solved problem. Nevertheless, the link between

several characteristic geometric quantities of the underlying shape and the resulting fibre layer architecture

as well as the link between these geometric quantities and the mechanical performance of the final product is

not evident anymore. The reason for this is that the representation of the resulting fibre path has a discrete

character (data points) and is not directly associated with other shape related quantities by means of

mathematical functions.

In a typical design case for a filament wound structure, the final shape will mainly depend on

intrinsic quantities like curvatures and metrics. These quantities are also the main controllers for the resulting

fibre path on the mandrel shape under consideration. The link between these intrinsic quantities and the

resulting generally non-geodesic fibre path is established here by a first order differential equation. This

equation has already been derived by several, previously indicated authors. In this paper however, we

represent this equation and its derivation in a more fundamental form and try to directly relate it to the

intrinsic geometry of the shell under consideration. In addition, we provide several analytical descriptions for

non-geodesic trajectories on some elementary shells of revolution.

After the formulation of the basic fibre equilibrium equations we proceed to the derivation of the

basic geometric quantities like metrics and curvatures (subsections 2.1-2.4). These quantities are then

implemented into the derivation of the differential equation describing non-geodesic trajectories on shells of
3
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

revolution (2.5). With the obtained equations, we construct the desired path description into polar and

spherical coordinates. After some evaluation-related remarks (2.6) we proceed to the results and discussion

section (3). The paper ends with the outline of the conclusions, followed by several recommendations.

2. FIBRE TRAJECTORIES

2.1. Equilibrium of forces

We consider here an infinitesimally small piece of a fibre placed on the surface of an arbitrary convex shell

of revolution (fig. 1). The fibre force per unit length acting on the shell surface can be described as follows:

F F
fn

Rn


Fig. 1. Elementary fibre force equilibrium

(1)

where Rn is the radius of normal curvature at the fibre piece under consideration.

With the appearance of friction between the fibre bundle and the surface of application, the so-called

geodesic curvature becomes an important parameter (fig. 2).

4
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution



F Rg
f
F
fn

Rn



Fig. 2. Fibre force equilibrium with friction

The geodesic curvature (Rg) represents the in-plane modification  of the path direction and is associated

with the lateral force acting on the fibre bundle (fm). Similarly, the parameter Rn is associated with the normal

force (fn) supporting the fibre bundle (equation (1)). Since the required value for the coefficient of friction ( )

is equal to the ratio of the normal- (fn) and in-plane force f, the following criterion can be derived [11, 13, 15,

16]:

(2)

where kg and kn are respectively the geodesic and normal curvature.

2.2. Geometric parameters

Before proceeding to the mathematical formulation of the geodesic curvature, we outline here the

implemented geometric parameters.

A regular surface of revolution is defined as follows [2, 10]:

(3)

5
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

The coefficients of the first fundamental form are closely related with the metrics on a surface [2, 10]:

(4)

It should be noted that the parameter E corresponds with the radial metric along v = constant, while G is

directly related to the curve length differential along the meridian (u = constant).

The meridional curvature (along a constant u-value) is:

(5)

The parallel1 curvature (along a constant v-value) is:

(6)

A continuous three-dimensional curve on the surface under consideration may be defined as follows [2, 10]:

(7)

Assuming that the fibre curve has an orientation (v) with respect to the meridian (fig. 3), the derivatives u’

and v’ can directly be related to the basic metrics E and G, and the parameter s [7, 8, 13].

Fig. 3. Fibre orientation

O C

ds
 d

1 A du TheBmeridional and parallel curvatures are the two

Some times indicated as circumferential radius of curvature.
principal curvatures describing a shell of revolution, and their directions are in this case perpendicular to each other.

6
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

(8)

In addition, the normal curvature can be expressed as a combination of the meridional and parallel curvature,

and can directly be related to (v) [2, 10]:

(9)

The second derivatives of u and v with respect to s can be expressed as follows (after substitution of 1/ds,

equation (8)) [13]:

(10)

where and . Note that equations (10) depend exclusively on the parameter

v.

2.3. Geodesic curvature

Considering a regular surface described by equation (3) and a curve defined according to equation (7), the

following expression can be used for the derivation of the geodesic curvature [2, 10]:

7
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

(11)

where the so-called Christoffel symbols kij of the second kind are given by:

(12)

Substitution of equation (4) into (12) followed by differentiation results in:

(13)

The implemented Christoffel symbols depend exclusively on the parameter v; this property reflects also on

the coefficients of the first fundamental form (E, F and G). Additionally, according to equation (10), the

involved derivatives u’(s), u”(s), v’(s) and v”(s) can also be treated as functions of v only. These exclusive

dependencies lead to the conclusion that the geodesic curvature kg will also depend on the parameter v only.

Substitution of equations (13) and (10) into (11)leads, after some simplifications, to:

(14)

2.4. Geodesic trajectories

A geodesic trajectory is characterised by kg(v) = 0  v   (equations (3) and (7)). This condition results in:

8
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

(15)

The following equality can be introduced:

(16)

Substitution of equation (16) into (15) results in:

(17)

Integration yields:

(18)

where (v), c and E(v) are positive real numbers.

Equation (18) is the well-known Clairaut relation [3, 4, 8]. This expression can also be obtained by

minimising the applied fibre length using the Euler-Lagrange equation [7, 8]. In the case of geodesically

wound rotationally symmetric products, the constant in equation (18) corresponds with the pole-opening

radius of the shell under consideration. In order to ensure fibre path continuation after reaching the pole of

the vessel, the fibre trajectory orientation at the reverse point (smallest radius) should be equal to /2 [rad]

[3].

2.5. Non-geodesic trajectories

2.5.1. General equation

9
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

The assumption of kg(v)  0 leads automatically to max  0 (equation 2). Substitution of equations (8) and

(14) into (2) leads to:

(19)

The “” sign refers to the fact that the presence of friction can either relatively increase- or decrease the

resulting winding angle. Finally, substitution of equality (16) into (19) leads to:

(20)

where the first part is the differential appearance of the Clairaut equation and the second part represents the

frictional influence.

The following expressions are now introduced:

(21)

The combination of equation (20) and (21) leads to:

(22)

A great advantage provided by equations (21) and (22) is the exclusive implementation of basic geometrical

quantities like metrics and curvatures which are independent of the coordinate system they are related to

10
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

(intrinsic coordinates). Additionally, the derived first order differential equation (22) is an ordinary one,

solvable with standard methods.

When focussing on the characteristic functions Ai(v), the following statements can be formulated:

 A1(v) depends only on the parallel metric E(v) and not on the actual shape of the treated shell of

revolution. This is an explanation for the Clairaut relation being exclusively dependent of the local radius

perpendicular to the rotational-symmetry axis, (this radius is equal to E1/2).

 Both A0(v) and A2(v) are linearly proportional to (metric along the meridian)

 When the friction coefficient is equal to zero, the distribution of the curvature radii does not directly

affect the resulting winding angle (v). The latter depends then exclusively on E().

 The only possibility for neutralising the frictional influence on the resulting fibre path is kp(v) = km(v) =

0. This condition reflects on a flat surface.

2.5.2. Trajectories in polar coordinates

The definition of a shell of revolution in polar coordinates is [2, 7, 10]:

(23)

According to equation (4), the associated metrics are:

(24)

The corresponding radii of curvature can be obtained by elaboration of equations (5) and (6):

(25)

11
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

The characteristic equations Ai() become:

(26)

Note that  is a positive real number while z’() and z”() are usually negative.

The general non-geodesic equation can be obtained by substitution of equation (26) into (22):

(27)

Notice that a cylindrical shell of revolution can not be described in the hereby-presented coordinate system

since z() cannot be defined as a function (infinite slope).

2.5.3. Trajectories in spherical coordinates

A shell of revolution in spherical coordinates can be described as follows [2, 7, 10]:

(28)

Application of equation (4) results in the determination of the coefficients of the first fundamental form:

(29)

12
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

The main curvatures become (equations (5) and (6)):

(30)

The characteristic equations Ai() can be obtained by the substitution of expressions (29) and (30) into

equation(21):

(31)

The general non-geodesic equation becomes:

(32)

Despite the relatively complicated appearance, equation (32) is suitable for application on a more extensive

field of shapes; a typical example is the description of a cylinder, where equation (27) fails. Additionally,

when ellipsoidal or spherical shapes are treated, the above-mentioned equation in spherical coordinates will

enable a considerable simplification. For “straight” shells of revolution e.g. a cone, equation (27) might be

preferable.

2.6. Integration procedure

For a “smooth” surface of revolution, the characteristic functions A0(v), A1(v) and A2(v) are continuous and do

not show any singularities. An exception on this statement is when E1/2 becomes equal to zero; the

13
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

corresponding A1(v) function becomes then infinite. This implies that the winding angle should remain equal

to zero for every locus on the treated shell of revolution (see also equation (18)).

For the integration of equation (19) we assume here that the beginning point of the fibre path is located

adjacent to the polar opening of the shell under consideration (initial = /2). According to equation (19), the

derivative of the winding angle with respect to the v-parameter will tend to -. This problem can be solved by

a slight reduction of the initial winding angle value (initial  /2).

A suitable integration method for equation (19) or (22) is the fourth order Runge-Kutta procedure [6]. As a

thumb rule, it can be stated that by an initial value of 0.9999/2 the required amount of steps becomes

approximately 50*103 over the integration interval [0.9999/2, (vequator)]. It should be noted that the minimal

possible value for (vequator) is equal to zero.

The stability and calculation time obviously depends on the behaviour of the characteristic equations A0(v),

A1(v) and A2(v) and is generally sufficient, respectively short. When the winding angle  becomes equal to 0,

the integrand vanishes and the resulting fibre path will follow the meridional direction. For  = /2 the

integrand becomes infinite (as previously indicated) and the fibre path will follow the circumferential

direction of the shell (constant latitude).

By approximating the obtained integration data with an interpolating function, the fibre path coordinates in

equation (7) can be calculated as follows [7, 8]:

(33)

where p(s) is the data interpolating function.

Equation (33) describes the resulting path as a three-dimensional curve depending on a single parameter, e.g.

 as a function  when considering polar coordinates (equation (23)).

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Cone
14
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

The class of “straight” shells of revolution involves the equality of the meridian curvature with zero. When

using polar coordinates, the complete range from annulus to almost a cylinder can be determined. The latter

is inappropriate for a polar description since the shell-generating profile cannot be expressed as a function of

the local radius. For a cone with a pole radius c, the following dimensionless coordinates are introduced:

(34)

Assuming a top angle , the equation describing the meridian becomes:

(35)

where Yeq is the dimensionless equatorial radius.

Application of equation (35) on (27) results in:

(36)

In combination with the boundary condition (1) = /2, equation (36) gains the following solution:

(37)

For  = 0 we obtain the Clairaut equation (18). Furthermore, for an annulus ( = /2), the friction is not able to

create any path deviation since cot(/2) = 0. The reason for this inability can be found in the simultaneous

equality of km() and kp() with zero (equation (25) with z’() = z”() = 0).

Implementation of equation (33) results in the wound trajectory description:

15
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

(38)

where “cosec” stays for “1/sin”. As a typical example, we consider here a cone with the following

characteristic parameters:

 = /8

Yeq = 10

 = {-0.2, -0.1, 0, 0.1, 0.2}

(Yeq) = 0

In fig. 4, the trajectories are presented; they correspond with  = {-0.2, -0.1, 0, 0.1, 0.2}, referring from the

right to the left:

Fig.4. Fibre trajectories on a cone

It can generally be stated that if the Y eq-value is constant, the effect of friction application increases when the

top angle becomes smaller; this is generated due to the relative increase of the total fibre length as a function

of Y.

The basic cone-related fibre trajectories can easily be used when a discretisation of rotational symmetric

objects into conical ones is preferred, particularly during the determination of the fibre orientation in a finite

element analysis method.

3.2. Cylinder

16
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

The description of a cylinder in spherical coordinates is:

(39)

where c is the basic radius and  = 0.5 *(Length of the cylinder)/c. The initial winding angle at the equator is

determined as follows:

(40)

The general winding equation in spherical coordinates (32) becomes:

(41)

In combination with the initial condition (40), the solution becomes:

(42)

Substitution of the obtained expression into equation (33) leads to:

(43)

As an example, we define here the following cylinder:  = 10,  = 10,  = {-0.2, -0.1, 0, 0.1, 0.2}, (/2) = 0.

In the figure below, the results are presented, where the applied friction coefficient () is equal to

respectively -0.2, -0.1, 0, 0.1, 0.2, from the right to the left:

17
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

Fig. 5. Fibre trajectories on a cylinder

Depending on the magnitude of ,  and , we can create transitional windings for connecting polar- and hoop

circuits to each other [9] (particularly important for winding cylindrical pressure vessels in a continuous

fashion).

3.3. Sphere

For a sphere, the meridian function g()is a constant equal to the basic radius R. The non-geodesic trajectory

equation becomes:

(44)

where c is the value corresponding with the pole opening. As an initial condition, the winding angle at the

pole is set equal to /2. The solution of equation (44) becomes:

(45)

The differential equation describing the obtained trajectories is:

18
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

(46)

The sphere-related trajectories treated in our example are defined as follows: R = 1, c = 0.1,  = {-0.2, -0.1,

0, 0.1, 0.2}, (/2) = 0. The result is depicted in the figure bellow where, as usual, the corresponding

implemented coefficient of friction is respectively equal to –0.1, -0.1, 0, 0.1, and 0.2 when viewing from the

right to the left:

Fig. 6. Fibre trajectories on a sphere

19
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

3.4. Isotensoids

The basic equation for determining isotensoidal meridians is [3, 4]:

(47)

Substitution of this relation and equation (25) into (20) leads to:

(48)

The friction coefficient should belong to the interval [-max, max] where max is the maximum achievable

friction value. To obtain an analytical winding angle expression, we define a continuous function ()

remaining between the indicated friction boundaries and satisfying the following condition:

(49)

where B() is an arbitrary continuous function, able to generate -values belonging to the previous mentioned

range. Assuming the existence of such a function, equation (48) can be rewritten as follows:

(50)

The solution becomes:

(51)

where c is the pole radius. Indicating the equator radius with R, the following function for B() can be

assumed:

20
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

(52)

Substitution of equation (52) into (51) satisfies automatically the demand of creating a winding angle equal

to /2 at the poles. The friction function (equation (49)) becomes:

(53)

As an example, we consider here the following case: c = 1, R = 10,  = {-0.2, -0.1, 0, 0.1, 0.2}. The solutions

for () are given in the figure below:

Fig. 7. Fibre trajectories on an isotensoidal shell of revolution

1.5

1.25

1
 ={-0.2,-0.1,0,0.1,0.2}
0.75

0.5

0.25  

2 4 6 8 10

It should be noted that the friction function (53) strongly depends on z’(). When determining the

isotensoidal shape, particular cases may occur with z’() = 0. Consequently, the desired limitation of ()

might not be possible. However, investigation of these singularities is beyond the scope of this paper; the

introduced B-function serves exclusively the aim of creating an example.

3.5. Ellipsoidal shell with flat polar areas

21
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

The last example is a quantitative demonstration of the curvature influence on the ability of friction to

modify a certain given geodesic path. In the figure below we show that increased curvature values will result

in intensified fibre path trajectory modifications:

 = {-0.1, -0.05, 0, 0.05, 0.1}

from the left to the right

Fig. 8. Fibre trajectories on a shell of revolution combining flat- and curved areas

Obviously, there is no path-modification possible on the flat areas. The corresponding winding angles are

given in the figure below:

Fig. 9. Winding angles on a shell combining flat- and curved areas

1.5 
1.25 
1
0.75
=0.1
0.5
 0.25

0.4 0.6 0.8 1.2 1.4 1.6 =-0.1

Flat Curved

Note the initial fibre path coincidence at the pole (left side of the presented graph).

4. CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

22
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

In this paper, we have focussed on the analytical method for the determination of non-geodesic

trajectories on generic shells of revolution. Departing from the definition of basic differential geometry-

related parameters like metrics and curvatures, a general equation has been obtained, able to describe an

arbitrary non-geodesic trajectory on a regular surface of revolution. After the translation of this general

expression into polar- and spherical coordinates, a short description of the applied integration procedure has

been outlined. The method presented here has been evaluated for a series of basic rotational symmetric

geometries like cones, cylinders and isotensoids.

The method presented here emphasises on the influence of the normal and parallel (circumferential)

curvature on the resulting winding angle distribution along a particular fibre path. As already known from

the literature, an increased coefficient of friction in combination with strongly curved surfaces provides the

best possibility for significantly deviating from a geodesic path. This conclusion is confirmed by equation

(20). In addition, equation (20) clearly shows that on a flat surface the effect of friction will have no result.

The available friction is limited by a lower and upper bound. Within these bounds, one may freely

choose a continuous expression representing the friction as a function of e.g. the local radius (independent

parameter). With a proper choice of this function, one may obtain an analytical solution providing the

winding angle as a function of the independent parameter. This method is demonstrated here for an

isotensoidal pressure vessel.

The obtained differential equation is well suited for evaluation by numerical methods (Heun, Runge-

Kutta). An exception for this statement arises when  = 0 or  = /2 where the integrand becomes respectively

zero or infinite. Special attention should be given to the solutions corresponding with cones, since the

obtained expressions can easily be used for modelling a particular vessel as a sequence of linked conical

rings. This discretisation generates the ability for a relatively fast and simple numerical calculation of e.g.

non-geodesic filament wound pressure vessels [3, 7].

It is believed that the representation of non-geodesic trajectories by means of a differential equation

provides the tool for integrating the possibility of non-geodesic winding into the design stage of a particular

product in both a qualitative and a quantitative way (as nicely demonstrated for geodesic tow paths by de

Jong [3, 4]). This implementation can also be performed in a reversed order; for a given meridian profile one

may calculate the required fibre path modifications for improving the product performance. A typical

23
 Non-geodesic filament winding on generic shells of revolution

demonstration of this idea can be found in the process of trying to convert an overwound oblate spheroid into

an isotensoid by modifying the winding angle (only a certain combination of meridian slope and winding

angle is able to unsure constant fibre loading [3, 4]).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to gratefully thank Glen Mitchell for providing the basis for the non-geodesic equation

during his internship at the faculty of Aerospace Engineering, Delft University of Technology. In addition,

we wish to express our appreciation for the inspiring work performed in our laboratory by Professor de Jong.

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