Republic of the Philippines

University of Eastern Philippines

College of Engineering
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
University Town, Northern Samar

FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
(INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE)

Submitted by:

ROSE ANN F. ABLAZO

RONALDO P. BORJA, JR.

JUDY ANN S. CASTILLO

KARL EDWIN DEPIŇA

LOU GABRIEL FRANZUELA

JORDAN B. LOBESTO

ELMARIE A. RAMILO

RHENZ ABRAHAM SALAZAR

BSCE - 4

Submitted to:

ENGR. RIC GONZAGA

Professor
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION TO THE COURSE

OVERVIEW

Any structure consists of two parts, a sub-structure, and a super-structure.

These two parts of a structure are separated by a line called the plinth of that structure.
The plinth is typically the top of the foundation wall. The sub-structure is the part below
the plinth and the superstructure is the part above the plinth level.

The following topic to be discuss in this chapter, to wit:

Overview of Foundation Engineering; Requirements of a Good Foundation;

Process of Designing a Foundation; Design of Foundation Engineering.

Lesson 1: Foundation and Retaining Wall Design

Foundation and Retaining Wall Design are crucial elements in civil engineering,
focusing on ensuring the stability and durability of structures.

1. 1 Foundation Design

The foundation is the part of a structure that transfers the load from the building
to the ground. Its primary purpose is to distribute the load evenly, minimize settlement,
and prevent structural failure.

1.1.1 Types of Foundations

1. Shallow Foundations

Suitable for light structures and strong soil conditions.

➢ Spread Footings: Wide bases that spread the load over a large area.
➢ Mat or Raft Foundation: A continuous slab that supports multiple columns or
walls.
2. Deep Foundations

Used for heavy structures or weak soil conditions.

➢ Pile Foundations: Long, slender columns driven deep into the ground.
➢ Drilled Shafts or Caissons: Large, deep holes filled with concrete.

1.1.2 Key Considerations in Foundation Design

Soil Properties

Understanding soil bearing capacity, density, and type is essential.

Load Analysis

Calculating dead loads (static), live loads (dynamic), and environmental loads
(wind, earthquake).

Settlement Control

Ensuring uniform settlement to prevent differential settlement, which can lead

to structural issues.

Drainage and Water Table

Proper drainage to prevent water accumulation and manage the water table
level.

1.2 Retaining Wall Design

Retaining walls are structures designed to hold back soil or other materials,
preventing erosion and providing support in sloped terrains.

1.2.1 Types of Retaining Walls

1. Gravity Walls

Relies on its own weight to resist the pressure of the retained material. Made
from concrete, stone, or other heavy materials.

2. Cantilever Walls
 A thin stem with a large base slab, where the wall acts as a cantilever,
resisting lateral earth pressure through the weight of the backfill.

3. Sheet Pile Walls

Thin, interlocking sheets driven into the ground, used in tight spaces and for
temporary support.

4. Anchored Walls

Use cables or other means anchored into the soil to provide additional support,
suitable for higher walls.

1.2.2 Key Considerations in Retaining Wall Design

Earth Pressure

Calculating lateral earth pressure, which depends on soil type, slope, and wall
height.

Drainage

Incorporating drainage systems to prevent water build-up behind the wall,

which could increase pressure and cause failure.

Stability Analysis

Ensuring the wall can resist sliding, overturning, and bearing capacity failures.

Materials

Selection of appropriate materials based on environmental conditions and

required wall life span.

1.3 Design Standards and Codes

Both foundation and retaining wall designs must comply with local and
international standards (e.g., Eurocode, ACI, IS codes), ensuring safety, stability,
and durability.
1.4 Practical Applications

Foundation Design

Used in building construction, bridges, and other structures requiring stability.

Retaining Wall Design

Applied in road construction, landscaping, and urban development to manage

terrain and soil erosion.

Understanding these principles is essential for civil engineers and architects to

create safe, efficient, and long-lasting structures. In engineering, a foundation is the
element of a structure which connects it to the ground, and transfers loads from the
structure to the ground.

Foundations are generally considered either shallow or deep. A foundation is

the part of the structure that bears the load of the superstructure. Also, the foundation
transfers load from the structure to the ground/soil. Foundation design is a process of
designing the footing and foundation walls of the structure. The footing can be of many
varieties, for example, strip or continuous footings, drilled piles, mat foundations, etc.
Designing a foundation is dependent on the geotechnical report.

According to the geotechnical report, it is decided whether the structure should

have a deep foundation or a shallow foundation. A building foundation actually
performs a number of functions. The three most important are to bear the load of the
building, anchor it against natural forces such as earthquakes, and to isolate it from
ground moisture. The relative importance of these functions’ changes with the type of
land underneath the building and the building design. For smaller accessory buildings
such as sheds, a foundation is less important

Lesson 2: Requirements of a Good Foundation

2.1 The following are the requirement of a good foundation:

1. Transfer of Loads

The foundation should be able to support and distribute the weight of the
 structure and any additional loads (like furniture and people) evenly to the soil
below.

2. Avoiding Differential Settlements

It's important to have a solid and uniform base for the foundation to
prevent differential settlements, which are variations in the amount of
settlement across the foundation.

3. Depth of Foundation

The depth of the foundation should be appropriate for the soil conditions
and location to avoid damage from issues like shrinkage and swelling due to
temperature changes.

4. Location of Foundation

Choosing a location free from potential interference or future

construction work is essential for the longevity of the foundation.

2.2 Primary Factors Affecting Foundation Choice

1. Subsurface Soil

2. Groundwater Conditions

3. Structural Requirements

2.3 Secondary Factors Affecting Foundation Choice

1. Construction access, methods, site conditions

2. Environmental Factors

3. Building Code & Regulations

2.4 Factors Affecting the Depth of Foundation

1. Thickness of top layer

2. Ground freezing

3. Depth of Volume change

4. Groundwater level

5. Underground Utilities and Defects

Lesson 3: The Process of Designing a Foundation

3.1 The following are the processes of designing a foundation consists of:

3.1.1 Basic Site Survey

If you are building on a piece of land, it’s important to have a foundation location
survey conducted by a licensed land surveyor once the foundation is laid. A Surveyors
which has the knowledge and experience to provide these surveys as needed with
guaranteed affordability and accuracy.

Foundation Location Survey

Foundation location surveys are designed to locate improvements on a property

that have been made horizontally or vertically, with respect to the property boundary
in mind. This survey is not typically combined with a recorded boundary survey
because that information (that is boundary information) is already known and recorded
on the plat of subdivision. Rather, this survey collects information about the position
of a foundation that was poured by a contractor to ensure that it is in the right location
and that it is built with the proper setbacks and zoning methods. There are always
rules and regulations to follow with regard to foundation placement, and a survey helps
ensure that those rules have been met.

Foundation Location Surveys Needed

Foundation location surveys have become a common necessity with the

increase in new construction. Many city and county agencies request these surveys,
and even when they aren’t required, in many cases the banks and mortgage
companies will want a licensed professional to certify that the house or building they
are backing with a mortgage is in the clear with regard to zoning setbacks, building
setbacks and existing easements. You may also need this type of survey if you are
building an addition to an existing home or structure.

A foundation survey is also necessary prior to the disbursement of the

foundation draw. The disbursements are intended to cover specific expenses
incurred during a home’s construction, and for this particular draw, a survey is often
necessary to process the request for funds.

3.1.2 Geotechnical Survey

Foundation design is a crucial aspect of civil engineering that ensures the stability
and safety of structures. The foundation is the part of the structure that transfers the
load to the soil or rock below. To design a suitable foundation, you need to perform a
geotechnical investigation and analysis of the site conditions, soil properties, and
potential hazards.

1. Site reconnaissance

The first step in a geotechnical investigation is to conduct a site reconnaissance,

which is a preliminary survey of the site and its surroundings. The purpose of this step
is to collect general information about the site, such as its location, topography,
drainage, vegetation, access, utilities, and history. You also need to identify any
potential geotechnical hazards, such as landslides, erosion, flooding, earthquakes, or
contamination. Site reconnaissance can be done by visual inspection, aerial
photography, maps, or existing records.

2. Field testing

The next step in a geotechnical investigation is to perform field testing, which is a

series of tests and measurements on the site to determine the physical and
mechanical properties of the soil or rock. Field testing can include drilling, sampling,
in-situ testing, or geophysical methods. Drilling and sampling involve extracting soil or
rock samples from different depths and locations using various types of equipment,
such as augers, borers, or corers. In-situ testing involves applying stress or pressure
to the soil or rock and measuring the response, such as penetration resistance, shear
strength, or permeability. Geophysical methods involve sending waves or signals
through the soil or rock and measuring the reflection, refraction, or attenuation, such
as seismic, electrical, or magnetic methods.

AUGER BORER

IN-SITU TESTING

3. Laboratory testing

The third step in a geotechnical investigation is to perform laboratory testing, which

is a series of tests and experiments on the soil or rock samples obtained from the field
testing. Laboratory testing can include classification, index, strength, consolidation, or
chemical tests. Classification tests involve determining the size, shape, distribution,
and composition of the soil or rock particles, such as sieve analysis, hydrometer
analysis, or mineralogy. Index tests involve determining the basic characteristics of
the soil or rock, such as moisture content, density, porosity, or plasticity. Strength tests
involve determining the resistance of the soil or rock to failure under different stress
conditions, such as unconfined compression, direct shear, or triaxial tests.
Consolidation tests involve determining the compressibility and settlement of the soil
or rock under different load and drainage conditions, such as oedometer or
permeameter tests. Chemical tests involve determining the composition and quality of
the soil or rock water and its effects on the soil or rock behavior, such as pH, salinity,
or sulfate content.

4. Data analysis and interpretation

The fourth step in a geotechnical investigation is to perform data analysis and

interpretation, which is a process of integrating and evaluating the data obtained from
the previous steps and deriving meaningful conclusions and recommendations. Data
analysis and interpretation can include graphical, statistical, empirical, or numerical
methods. Graphical methods involve plotting and comparing the data on charts,
graphs, or diagrams, such as borehole logs, contour maps, or Mohr circles. Statistical
methods involve calculating and analyzing the data using descriptive or inferential
statistics, such as mean, standard deviation, correlation, or regression. Empirical
methods involve applying and modifying the data using established formulas or
equations based on empirical observations or experiments, such as bearing capacity,
settlement, or slope stability formulas. Numerical methods involve simulating and
modeling the data using computational software or programs based on mathematical
or physical principles, such as finite element, finite difference, or boundary element
methods.

5. Report preparation and presentation

The final step in a geotechnical investigation is to prepare and present a report that
summarizes the findings and outcomes of the investigation and provides
recommendations and suggestions for the foundation design. The report should
include an introduction, objectives, scope, methodology, results, discussion,
conclusions, and recommendations. The report should also include relevant
appendices, such as maps, logs, test data, calculations, or drawings. The report
should be clear, concise, accurate, and professional. The report should be presented
to the client, the design team, or other stakeholders in an appropriate format and
manner, such as oral, written, or digital.

3.1.3 Checking of Soil Bearing Capacity

Bearing capacity analysis is the method used to determine the ability of the soil
to support the required load in a safe manner without gross distortion resulting from
objectionable settlement. The load spreads out within the footing itself at about a 45-
degree angle, and then spreads out in the soil at a steeper angle, more like 60-degrees
from the horizontal.

As the load under a footing spread out, pressure on the soil diminishes. Soil
directly under the footing takes the greatest load, and therefore should be thoroughly
compacted.
Because the load spreads out, the pressure on the soil is greatest right beneath
the footing. By the time we get down below the footing a distance equal to the footing’s
width, the unit soil pressure has dropped by about half. Go down the same distance
again, and the pressure has dropped by two-thirds. So, it's the soil right under the
footing that is the most critical and also, typically, the most abused.
When we excavate for the footings, the teeth on the bucket stir up the soil and
mix air into it, decreasing its density. Also, soil from the embankment may fall into the
trench. Soil that's loose has much less bearing capacity than the original soil.
 That's why it is so important to compact the trench bottom. Use a vibrating plate
compactor for sand or gravel soils, and a jumping jack compactor for silt or clay (learn
more about compaction equipment in this guide to subgrades and subbases). If you
don't compact that soil, you could get 1/2 inch of settlement in just the first 6 inches of
soil.

If you dig too deep and replace the soil to recover the grade, you are adding
back soil that has expanded by as much as 50%. Under load, it will reconsolidate and
cause settling. So, when you replace material in the trench, compact it thoroughly, or
else use large gravel. One-inch-and-a-half or larger gravel is virtually self-compacting
as you place it. Under the weight of a wood house, it won't settle to any significant
degree.

Soil Bearing Capacities Chart

Load-Bearing Pressure (Pounds per

Class of Materials
Square Foot)

Crystalline Bedrock 12,000

Sedimentary Rock 6,000
Sandy Gravel or Gravel 5,000
Sand, Silt Sand, Clayey Sand, Silty
3,000
Gravel, and Clayey Gravel
Clay, Sandy Clay, Silty Clay, and
2,000
Clayey Silt

Source: Table 401.4.1; CABO One- and Two- Family Dwelling Code; 1995.

Soil Properties and Bearing

The type and density of the native soil is also important. The International
Building Code, like the CABO code before it, lists presumed bearing strengths for
different types of soils. Very fine soils (clays and silts) typically have lower capacities
than coarse granular soils (sands and gravels).

However, some clays or silts have higher bearing capacity than the values in
the code tables. If you have a soil test done, you could discover that you have a denser
clay with a much higher bearing strength. Mechanically compacting the soil can also
raise its bearing capacity.

Determining Bearing Capacity on Site

Check soil density in a footing trench using a penetrometer. The bearing

capacity of your soil will help you determine if you need a shallow foundation or deep
foundation. Soil strength directly under the footing, where loads are concentrated, is
crucial to foundation performance.

3.1.4 Design of Footing

The footing is a crucial component of a structure, responsible for transferring the

load from the building to the soil or rock beneath it. Its primary function is to evenly
distribute the load from the substructure to the ground, ensuring that any settlement
of the entire structure or its individual parts is minimized.

The four different types of footing:

1. Individual Footings
Are the most common type of footing. They are usually used for small
structures such as sheds or porches. Individual footings are also used for all
four walls of a building if the soil is very soft or there is a high-water table.

2. Combined Footings
Are used when two or more foundation walls are close together and
they share the load. Combined footings are also used when one of the
foundation walls is much taller or longer than the others.
3. Strip Footings
Are used to support a long foundation wall, such as the side of a
house. They are also used to support load-bearing walls that run parallel to
each other.

4. Raft or Mat Foundation

Is a one big slab of concrete that supports an entire building. Raft
foundations are used when the soil is too weak to support individual footings
or when the building is very large.
Lesson 4: Design of Foundation Engineering

Foundation engineering involves the design and analysis of the structural

elements that support buildings and other structures.

4.1 Soil Consolidation

Soil consolidation refers to the mechanical process by which soil changes volume
gradually in response to a change in pressure. It is the process by which soil decreases
in volume over time due to the expulsion of water from its pore spaces under the
application of a load. This process primarily occurs in saturated, cohesive soils like
clay. The load applied to the soil causes an increase in pore water pressure, and as
this pressure dissipates over time (as water escapes from the soil), the soil particles
move closer together, leading to a reduction in soil volume, known as settlement.

In the narrow sense, “consolidation” refers strictly to this delayed volumetric

response to pressure change due to gradual movement of water. Some publications
also use “consolidation” in the broad sense, to refer to any process by which soil
changes volume due to a change in applied pressure. Some types of soil, mainly
those rich in organic matter, show significant creep, whereby the soil changes volume
slowly at constant effective stress over a longer time-scale than consolidation due to
the diffusion of water. To distinguish between the two mechanisms, “primary
consolidation” refers to consolidation due to dissipation of excess water pressure,
while “secondary consolidation” refers to the creep process.

4.2 Bearing Capacity

The bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support the loads applied to the
ground. The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average contact pressure
between the foundation and the soil which should not produce shear failure in the
soil.

4.2.1 There are three modes of failure that limit bearing capacity:

General shear failure

 This is a failure mode where a well-defined shear surface forms, extending from
the foundation to the ground surface, causing a sudden and significant displacement
of the soil.

Local shear failure

In this failure mode, the shear surface is not well-defined, and there is partial
development of shear zones. This typically happens in soils that are in between the
extremes of very dense and very loose conditions.

Punching shear failure

Punching shear failure occurs when the foundation pushes through the soil like
a punch, with little to no outward displacement of the soil. The failure is concentrated
directly below the foundation.

When the footing's load results in a significant bearing failure, soil movement
on a shear failure surface that rises to the soil's surface and is farther away from the
footing. The footing's capacity in a general bearing is calculated as depending on the
soil's characteristics and the footing's size. The fundamental technique was created.
by Terzaghi, with amendments and extra information from Meyerhof and Vesić. The
The typical case for analysis is the general shear failure scenario. safeguarding
against more failure in settlement calculations, modes are implicitly taken into
consideration.

The process of creating a foundation's footing and foundation walls is called

foundation design. the arrangement. There are numerous types of footings, such as
continuous or strip mat foundations, drilling piles, footings, etc. The foundation's
design is based on the geotechnical report.

Lesson 5: Types of Footing

5.1 Square footing

5.2 Rectangular footing
5.3 Wall footing
5.4 Combined footing
Sample Problems

1. The square footing shown below must be designed to carry a 2400 KN load.
Use Terzaghi’s bearing capacity formula and factor of safety = 3. Determine the
foundation dimension B in the following two cases:
1. The water table is at 1m below the foundation (as shown).
2. The water table rises to the ground surface.

Solutions:
2. Determine the size of square footing to carry net allowable load of 295 KN.
FS=3. Use Terzaghi equation assuming general shear failure.

Solutions:
 3. For the square footing (2.5m x 2.5m) shown in the figure below, determine the
allowable resisting moment (M), if the allowable load P = 800 KN and F.S = 3.
(Using Meyerhof Equation).

Solutions:
 4. For the soil profile is given below, determine the allowable bearing capacity of
the isolated rectangular footing (2m x 2.3m) that subjected to a vertical load
(425 kN) and moment (85 kN.m), FS=3.

Solutions:
 5. An eccentrically loaded rectangular foundation (6ft x 8ft) shown below. Use
factor of safety of 3 and if e = 0.5ft, determine the allowable load that the
foundation could carry. (The factor of safety is based on the maximum stress
along the base of the footing).

Solutions:
6.

Solutions:
7.

Solutions:
8. `
Solutions:
9. `
Solutions:
10. `
REFERENCES

1. https://www.pointtopointsurvey.com/service/foundation-location-
surveys/#:~:text=Foundation%20location%20surveys%20are%20designed,on
%20the%20plat%20of%20subdivision.
2. https://ppsurveying.com/f/foundation-location-
3. ://mcsteen.com/role-of-foundation-survey/
4. https://g3soilworks.com/2024/02/09/demystifying-geotech-surveys-what-they-
are-and-what-they-reveal/
5. https://clu-
in.org/characterization/technologies/default2.focus/sec/Geophysical_Methods/
cat/Overview/
6. http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/iabuzuhri/files/2015/09/Basics-of-Foundation-
Engineering-with Solved-Problems.pdf
7. https://uoqasim.edu.iq/e_Learning/lec_file/chapter%201%20introduction.pdf
8. https://www.strongholdengineering.com