Review

Challenges and Solutions of Hydrogen Fuel Cells in

Transportation Systems: A Review and Prospects
Omar Fakhreddine *, Yousef Gharbia, Javad Farrokhi Derakhshandeh and A. M. Amer

College of Engineering and Technology, American University of the Middle East, Egaila 54200, Kuwait;
[email protected] (Y.G.); [email protected] (J.F.D.); [email protected] (A.M.A.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Conventional transportation systems are facing many challenges related to reducing fuel
consumption, noise, and pollutants to satisfy rising environmental and economic criteria. These
requirements have prompted many researchers and manufacturers in the transportation sector to look
for cleaner, more efficient, and more sustainable alternatives. Powertrains based on fuel cell systems
could partially or completely replace their conventional counterparts used in all modes of transport,
starting from small ones, such as scooters, to large mechanisms such as commercial airplanes. Since
hydrogen fuel cells (HFCs) emit only water and heat as byproducts and have higher energy conversion
efficiency in comparison with other conventional systems, it has become tempting for many scholars
to explore their potential for resolving the environmental and economic concerns associated with
the transportation sector. This paper thoroughly reviews the principles and applications of fuel cell
systems for the main transportation schemes, including scooters, bicycles, motorcycles, cars, buses,
trains, and aerial vehicles. The review showed that fuel cells would soon become the powertrain of
choice for most modes of transportation. For commercial long-rage airplanes, however, employing
fuel cells will be limited due to the replacement of the axillary power unit (APU) in the foreseeable
future. Using fuel cells to propel such large airplanes would necessitate redesigning the airplane
structure to accommodate the required hydrogen tanks, which could take a bit more time.
Citation: Fakhreddine, O.; Gharbia,
Y.; Derakhshandeh, J.F.; Amer, A.M. Keywords: hydrogen fuel cell; transportation systems; renewable energy; hybrid electric vehicles;
Challenges and Solutions of clean urban
Hydrogen Fuel Cells in
Transportation Systems: A Review
and Prospects. World Electr. Veh. J.
2023, 14, 156. https://doi.org/ 1. Introduction
10.3390/wevj14060156
Hydrogen fuel cells (HFCs) are electrical cells that can be continuously fed by fuel. The
Academic Editors: Jamie W.G. Turner, main products of HFCs are electricity and water once a chemical reaction occurs; as a result,
Giovanni Vorraro, Hui Liu and Toby clean energy is generated without any noise and air pollution. With the increasing concern
Rockstroh about global warming, it appears to be a natural development that the fuel of the future
Received: 16 May 2023 will be entirely hydrogen [1]. Since fuel cells and batteries are based on the premise that in
Revised: 1 June 2023 a chemical reaction, the energy is changed into electricity by electron transfer between the
Accepted: 7 June 2023 anode and the cathode, they have many characteristics in common. In order to produce
Published: 13 June 2023 low DC voltage, not only fuel cells but also batteries require an external load to carry out
useful work. In addition to proton exchange membrane and alkaline fuel cells, phosphoric
acid, solid oxide, and molten carbonate fuel cells can be considered the most prevalent
forms of fuel cells [2].
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) offer advantages over battery electric vehicles
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. (BEVs) such as extended range, short refilling times, and lower carbon footprints in man-
This article is an open access article
ufacturing. FCEVs filter air and can help clean polluted cities, while also being silent
distributed under the terms and
and comfortable [3]. However, FCEVs are currently more expensive to produce and have
conditions of the Creative Commons
fewer hydrogen refueling stations available [4]. For trucks, FCEVs have the advantage of
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
a lighter weight, allowing for greater payload [5]. FCEVs outperform BEVs for vehicle
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
ranges over 160 km, with advantages including lower mass and volume, faster refueling,
4.0/).

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj14060156 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/wevj

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156 2 of 26

initial greenhouse gas reductions, higher well-to-wheel energy efficiency, and potentially
lower life cycle costs [6].
In the context of hydrogen fuel cells in the transportation sector, maintenance consid-
erations related to poisoning due to carbon monoxide (CO) or sulfur, as well as associated
costs, are crucial. CO poisoning can occur when CO impurities enter the fuel cell, hindering
its performance. To mitigate this, purification techniques and catalysts with higher CO
tolerance are employed [7]. Sulfur compounds present in fuels can also cause poisoning,
degrading the catalysts. Desulfurization processes and sulfur-tolerant catalysts help ad-
dress this issue [8]. Regarding costs, initial expenses have decreased due to manufacturing
advancements, and efforts to improve durability help reduce maintenance costs. Opera-
tional and maintenance costs are generally lower compared to internal combustion engines
but should still be considered. Overall, regular maintenance, purification methods, and
cost optimization contribute to the viability of hydrogen fuel cells in transportation [9].
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles utilize electric motors for propulsion, with the specific
type of motor varying depending on the vehicle’s design and requirements. Two common
types of electric motors used in these vehicles are permanent magnet synchronous motors
(PMSMs) and induction motors (IMs). PMSMs utilize permanent magnets embedded in
the rotor to generate a magnetic field, offering high power density and efficiency. On
the other hand, IMs operate through electromagnetic induction and are known for their
robustness and cost-effectiveness. Both motor types convert the electrical energy produced
by the fuel cell into mechanical power for vehicle propulsion, with the choice between
them depending on factors such as power requirements, torque characteristics, efficiency,
and cost-effectiveness [10].
In hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, a dualism exists between the slow and constant energy
generation of the fuel cell system and the dynamic power demands of road riding, which
require high power and rapid acceleration. The fuel cell system generates electricity steadily
but may not provide instantaneous power during acceleration. To overcome this, fuel cell
vehicles incorporate energy storage systems such as batteries or supercapacitors. These
systems store energy to complement the fuel cell’s steady output and deliver the extra
power required for rapid acceleration. This dualistic approach ensures a balance between
constant energy generation and the ability to meet dynamic power needs, allowing for
efficient performance in different driving conditions [11].
The aim of the work is to investigate the practical implementation of hydrogen fuel cells
(HFCs) across a diverse range of transportation modes from smallest to largest. Specifically,
it focuses on examining the utilization of HFCs in motorcycles, scooters, bicycles, passen-
ger cars, buses, trains, trucks, and aerial transportation systems. Each section provides a
comprehensive exploration of the unique challenges, corresponding solutions, and potential
advantages associated with integrating HFC technology into these specific modes of trans-
portation. By offering an in-depth analysis of a wide spectrum of vehicles and transportation
systems, this paper aims to provide a holistic perspective on the current advancements and
future prospects of HFCs in achieving sustainable and efficient transportation.

2. Motorcycles, Scooters, and Bicycles

With the increase in traffic jams in major cities around the world, commuting via
motorcycles, scooters, and bicycles has become very attractive for many. The manufacturers
of these products are competing to make them even more attractive by making them more
efficient and more comfortable. Pearl Hydrogen Power Source Technology Co of Shanghai,
China, as a pioneer of two-wheeled vehicles powered by hydrogen, demonstrated the first
hydrogen bicycle in 2007. Two-wheeled vehicles (TWV), such as bicycles and motorcycles,
are common in transportation systems in many places and countries, notably in Asia, with
numerous populations. Consequently, HFC two-wheeled vehicles can help meet air quality
standards. In addition, they can affect noise pollution reduction [12].
The development of HFC motorcycles is still immature. Many HFC motorcycle and
scooter concepts have been proposed [13–17], and many companies have attempted to
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156 3 of 26

construct various technologies and motorbike sizes employing a variety of fuel supplies,
including HFCs [18]. Compared to gasoline-powered motorcycles, HFC motorcycles are
relatively quiet and highly energy-efficient, with zero emissions. The benefits of HFC
motorcycles, then, have the potential to minimize the problems associated with a gasoline-
powered system and motivate users to acquire and use HFC motorcycle products [19].
The performance and development of electric motorcycles in Singapore and Malaysia
were reported by Weigl et al. [14]. The scholars designed, manufactured, and examined an
electrical motorcycle sample that used a combination of an HFC system, a lithium polymer
battery pack, and an ultra-capacitor module. The interesting results revealed that the
motorcycle can travel approximately 2400 km on hilly roads at 77 (km/h), even during
heavy rain. The fuel consumption of the sample was 0.51 kg H2 per 100 km. The results
guaranteed that the motorcycle could be built and used for actual road applications [14,20].
Compared to low-carbon transportation systems powered by fossil fuels, HFC sources
stand out due to the high-efficiency electrochemical reactions in HFC batteries [21]. The
employment of HFCs for evaluating the environmental sustainability of urban delivery
systems was applied to different hydrogen vehicles in Italy by Bartolozzi et al. [22]. It was
reported that transportation systems powered by HFCs provide a maximum efficiency of
63%, which is much higher than that of conventional fuel consumer engines in Italy.

3. Passenger Cars
In recent years, HFC automobiles have drawn interest as a potential replacement for
conventional gasoline-powered systems. Instead of burning gasoline, which produces
merely water vapor as a byproduct, HFC automobiles generate energy through a chemical
reaction, which occurs between H2 and O2 . According to an International Energy Agency
(IEA) report, fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) could potentially reach 10–15% of all passenger
cars, trucks, and buses by 2050, leading to a 19% decline in universal energy-related
CO2 emissions [23]. By the beginning of 2021, there were over 34,000 FCVs on the road
globally [24], with the majority in Japan, California, and Germany. While there are still
hurdles to overcome in terms of infrastructure and cost, the growing interest in hydrogen
fuel cell cars has spurred innovation and investment and provides not only cleaner but also
more sustainable transportation for the future than conventional systems.
Despite the efforts made by the automotive industry in the past few years to decrease
the effects of ICEs on the environment, they have still not been able to bring emissions to
an acceptable level. Burning fossil fuels, such as diesel, in internal combustion engines
(ICEs) creates toxic byproducts such as NOX, CO, and CO2 , which are very detrimental
to the environment. In 2020, passenger cars were responsible for 41% of the 7.3 billion
metric tons of carbon dioxide in global transportation emissions [25]. Therefore, and for
the sake of a cleaner and more sustainable environment, the transition to electric vehicles
(EV) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) has become inevitable [26]. The early
attempts to introduce EVs in the 1990s were not successful because of their costs and low
performance in terms of top speed and travel range in comparison with vehicles run on
ICEs. With recent advancements in battery and fuel cell technologies, many automotive
manufacturers have announced plans to begin serious production within the next two to
three years. EV sales will exceed 10% of global vehicle sales in 2022 and are expected to
reach 30% by 2030 [27]. Concurrently, the global market share of fuel cell technology is
expanding rapidly. In 2022, the fuel cell revenue was estimated at USD 2.9 billion with a
projected increase to USD 9.1 billion by 2027 [28]. The combination of EVs with fuel cell
technology is predicted to revolutionize the automotive industry soon.
High power density, the capacity to respond to significant swings in power demand,
and employing a low-temperature solid electrolyte providing hydrogen ions are the most
essential aspects in selecting the finest fuel cells for passenger cars. For this reason, auto-
mobile manufacturers choose to equip new cars with proton exchange membrane (PEM)
fuel cells. Due to its abundant availability and strong reactivity, oxygen is used in PEM
fuel cells as the oxidant and hydrogen (H+) as the electrolyte [29]. PEM can function at
 World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156 4 of 26

temperatures between 70 ◦ C and 90 ◦ C while maintaining a pressure of 1 to 2 bars. The

PEM fuel cell has several benefits in addition to its low operating temperatures, such as
being a dry, solid, and non-corrosive electrolyte; tolerance to carbon dioxide content in
the surrounding air; high current and voltage; high density of power; and small size and
simple design [30]. The energy content of hydrogen is 120 MJ/kg, more than double that of
liquefied natural gas, diesel, and gasoline [31].
Though hydrogen fuel cells can offer numerous benefits to vehicles, they have certain
drawbacks. These drawbacks include a lengthy startup period, a lack of power output at
slower speeds, a delayed response when a quick surge in power is required, and excessive
power output during rapid acceleration [32]. These drawbacks can be avoided by integrat-
ing a secondary energy storage system that would function in tandem with a fuel cell. If
the fuel cell is unable to generate enough energy on its own, this hybrid setup can provide
the necessary power. Two groups of these hybridized systems may be distinguished: fuel
cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) and fuel cell plug-in hybrid electric vehicles with a longer
range (FC-PHEVs).
Similar to a battery electric vehicle (BEV), an FC-PHEV engine with internal combus-
tion burns gasoline and can be used for powering the vehicle when the battery is near
depletion, during acceleration, or when intensive heating and cooling loads exist. FC-PHEV
increases driving range while cutting down on fuel expenses and hazardous pollutants.
FCEVs, on the other hand, rely on the hydrogen that has been stored in tanks to turn
chemical energy into electrical energy. FCEV batteries are charged by electricity generated
by onboard hydrogen fuel cells or by a regenerative braking technology, which converts
kinetic energy gained during braking into electrical power.
The powertrain of an FCEV consists of a number of hydrogen containers, as shown
in Figure 1. Fuel cell stacks, a power converter, a rechargeable electric battery used to
store energy, and a power distribution unit make up the FCEV configuration. The power
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, x FOR PEERneeded
REVIEW to drive the vehicle comes from the HFC, which converts the hydrogen energy
5 of 28
into electricity and saves it in the battery. The battery charges by the regenerative braking
system during barking. The fuel cell does not need to provide any power when the vehicle
is in the regenerative braking phase. A power distributor unit (PDU) is used to regulate
this shift in power consumption.

Figure 1. A configuration of fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV).

Figure 1.Dr.
A configuration of developed
Roger Billings fuel cell electric vehicle
the first (FCEV).
ever hydrogen-powered fuel cell car in 1991 once
he adopted a battery-powered Ford Fiesta model [31]. Later in 1994, Daimler-Benz released
theDr. Roger
NeCar Billingsofdeveloped
I (output 30 kW andthe first ever range
a maximum hydrogen‐powered
of 130 km), thefuel
firstcell
fuelcar in 1991
cell-powered
once he adopted a battery‐powered Ford Fiesta model [31]. Later in 1994, Daimler‐Benz
car suitable for everyday usage. This was the spark that ignited global innovation in the
released
vehiclethe NeCar
fuel I (output
cell sector. Dueof 30
to kW and a maximum
technological range ofand
advancement 130 km), the first
continual fuel cell‐
improvement,
powered car suitable for everyday usage. This was the spark that ignited
NeCar II and NeCar III were later introduced with increased storage capacity and global innova‐
driving
tion in the vehicle fuel cell sector. Due to technological advancement and continual im‐
provement, NeCar II and NeCar III were later introduced with increased storage capacity
and driving range (250 km and 400 km, respectively). Among the several fuel cell options,
Daimler‐Benz chose the PEM fuel cell because it runs at a low temperature of 80 °C and
has substantially lower corrosion rates than other fuel cells. The NeCar II was intended to
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156 5 of 26

range (250 km and 400 km, respectively). Among the several fuel cell options, Daimler-Benz
chose the PEM fuel cell because it runs at a low temperature of 80 ◦ C and has substantially
lower corrosion rates than other fuel cells. The NeCar II was intended to achieve an
efficiency of 40–45% by 2003, which is larger than the best diesel automobile engine with an
efficiency of 26%. Fuel cells may lower emissions by 90% compared to typical vehicles [33].
Soon after, almost all automobile manufacturers began developing or had concepts for HFC
vehicles [31].
General Motors has continuously been a forerunner in the development of electric cars.
In 2007, more than 100 HydroGen4 automobiles were built and tested in countries such as
Germany and the United States. The automobile could store 4.2 kg of hydrogen, giving it
a driving range of 320 km [34]. According to the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
J2601 and SAE J2799, once the tanks are empty, they can be replenished in three minutes.
During the 1990s, Honda began the development of HFC vehicles. In 1999, the Honda
FCX-V1 was revealed. It was an experimental two-seater vehicle with metal hydride
tanks used for storage. FCX-V2 was later developed and included a methanol reformer
as well as fuel cell stacks developed by Honda. Using their previous expertise, Honda
then developed the FCX-V3. This vehicle stored 250 MPa hydrogen tanks and had a 10 kW
power improvement compared to its predecessors.
In 2001, Honda unveiled the FCX-V4. This evolved vehicle had further improvements in
terms of storage space as well as a more compact HFC stack. The driving range was 6further
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 28
increased to 315 km due to the increase in storage tank pressure to 350 MPa [35]. Figure 2
shows the progress of Honda’s HFC vehicles and their corresponding power output.

ImprovementofofHonda
Figure2.2.Improvement
Figure HondaHFC
HFCvehicles
vehicles[35].
[35].

Table11compares
Table comparesthe
thekey
keyparameters
parametersofofthe
thehydrogen
hydrogenfuel
fuelcell‐powered
cell-poweredautomobiles
automobiles
that are commercially available on the market. The designs of several cars, including
that are commercially available on the market. The designs of several cars, including the the
Honda FCX Clarity, the Hyundai ix35 (a modified version of the existing Hyundai Tucson),
Honda FCX Clarity, the Hyundai ix35 (a modified version of the existing Hyundai Tuc‐
the Toyota Mira I, the Honda Clarity FCEV, the Hyundai Nexo, the Mercedes Benz B-class
son), the Toyota Mira I, the Honda Clarity FCEV, the Hyundai Nexo, the Mercedes Benz
FCEV, the Chevrolet Equinox Fuel Cell, and the Toyota Mirai II, are shown in Figure 3. All
B‐class FCEV, the Chevrolet Equinox Fuel Cell, and the Toyota Mirai II, are shown in Fig‐
listed vehicles are considered midsized automobiles with almost identical attributes and
ure 3. All listed vehicles are considered midsized automobiles with almost identical at‐
tributes and power outputs. It should be noted that none of the vehicles listed are PHEVs
because their battery capacities are less than 2 kWh.

Table 1. Comparison of a few features of some HFC automobiles, including power outputs and prices.

Hydrogen Tank
Power Output
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156 6 of 26

power outputs. It should be noted that none of the vehicles listed are PHEVs because their
battery capacities are less than 2 kWh.

Table 1. Comparison of a few features of some HFC automobiles, including power outputs and prices.

Power Output Hydrogen Tank Weight

Production Year Vehicle Model Range (km/Miles) Price
(kW/hp) (kg)/Capacity (L)
2008 Honda FCX Clarity [36] 450/270 100/134 4.1/171 USD 34,995
Hyundai Tucson/ix35
2013 415/258 124/- 5.64/140 -
Fuel Cell [37]
2014 Toyota Mirai I [38] 502/312 114/153 5/122 USD 57,500
Honda Clarity Fuel
2016 740/460 105/- NA
Cell—FCEV
2018 Hyundai Nexo [37] 609/378 135/- 6.3/156 USD 59,435
Mercedes Benz B-Class
2010 400/250 100/136 3.7/- -
F-CELL [30]
Chevrolet Equinox Fuel
2007 320/200 94/126 4.2/- -
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023,Cell
14, x[30]
FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 28
2020 Toyota Mirai II [39] 650/404 128/182 NA USD 49,500

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Midsized
Midsizedautomobiles
automobileswithwithless
lessthan
than2kW2kWbattery
batterycapacity: (a) (a)
capacity: Honda FCXFCX
Honda clarity, (b)
clarity,
Hyuandi
(b) HyuandiTucson/ix35 FC,FC,
Tucson/ix35 (c)(c)
Toyota Mirai
Toyota MiraiI (d)
I (d)Honda
Hondaclarity
clarityFC,
FC,(e)
(e)Hyuandi
Hyuandi Nexo, (f) Mercedes
Nexo, (f) Mercedes
Benz F‐Cell, (g) Chevrolet Equinox Fuel Cell, (h) Toyota Mirai II.
Benz F-Cell, (g) Chevrolet Equinox Fuel Cell, (h) Toyota Mirai II.

3.1. Hydrogen
Hydrogen Storage
Storage System
System in Passenger
in Passenger Cars Cars
Accordingtotothe
According theInternational
International Energy
Energy Agency
Agency (IEA),
(IEA), the the United
United States
States and and China
China had
the
hadmost fuel cell
the most fuelvehicles on theon
cell vehicles road
the in 2019—around
road 8000 and
in 2019—around 6000,
8000 andrespectively. Japan
6000, respectively.
Japan had just 3600 hydrogen cars on the road in 2019, but the country intends to increase
that number to over 811,000 by 2030. Onboard hydrogen storage is one of the most chal‐
lenging problems in implementing hydrogen fuel cells in automobiles [40]. However, hy‐
drogen has the highest efficiency and the lowest energy density as a fuel. This indicates that
 World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156 7 of 26

had just 3600 hydrogen cars on the road in 2019, but the country intends to increase that
number to over 811,000 by 2030. Onboard hydrogen storage is one of the most challenging
problems in implementing hydrogen fuel cells in automobiles [40]. However, hydrogen has
the highest efficiency and the lowest energy density as a fuel. This indicates that hydrogen
has the highest energy density per kilogram. This property can be regarded as a benefit for
hydrogen fuel, but it might cause some issues when storing it onboard. One solution to
this challenge is storing hydrogen as a compressed gas at extremely high pressures.
Smith and Aceves [41] analyzed various techniques for hydrogen storage and how
each option affected total weight and, consequently, the driving range of the HEV. Typically,
hydrogen has the capability to be stored through methods such as pressurization as a gas,
cooling to cryogenic temperatures as a liquid, or in the form of solid fuel through a physical
or chemical amalgamation involving substances such as metal hydride [42]. The weight,
capacity, efficiency, storage safety, and total cost should all be considered when considering
hydrogen
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW tank storage. Chalk et al. [43] propose a simplified schematic of the hydrogen
8 of 28
storage system, divided into three segments based on the applied pressure levels, driven
by a relatively low-power electrical DC motor, as shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Onboard hydrogen fuel system for fuel cell vehicles [43].
Figure 4. Onboard hydrogen fuel system for fuel cell vehicles [43].
4. Buses
4. Buses With the objective of diminishing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing air quality
in densely populated urban regions, developed nations have made substantial financial
With the objective of diminishing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing air qual‐
commitments toward the advancement of cutting-edge technologies. Public transportation
ity in densely populated urban regions, developed nations have made substantial finan‐
has recently received significant attention due to its huge environmental impact and
cial commitments toward the advancement of cutting‐edge technologies. Public transpor‐
tremendous opportunity for improvement. Fuel cell buses are an excellent choice for
tation has recently received significant attention due to its huge environmental impact
urban public transit, offering significant environmental and economic benefits compared to
and tremendousbuses,
conventional opportunity
such asfor improvement.
zero Fuel cell
emissions, quiet buses are
operations, an reduced
and excellentmaintenance
choice for
urban
due public
to fewertransit,
moving offering significant environmental and economic benefits compared
parts [44].
to conventional
According to the findingszero
buses, such as emissions,
of Eudy quiet operations,
and Chandler and
[45], fuel cell reduced
electric maintenance
buses (FCEBs) have
due to fewer moving parts [44].
higher fuel economy than diesel buses, as indicated in Figure 5. Despite accounting for a tiny
According
proportion of to
all the findings
vehicles of Eudy
on the road, and Chandler
buses [45], fuel cell
have a considerable electric busesimpact
environmental (FCEBs)[46].
have higher fuel economy than diesel buses, as indicated in Figure 5. Despite accounting
Fuel cell buses have zero emissions, making them an appealing choice for decreasing urban air
forpollution
a tiny proportion
[47]. Theseof buses
all vehicles on the road,quieter
are significantly buses have a considerable
than regular environmental
diesel buses im‐
and require less
pact [46]. Fuel cell buses have zero emissions, making them an appealing choice for decreasing
urban air pollution [47]. These buses are significantly quieter than regular diesel buses and
require less maintenance and refilling. This is due to the buses’ ability to be gathered at a single
location for fueling and maintenance under the authority of the fleet operator.
Buses offer a more advantageous choice for accommodating the fuel cell stack, fuel
cell storage system, and battery storage in comparison to conventional vehicles, owing to
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156 8 of 26

World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 28

maintenance and refilling. This is due to the buses’ ability to be gathered at a single location
for fueling and maintenance under the authority of the fleet operator.

Figure5.5.The
Figure Themean
meanfuel
fuelefficiency
efficiencyofoffuel
fuelcell
cellbuses
busesand
anddiesel
dieselbuses
buses[45].
[45].

Buses offer
4.1. Hydrogen a more
Storage advantageous
System in Passenger choice
Cars for accommodating the fuel cell stack, fuel
cell storage system, and battery
In order to find the best technology forstorage in comparison to conventional
fuel cell buses, Zamora et al. vehicles, owing
[48] analyzed
to their diminished weight and capacity restrictions [47].
two technologies (internal combustion engine and fuel cell-driven electric motor). Both As a result, various vehicle
firms and educational
technologies institutions
rely on hydrogen for have
vehicle put several
fuel. initiatives towas
The comparison the based
test inon theseveral
hopes pa-of
commercializing HFC bus technology. Common barriers to commercialization include the
rameters, including CO2 emissions, environmental sensitivity, efficiency, dependability,
high initial costs of operating fuel cell buses, the longevity of fuel cell power systems, and
autonomy, useful life, and cost. Based on this study, it was determined that the technology
the cost of recharging hydrogen gas.
based on fuel cells was a superior option for extracting the potential energy of hydrogen
in relation
Hydrogen to theSystem
Storage criteriaindiscussed
Passengerpreviously.
Cars
Bubna et al. [47] reported the development of a fuel cell hybrid bus (FCHB). The
In order to find the best technology for fuel cell buses, Zamora et al. [48] analyzed
FCHB consists of hydrogen tanks, nickel–cadmium (NiCd) liquid-cooled batteries, the
two technologies (internal combustion engine and fuel cell-driven electric motor). Both
HFC system, and an inverter. The fuel cell hybrid bus provided an average efficiency of
technologies rely on hydrogen for vehicle fuel. The comparison was based on several
42% throughout the normal drive cycle, indicating that the bus’s performance was highly
parameters, including CO2 emissions, environmental sensitivity, efficiency, dependability,
promising. The FCHB, with its battery-heavy hybrid configuration (which runs mainly in
autonomy, useful life, and cost. Based on this study, it was determined that the technology
battery-alone mode until the state of recharge), resulted in cheaper costs and improved
based on fuel cells was a superior option for extracting the potential energy of hydrogen in
performance and durability, contributing to this good outcome.
relation to the criteria discussed previously.
Byunget
Bubna and
al.Tae
[47][49] investigated
reported the development
the development of a fuelof FCVs by Hyundai-Kia
cell hybrid bus (FCHB). Motors,
The
FCHB consists of hydrogen tanks, nickel–cadmium (NiCd) liquid-cooled batteries, 2006
beginning with their first-generation FCV in 2000. The bus was tested during the the
World Cup in Germany. The fuel cell was capable of producing
HFC system, and an inverter. The fuel cell hybrid bus provided an average efficiency of a maximum of 160 kW,
withthroughout
42% an extra capacitor
the normal of 80drive
kW functioning
cycle, indicatingas a backup
that the when
bus’sneeded. The electric
performance motor
was highly
on this FC bus has a power capability of 240 kW.
promising. The FCHB, with its battery-heavy hybrid configuration (which runs mainly in
In 2006, the
battery-alone mode Clean
untilUrban Transport
the state for Europe
of recharge), (CUTE)
resulted Projectcosts
in cheaper concluded, marking
and improved
the conclusion of a pioneering initiative that
performance and durability, contributing to this good outcome. involved the simultaneous deployment of a
significant
Byung fleet of 27[49]
and Tae fuelinvestigated
cell buses across nine cities for
the development oftesting
FCVs by purposes. Saxe etMotors,
Hyundai-Kia al. [50]
published with
beginning the HFCtheirbus performance FCV
first-generation data and
in 2000. examined
The bus thewas
drive cycleduring
tested in five the
different
2006
cities. Their findings suggest that the overall fuel cell system
World Cup in Germany. The fuel cell was capable of producing a maximum of 160 kW, efficiency (between 36% and
41%) is relatively high. However, HFC buses consumed more
with an extra capacitor of 80 kW functioning as a backup when needed. The electric motor energy than diesel buses.
The
on authors
this FC bus stated
has athat
powermore fuel consumption
capability of 240 kW.reductions might be achieved by reducing
the weight
In 2006,bythe upClean
to 2 tons, removing
Urban Transport reliability
for Europe measures,
(CUTE) andProject
utilizing hybridization
concluded, markingwith
electrical
the auxiliaries,
conclusion which caninitiative
of a pioneering reduce fuel thatconsumption
involved the by up to 35–40%.
simultaneous deployment of a
In order
significant fleettoofresearch thebuses
27 fuel cell deterioration
across nine process
citiesof forthe HFCpurposes.
testing system, LiSaxe et al.
et [51] de-
al. [50]
signed a plug-in
published the HFC HFC buscity bus. The 270
performance datatotal
andcells in the 18-ton
examined bus, which
the drive was
cycle in fiveconstructed
different
in 2015
cities. andfindings
Their featuredsuggest
a 60 kW power
that stack, demonstrated
the overall fuel cell systempower stability
efficiency on continuous
(between 36% and
journeys.
41%) They concluded
is relatively that an HFC
high. However, increasebusesin ohmic
consumed polarization
more energymostly caused
than dieselthe volt-
buses.
age drop.
In conjunction with Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), Tata Motors in India
was the first company in the area to create a fuel cell bus. The TATA STAR BUS matches
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156 9 of 26

The authors stated that more fuel consumption reductions might be achieved by reducing
the weight by up to 2 tons, removing reliability measures, and utilizing hybridization with
electrical auxiliaries, which can reduce fuel consumption by up to 35–40%.
In order to research the deterioration process of the HFC system, Li et al. [51] designed
a plug-in HFC city bus. The 270 total cells in the 18-ton bus, which was constructed in 2015
and featured a 60 kW power stack, demonstrated power stability on continuous journeys.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 28
They concluded that an increase in ohmic polarization mostly caused the voltage drop.
In conjunction with Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), Tata Motors in India
was the first company in the area to create a fuel cell bus. The TATA STAR BUS matches Tata
Motors’ long-term
Tata Motors’ objective
long‐term of manufacturing
objective more more
of manufacturing environmentally friendly
environmentally automotive
friendly auto‐
vehicles. The bus
motive vehicles. Thecould store store
bus could four four
high-pressure (350(350
high‐pressure bar)bar)
hydrogen
hydrogencylinders with
cylinders a
with
total
a totalcapacity
capacityofof820
820L,L,which
whichwere
werepositioned
positionedononthe
theroof
roofofofthe
thevehicle.
vehicle. With a Li-ion
Li‐ion
battery, this revolutionary system has a power capacity of 120 kW. For transitory power
needs, the battery assists the fuel cell. Tata Motors has already tested two prototypes and
is optimistic about commercializing this potentially transformative technology in public
transportation [52].
Figure
Figure 66 displays
displays the
the active
active fuel cell hybrid
fuel cell hybrid buses
buses in
in 2014,
2014, with
with the
the majority
majority deployed
deployed
in North America and Europe. These buses have accumulated a successful
in North America and Europe. These buses have accumulated a successful service recordservice record
of over 3 million miles [53].
of over 3 million miles [53].

Active fuel cell bus projects globally: Fleet size

20

15

10

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Active
Active fuel
fuel cell
cell bus
bus projects globally [53].
projects globally [53].

Samsun et al. [24] collected data to determine the total number of registered FCVs
worldwide. It It was
was found
found that
that there were 34,804 fuel cell vehicles by the end of the year
2020, as shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 7.7. Only
Only16.2%
16.2%ofofthose
thosevehicles
vehicleswere
werebuses.
buses.The
Thedistribution
distributionof
vehicle
of types
vehicle typesacross the total
across number
the total of fuel
number of cell
fuelvehicles worldwide
cell vehicles can becan
worldwide seenbeinseen
Figure
in
8. Of those,
Figure 8. Of itthose,
was it
seen
wasthat
seen97%
thatof97%
the of
buses were operated
the buses in Asia,
were operated 2% in2%
in Asia, Europe, and
in Europe,
1% in
and 1%North
in NorthAmerica. China
America. contributes
China to most
contributes to mostof Asia’s fuelfuel
of Asia’s cellcell
buses, with
buses, a total
with of
a total
of 5290
5290 buses.
buses. Passenger
Passenger cars
cars makeupupmost
make mostofofthetheworld’s
world’sfuel
fuel cell
cell vehicles,
vehicles, with about
74.5% of total cars.
World
World Electr.
Electr. Veh.
Veh. J.J. 2023, 14,
J. 2023, 14, 156 10 of
of 26
World Electr. Veh. 2023, 14, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 11
11 28
of 28

Fuel cell
Fuel cell vehicle
vehicle distribution
distribution of
of all
all vehicles
vehicles by
by the
the end
end of
of 2020
2020

3161 14
14
3161
49
49

5648
5648

25,932
25,932

Passenger cars
Passenger cars Buses
Buses Light Commercial
Light Commercial Vehicels
Vehicels

Medium duty
Medium duty Trucks
Trucks Heavy duty
Heavy duty Trucks
Trucks

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Fuel
Fuel cell
cell vehicle
vehicle distribution
distribution of
of all
all vehicles
vehicles by
by the
the end
end of
of 2020
2020 [24].
[24].

Distribution of
Distribution of Fuel
Fuel cell
cell buses
buses across
across continents
continents by
by 2020
2020
64 (1%)
64 (1%)

131 (2%)
131 (2%)

Total 5648
Total 5648 fuel
fuel cell
cell
busses
busses
Rest of
Rest of the
the world
world 11
5452 (97%)
5452 (97%)
FCB
FCB
Nourth America
Nourth America Europe
Europe Asia
Asia

Figure 8.
Figure 8. Distribution of
of fuel cell
cell buses
buses across
across continents
continents [24].
[24].
Figure 8. Distribution
Distribution of fuel
fuel cell buses across continents [24].
5. Trains
5. Trains
The energy
The energy source
source for
for fuel
fuel cell-powered
cell‐powered trams
cell‐powered trams isis hydrogen.
hydrogen. A A hybrid
A hybrid system
hybrid system com‐
system com‐
com-
bining large-capacity
bining large‐capacity
large‐capacity lithium
lithium titanate
titanate batteries
batteries and
and fuel
fuel cells
cells powers
powers the
the tram.
tram. The
The only
only
pollutants produced by tram operations are heat and water. The tram’s
pollutants produced by tram operations are heat and water. The tram’s hydrogen fuel is hydrogen fuel is
stored in
stored in high‐pressure
in high-pressure
high‐pressuretankstanks on
tankson
onthethe tram’s
thetram’s roof.
tram’sroof. Cutting‐edge
roof.Cutting-edge
Cutting‐edge heat
heat dissipation
dissipation
heat dissipation andand
and stor‐
storage
stor‐
age technology
age technology
technology boosts
boosts
boosts hydrogen
hydrogen capacity
capacity
hydrogen and
and and
capacity cruising
cruising range.
cruising range. This
ThisThis
range. fuel
fuel fuel cell tram
cell tram
cell tram typically
typically has
typically
has enough
enough
enough
has fuel
fuelfuel to run
to run
to run for more
for more
for more than
thanthan 13
13 h13 h every
every
h every day.
day.day.
TableTable 22 shows
2 shows
Table shows the specifications
specifications
the specifications
the of
of the
of
the Fashon
Fashon city city
tram tram which
which has has
been been employed
employed in in
China
the Fashon city tram which has been employed in China [54]. China
[54].[54].
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156 11 of 26

Table 2. Specifications of the Fashon city tram employed in China [54].

Configuration Three Coaches and Two Locomotives

Size 35.19 m × 2.65 m × 3.58 m
Mass 55 tons
Max Passenger Capacity 360 people
Max Speed 70 km/h
Max Range 125 km
Daily Operation 13 h
Refueling Events 2–3 times/day
Refueling Time 15 min
Hydrogen Consumption 25–30 kg/100 km

China was one of the pioneers that practically employed a commercial fuel cell-
powered tram system in Foshan, a city in Guangdong Province. To take advantage of this
chance, the city is developing into a hub for the design and production of hydrogen fuel
cell products. It also looks to technology to help the city satisfy its urgent demand for
environmentally friendly transportation. Therefore, several hydrogen initiatives have been
carried out in Foshan, such as the Foshan Gaoming Modern Hydrogen Tram Demonstration
Line, which is perhaps the most well-known of them. In July 2019, the first hydrogen
tram was employed in Foshan, and the Foshan Gaoming tram line opened to the general
public and began receiving payments in December 2019. During peak hours, the project
management team, which is headed by Foshan Metro, expects to operate four trams with
departures every 10 min and 115 departures each day. Each tram includes three coach
bodies that can accommodate 360 passengers in total, has a top speed of 70 km/h, and has
a range of 125 km per refueling [54].
The world’s first HFC train, Coradia iLintTM, was powered by hydrogen in 2016 in
Berlin with 160 passenger seats. In the European Union (EU), the majority of the passengers
commute by electrified railways, which is about 53%; nevertheless, employing such a
system in other countries such as North America is not applicable to this capacity as most
of the railway lines are non-electrified [55].
Hsiao et al. [56] developed a hybrid system incorporating a proton exchange mem-
brane fuel cell (PEMFC) into a mini-train capable of accommodating 9–12 passengers. The
fuel cell power system employed in this research encompassed a 200-watt PEMFC, four
metal hydrogen storage tanks interconnected with a group of low-pressure lead acid batter-
ies, and an intelligent electronic energy control system. Power provision was achieved by
means of a parallel connection of fuel cells and lead acid batteries. The mini-train operated
outdoors on a track measuring 18.4 cm in width and 212 m in length at the National Sci-
ence and Technology Museum. Following a two-year implementation period, noteworthy
findings were obtained. The small train logged over 2000 h of service and carried over
70,000 passengers during that period [56]. The research illustrated that connecting lead
acid batteries and fuel cells in parallel may resist Taiwan’s high heat and humidity while
providing stable electricity. This fuel cell power system was capable of providing the same
amount of power to the mini-train as lead acid batteries.
Despite the early stage and incomplete development of hydrogen fuel cell (HFC) tech-
nology for trains, available literature highlights that hydrogen-powered trains demonstrate
a range roughly ten times greater than that of battery-powered electric trains. These trains
can achieve top speeds ranging from 125 to 140 km/h and cover distances of up to 1000 km
before requiring refueling. Furthermore, the refueling process for these trains takes less
than 20 min, signifying a notably rapid procedure.

6. Trucks
HFC technology in medium-duty (MD) and heavy-duty (HD) vehicles has high po-
tency in reducing greenhouse emissions and energy consumption. Globally, heavy-duty
trucks produce approximately 36% of nitrogen oxide emissions [57] and 25% of the US
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156 12 of 26

transportation sector’s greenhouse gases [58]. Studies conducted by the US Energy Infor-
mation Administration predict a spike of up to 80% in total miles driven by trucks between
2010–2050 [59]. For this reason, trucks have been a vital parameter to consider when reduc-
ing emissions from powertrains. Despite the widespread use of fuel cell technology in cars
and buses, its application in trucks is still relatively limited. HFCs have been put forward
as a feasible substitute for diesel engines with the aim of reducing pollutant emissions [60].
However, their driving range and performance are still in question. Although the number
of hydrogen fuel cell electric trucks, vans, and buses on the road today is limited, several
studies have shown that HFC vehicles are crucial for minimizing the effect of climate
change by the year 2050 [61].
Integrating the fuel cell system into medium-duty and heavy-duty trucks can be
complex due to the effects of the components on the weight and aerodynamics of the trucks.
Trucks are classified into several categories. Whether MD or HD vehicles, they are classified
based on their designated vocational applications and corresponding weight classes.
Table 3 demonstrates the estimated vehicle population in 2014 [62]. According to Oak
Ridge National Laboratory [63], around 10.9 million registered class 3 to 8 vehicles exist. In
total, they make up about 5% of on-road vehicles. The most significant number of trucks is
the class 8 tractor (60,000 lb. or more), which counts 2.67 million vehicles.
To the best of our knowledge, we compiled a list of the hydrogen-powered trucks that
are in operation and expected to be produced in the coming years, as shown in Table 4.
Because of the additional design space, customizability, and weight, utilizing an
HFC system in trucks appears to be a potential option, resulting in better scaling and,
hence, commercialization. Several studies exist in the literature that discuss the chance of
introducing HFC technology and other alternatives to the market, their overall effect on
the environment, and their economic impact [65]. Çabukoglu et al. [66] presented a study
to determine whether it is possible to decarbonize heavy-duty transport across the entire
Swiss national fleet. The scholars also studied the feasibility of day-to-day operations for
every vehicle class. A study conducted by Lewis et al. [67] used GPS data to determine
the optimal powertrain for given routes and duty cycles. They concluded that a hybrid
mechanism comprising a 32 kW HFC, a 49 kWh battery, and a 15 kg hydrogen storage tank
should yield an optimal option.
Kast et al. [62] analyzed the design of hydrogen fuel cell trucks in detail and discussed
the possibility of onboard storage and the vehicle’s performance under different drive
cycles. Storing the hydrogen tanks in the most appropriate location is essential, as this will
significantly impact the vehicle’s air resistance due to its shape. There are various places
for storing hydrogen tanks on a truck, which vary based on the vocation and truck size [62].
These storages can be categorized as follows:
1. Side-rail tanks: This is the most convenient model, as most MD and HD trucks already
have this space available.
2. Back-of-cab storage: This is an option for larger trucks, typically classes 4 to 8.
3. Under the chassis: This is suitable for smaller-class vehicles (e.g., class 3 and below).
This configuration can only work for particular trucks because of chassis design
constraints, i.e., the tanks do not interfere with the beams.
4. On top of vehicle: This type can only be used on certain trucks and results in a higher
center of gravity.
Multiple storage tank locations can be utilized to optimize the trucks’ driving range.
Figure 9 shows an estimated driving range for several vehicles based on optimizing
storage tank locations onboard [62]. The payload and hydrogen storage capacity signifi-
cantly influence the driving range of a high-capacity (HD) vehicle. A completely fueled HD
truck, equipped with two storage tanks containing 40–60 kg of hydrogen each at a pressure
of 350 bars, generally covers a distance of approximately 500 to 1000 miles before requiring
refueling [68].
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156 13 of 26

Table 3. Estimated vehicle population in 2014; the heat map shows the relative market share per
vehicle category of MHDVs [62].

Class 8 8 8 8 7 6 5 4 3
Weight Total
60 + 50–60 40–50 33–40 26–33 19.5–26 16–19.5 14–16 10–14
(lbs. 103 )

Step 2 1 1 2 5 127 101 98 234 572

Enclosed 4 4 14 18 87 294 178 80 256 933

Vans

Insulated 2 3 4 6 40 60 23 7 21 167

Open
6 22 69 38 78 89 19 12 11 345
top

Other 1 1 2 1 4 20 7 1 43 90

Flatbed 33 41 81 100 203 475 157 185 341 1617

Dump 203 160 187 101 181 315 80 114 204 1546
Work Vehicles

Concrete 122 49 17 2 0 0 0 2 0 193

Tow 2 4 7 11 16 78 31 36 65 249

Utility 2 7 11 31 73 106 70 46 117 465

Garbage 32 73 49 26 20 14 6 2 5 229

Tank 19 28 51 41 130 96 14 13 13 405

Freight

Beverage 0 0 2 8 46 32 5 3 4 100

Tractor 2670 314 279 131 64 31 0 0 0 3489

Other

29 21 24 15 40 104 49 69 151 502

 World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156 14 of 26

Table 4. The characteristics of different hydrogen-powered trucks employed in Europe [64].

Max Gross Fuel Cell Operation Number of

Manufacturer Range (km) Type of Truck H2 Storage
Weight Capacity Status Trucks
In operation
VDL 400 27 tons Truck trailer 88 kw 30 kg @ 350 bar 1
Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW since 2020
15 of 28
In operation
Scania/Asko 400–500 27 tons Truck trailer 90 kw 33 kg @ 350 bar 4
since 2020
E-trucks
400 26 tons Refuse truck 40 kw - - 1
Europe
every vehicle class. A study conducted by Lewis et al. [67]Two used GPS
tanks withdata to determine
SYMBIO: the optimal powertrain for given routes and duty cycles. They concluded
75 L, each one that a hybrid
Renault Maxity 200 4.5 tons 20 kw can store 4 kg In operation 1
H2
mechanism comprising a 32 kW HFC, a 49 kWh battery, and a 15 kg
of hydrogen
hydrogen storage
tank should yield an optimal option. with 350 bar
Kast et al. [62] analyzed the design of hydrogen fuel cell trucks in detail Startedand
2017. dis‐
34 tons
Heavy duty Not
ESORO cussed the possibility of onboardtruck
375–400 combined with storage and the vehicle’s performance under
100 kw 31 kg @ 350 bar different
operational
1
drive cycles. Storingtrailer
the hydrogen tanks in the most appropriate location isanymore essential, as
this will significantly impact the vehicle’s air resistance due to its shape. There Concept—
are various
Class 8—sleeper expected
Nikola Motors places for storing hydrogen
805–1200 36 tons tanks on a truck,
cab semi-truck which- vary based on - the vocation and truck
operation in
1
size [62]. These storages can be categorized as follows: 2022–2023
Yard truck
LOOP Energy 1. Side‐rail
- tanks: -This is the mostheavy
(off-road convenient56model,
kw as most- MD and In HD trucks al‐
operation 1
ready have this space available. duty)
DONGFENG 2. Back‐of‐cab storage:
330 7.5 tons This Boxis an
vanoption
truck for larger
30 kwtrucks, typically
- classesIn4operation
to 8. 500
since 2018
SCANIA/Renova 3. Under
- the chassis:
- This is suitable
Refuse truckfor smaller‐class
- vehicles (e.g.,
- class 3 and below).
Concept 1
Kenworth
This
320
configuration
36 tons
can only work
Class for
8—truck particular
85 kw
trucks because-
of chassis design
In operation
con‐ 1
straints, i.e., the tanks do nottrailer
interfere with the beams.
Class 2 × 5 kg,
UPS 4. On top of vehicle:
200 12 tonsThis type can only be used
6—Delivery 31on
kw certainhigh-pressure
trucks and results in a higher
In operation 17
center of gravity. truck tanks
PLUGPOWER 430 - Off-road truck 20 kw - In operation 15
Multiple storage tank locations can be utilized to optimize the trucks’
Developing a driving range.
Figure 9 shows an estimated driving range for several vehicles new based on optimizing
Class 8—heavy large-capacity,
TOYOTA/HINO storage
600 tank locations
25 tonsonboard [62]. The payload -and hydrogen storage capacity
duty high-pressure
Conceptsignifi‐ -
cantly influence the driving range of a high‐capacity (HD) vehicle. (70 MPa) A completely fueled
hydrogen tank
HD truck, equipped with two storage tanks containing 40–60 kg of hydrogen each at a
Rigid
MITSUBISHI pressure
270–300
of 350 bars, generally covers
7.5 tons
a distance of
truck—light
approximately
75 kw
500
5–10 kg @ to 1000 miles before
In operation 150
FUSO 700 bar
requiring refueling [68]. duty

53,000
47,500
47,000
44,000
34,000
GVWR (lbs.)

28,000
18,000
17,000
12,000 Side Rail Range 350 bar (miles)
11,500 Under Chassis Range 350 bar (miles)
10,000 Back of Cab Range 350 bar (miles)
9000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Range (miles)

Figure 9. The range of the vehicle determined by the placement of the compressed hydrogen storage
tank at
Figure 9. The range of athe
pressure
vehicleof 350 bar [62].
determined by the placement of the compressed hydrogen storage
tank at a pressure of 350 bar [62].

Kast et al. [62] achieved impressive outcomes in terms of power‐to‐weight ratio, fuel
economy, hydrogen storage, and vehicle range.
Figure 10 displays the calculation of the required hydrogen storage for different trucks
to attain a specific driving range, using data extracted from the literature [62]. It can be seen
 World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156 15 of 26

Kast et al. [62] achieved impressive outcomes in terms of power-to-weight ratio, fuel
economy, hydrogen storage, and vehicle range.
Figure 10 displays the calculation of the required hydrogen storage for different trucks
lectr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of[62].
to attain a specific driving range, using data extracted from the literature 28 It can be seen
that the trend follows a quadratic fit as the gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) increases.

70
150 mi
60 250 mi
H2 Storage (kg)

50 350 mi
450 mi
40
30
20
10
0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000
GVWR (lbs)
Figure 10. The required quantity
Figure 10. of hydrogen
The required storage
quantity necessary
of hydrogen to attain
storage a specific
necessary range afor
to attain each range for each
specific
representative truck is estimated based on the gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR). [62].
representative truck is estimated based on the gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) [62].

The improvement The of HFC‐powered

improvement trucks has grown
of HFC-powered trucksin has
interest
grown among manufactur‐
in interest among manufacturers
ers in the past in
couple of years. According to Çabukoglu et al. [66], developing hydrogen‐
the past couple of years. According to Çabukoglu et al. [66], developing hydrogen-
powered fuel cell trucksfuel
powered doescell
nottrucks
only mean
does notbuilding new trucks
only mean buildingbutnew
also trucks
converting them
but also converting them
into FCEVs. Converting
into FCEVs. heavy‐duty
Converting vehicles is less vehicles
heavy-duty complexisthanlesslighter
complex vehicles, and that
than lighter vehicles, and that
is because lighter‐duty
is becausevehicles (less than
lighter-duty 18 tons)
vehicles (lesshave
than less spacehave
18 tons) to store
less the
spacehydrogen
to store the hydrogen
tanks. More work is needed
tanks. More workin terms of infrastructure
is needed in terms of and the installation
infrastructure andinstallation
and the productionand production
of hydrogen refueling
of hydrogenstations. Fuel congestion
refueling stations. and Fuelrefueling
congestion rates
andarerefueling
also issues to con‐
rates are also issues to
consider before commercialization.
sider before commercialization. Such a project’s
Such a project’s feasibility and cost feasibility
analysis andalso cost
needanalysis
to also need
to be studied
be studied to prove to prove itsThe
its sustainability. sustainability. The aimsustainable
aim is to develop is to develop sustainable
MD/HD trucksMD/HD trucks
that meet the
that meet the performance performance
requirements requirements
while generatingwhile generatingemissions.
zero greenhouse zero greenhouse
As‐ emissions.
suming that the Assuming that the
infrastructure is infrastructure
ready and theisfeasibility
ready andstudy
the feasibility study proves
proves suitable, suitable, fuel cell
fuel cell
trucks
trucks are likely are likely
to become to become
the leading formtheofleading form of truck
truck transport due totransport
their zerodue to their zero emissions
emissions
and extended
and extended driving range. driving range.

7. Aerial Transportation
7. Aerial Transportation Systems Systems
The adverse
The adverse impact impact of resulting
of the emissions the emissions
fromresulting
burningfrom
fossilburning
fuels onfossil fuels on the climate is
the climate
is becoming apparent. The aviation industry contributes about 2.1% of global CO2 emis‐CO2 emissions,
becoming apparent. The aviation industry contributes about 2.1% of global
sions, and when andother
whenpollutants
other pollutants and greenhouse
and greenhouse gasesgases are factored
are factored in, this
in, this figure
figure ap‐approaches 5%,
making the industry one of the top ten emitters [69]. Noise pollution is another nuisance,
proaches 5%, making the industry one of the top ten emitters [69]. Noise pollution is an‐
especially for communities neighboring major airports around the globe. To tackle these
other nuisance, especially for communities neighboring major airports around the globe.
problems, the European Commission, for instance, has set a few environmental targets
To tackle these problems, the European Commission, for instance, has set a few environ‐
aiming to reduce CO emissions by 75%, NO gases by 90%, and perceived noise by 65%
mental targets aiming to reduce CO22 emissions by 75%, NOxxgases by 90%, and perceived
produced by a typical aircraft compared to the year 2000 levels by the year 2050 [70,71].
noise by 65% produced by a typical aircraft compared to the year 2000 levels by the year
Similarly, the International Air Transport Association (IATA) and the International Civil
2050 [70,71]. Similarly, the International Air Transport Association (IATA) and the Inter‐
Aviation Organization (ICAO), among other influential entities in the aviation sector, have
national Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), among other influential entities in the avia‐
set a target of attaining a 50% decrease in CO2 emissions by 2050. Such ambitious goals
tion sector, have set a target of attaining a 50% decrease in CO2 emissions by 2050. Such
would require a drastic paradigm shift in the aviation industry that cannot be merely
ambitious goals would require a drastic paradigm shift in the aviation industry that can‐
achieved by reducing fuel consumption through improvements in aircraft aerodynamics or
not be merely achieved by reducing fuel consumption through improvements in aircraft
by designing more efficient engines.
aerodynamics or byAccording
designing tomore efficient
a report engines.by McKinsey in 2020 [72], fuel cell technology has
conducted
Accordingthe to potential
a report conducted byclimate
to reduce the McKinsey in 2020
impact of the[72], fuel cell
aviation technology
industry has
by approximately 75% to
the potential to reduce the climate impact of the aviation industry by approximately 75%
to 90%. This reduction could take place with a minimal increase in the cost of about USD
5–10 per passenger (PAX) for commuter and regional aircraft, 20–30% per PAX for short‐
range aircraft, 30–40% per PAX for medium‐range aircraft, and 40–50% per PAX for long‐
range aircraft in comparison with conventional aircraft of the same category. Table 5 pre‐
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156 16 of 26

90%. This reduction could take place with a minimal increase in the cost of about USD 5–10
per passenger (PAX) for commuter and regional aircraft, 20–30% per PAX for short-range
aircraft, 30–40% per PAX for medium-range aircraft, and 40–50% per PAX for long-range
aircraft in comparison with conventional aircraft of the same category. Table 5 presents the
definition and classification of the different types of aerial vehicles.

Table 5. Aerial vehicle (AV) categories and definitions.

Type of the AV Definition Number of Passengers Conventional Propulsion Type

A drone, also referred to as an unmanned
Battery
UAV aerial vehicle (UAV), is an aircraft 0
Reciprocating engine
operated remotely.
It is an aircraft other than a helicopter or
powered lift with a maximum gross
Sport Aircraft [73] Max 2 Single reciprocating engine
weight of 650 kg (300 lbs) unpressurized
cabin.
A commuter aircraft is primarily used by
businesspeople for short-distance travel
Commuter Aircraft [74] Max 19 Multiple jet engines
and has a maximum take-off mass of
8620 kg.
A transport aircraft refers to an airplane
with multiple engines that has a seating
capacity exceeding 19 or a maximum
take-off weight surpassing 8620 kg
(19,000).
The category includes:
• Short-range aircraft (<3 flight h);
• Medium-range aircraft (3–6 flight h); Multiple jet engines
Transport aircraft [75] More than 19
• Long-range aircraft (6–16 flight h); Turboprop engines
• Ultra-long haul (>16 flight h).
Regional aircraft fit under the short- to
medium-range category.
Regional aircraft are typically jet and
turboprop aircraft, with a seating capacity
ranging from 19 to 130 seats, operating on
short- to medium-haul routes.

Many researchers have recently been engaged in finding alternative sources of energy,
such as lithium ion batteries, fuel cells, or other hybrid architectures, to power aircraft.
Zunum, Airbus, Aero, and Eviation are notable companies endeavoring to create short-
range passenger aircraft powered solely by electric batteries. These batteries hit the market
in 2021 [76]. The limited energy storage density of batteries, which stands at 0.35 kWh·kg−1 ,
severely constrains the payload and range of all-electric aircraft, although they have the
potential to eliminate greenhouse gas emissions caused by air travel [76]. In contrast, fuel
cell-based systems offer enhanced performance with regard to range and endurance. The
two pivotal factors for aircraft electrification are energy density in Wh/kg and power
density in W/kg. The former determines the aircraft’s potential range and passenger-
carrying capacity, while the latter plays a crucial role in takeoff and climbing procedures.
Figure 11 shows the energy and power densities of various electromechanical energy
storage methods.
Small and medium-sized aircraft in the aviation industry are garnering growing
attention for the implementation of hydrogen fuel cells, mainly because of their energy
efficiency, high energy density, and minimal environmental footprint.
The relationship between HFC technology and the aviation industry is not a recent
development. Back in 1932, the English engineer Francis Thomas Bacon created the initial
hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell, which marked a significant milestone. This groundbreaking
invention proved to be highly effective, leading to its utilization in the space sector to
energize satellites and rockets for space exploration initiatives such as Apollo 11 from the
1960s onward [78,79] Recently, leading airplane manufacturers, such as Airbus and Boeing,
have been considering using hydrogen fuel cells to replace their aircraft’s traditional
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156 17 of 26

auxiliary power units (APUs). An APU is a compact turbine engine that is typically
situated in the tail cone of an aircraft or, in certain instances, within an engine nacelle
or the wheel well. An APU is present in the majority of contemporary turbojet-powered
planes, encompassing smaller regional jets as well as a handful of turboprop aircraft. By
propelling the electrical generator, the APU enables the aircraft to function independently
without the need for ground support equipment. Consequently, it empowers the aircraft
to operate
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW autonomously. With more advances in the technology related to hydrogen 18 offuel
28
cells, such as hydrogen production, storage, and refueling, large commercial airplanes
partially propelled by hydrogen fuel cells could become a reality in one or two decades [80].

Figure
Figure 11. Comparison
Comparisonbetween
betweenvarious
various electromechanical
electromechanical storage
storage structures
structures according
according to theto the
power
power and energy
and energy densities
densities [77]. [77].

Small and medium‐sized

In general, aircraftininthe
fuel cell applications theaviation
aviationindustry
industrycan arebegarnering
classifiedgrowing at‐
into propul-
sive and
tention fornon-propulsive
the implementation (i.e., for electric power
of hydrogen generation)
fuel cells, mainly applications.
because of their There are cur-
energy ef‐
rently many
ficiency, high studies and attempts
energy density, by researchers
and minimal and aircraft
environmental manufacturers to use fuel
footprint.
cellsThe
for propulsive
relationshipand non-propulsive
between HFC technology functionsandinthe
small and medium-sized
aviation industry is notaircraft
a recentas
well as UAVs.Back
development. For in
large
1932, commercial
the Englishairplanes, however,
engineer Francis the current
Thomas Baconvolume
created ofthework
initialis
focused on using fuel
hydrogen–oxygen fuelcells
cell,for non-propulsive
which functions.milestone. This groundbreaking
marked a significant
The next
invention provedsection
to berepresents a reviewleading
highly effective, of fuel cell applications
to its utilization inin propulsive and non-
the space sector to
propulsive
energize applications
satellites in the for
and rockets aviation
space industry.
exploration initiatives such as Apollo 11 from the
1960s onward [78,79] Recently, leading airplane manufacturers, such as Airbus and Boe‐
7.1. Fuel Cells for Non-Propulsive Applications (Electric Power Generation)
ing, have been considering using hydrogen fuel cells to replace their aircraft’s traditional
Mostpower
auxiliary aerialunits
vehicles need An
(APUs). electric
APUenergy to power
is a compact their engine
turbine variousthatsystems, such as
is typically the
situ‐
cabininpressurization
ated the tail cone ofunit, lighting,
an aircraft or, cockpit
in certain avionics, thewithin
instances, environmental
an enginepacks used
nacelle for
or the
heating
wheel andAn
well. cooling,
APU is etc. This electrical
present power is
in the majority ofgenerated via a turbojet‐powered
contemporary generator, which isplanes,
driven
either by the main
encompassing engine
smaller or by jets
regional an auxiliary
as well aspower unit (APU).
a handful The main
of turboprop engine
aircraft. Byand APU
propel‐
mainly rely on fossil fuels as a source of energy.
ling the electrical generator, the APU enables the aircraft to function independently with‐
out theThe increasing
need pressure
for ground on the
support aircraft manufacturer
equipment. Consequently, to reduce emissions,
it empowers noise, and
the aircraft to
cost prompted the transition to more electrical aircraft (MEA)
operate autonomously. With more advances in the technology related to hydrogen options [81–83]. This shift
fuel
meant
cells, replacing
such the main
as hydrogen engine/APU-driven
production, storage, and generator
refueling,with direct
large electric power
commercial gen-
airplanes
eration systems,
partially propelled such as batteries,
by hydrogen fuel
fuel cells,
cells andbecome
could supercapacitors,
a reality inasone
standalone systems
or two decades
or in
[80]. hybrid combinations. Many researchers regard fuel cell systems as a significant
contender for achieving MEAs [83–89], due to their numerous benefits, which include but
In general, fuel cell applications in the aviation industry can be classified into pro‐
are not limited to high efficiency, minimal to no emissions, distributed power generation,
pulsive and non‐propulsive (i.e., for electric power generation) applications. There are
currently many studies and attempts by researchers and aircraft manufacturers to use fuel
cells for propulsive and non‐propulsive functions in small and medium‐sized aircraft as
well as UAVs. For large commercial airplanes, however, the current volume of work is
focused on using fuel cells for non‐propulsive functions.
 World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156 18 of 26

and the possibility of water reclamation [90,91]. Several fuel cell forms exist, varying in
terms of their operating temperature range and electrolyte composition. These include
the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC), molten carbonate fuel
cell (MCFC), molten direct methanol fuel cell (MDMFC), and proton exchange membrane
fuel cell (PEMFC). Among these, SOFC and PEMFC have attracted the most attention for
applications related to the aviation industry. Table 6 and Figure 12 show the two types’
specs and schematics [92].

Table 6. Characteristics of PEMFC and SOFC [92].

Parameter PEMFC SOFC

Electrolyte Proton exchange membranes Ceramic
Operating temp. 80–100 ◦ C 600–1000 ◦ C
Charge carrier H+ O2 −
Partial external pre-reforming, partial
Reforming process for HC fuels External
stack-internal
Prime cell components Carbon-based Ceramic based
Catalyst Platinum Perovskites/nickel
Robustness against poisoning Highly sensitive to CO, UHC, S Sensitive to S
Product H2 O management Evaporative Gaseous product
Process gas + independent cooling
Product heat management Internal reforming + process gas
medium
H2 O effluent location Air side Fuel side
System efficiency >40% >75% (hybrid SOFC)
Response to load change
d Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Quick, dynamic system behavior Slow, static system behavior
20 of 28
First operational test series in automotive
Maturity Breadboard units for mobile application
industry

Figure 12. Schematics

Figure 12.ofSchematics
(a) PEMFC,of(b)
(a)SOFC [93].(b) SOFC [93].
PEMFC,

Shanshan etShanshan
al. [92] conducted
et al. [92]aconducted
comparison between solid
a comparison oxide fuel
between solidcells (SOFCs)
oxide fuel cells (SOFCs)
and proton and
exchange
protonmembrane
exchange fuel cells (PEMFCs)
membrane fuel cellsin(PEMFCs)
terms of in
their
termsperformance for
of their performance for
generating electrical
generating power onboard
electrical an MEA.
power onboardBased anon the presented
MEA. Based onconfigurations,
the presented the configurations,
the authors
authors concluded concluded
that SOFC thatbetter
performs SOFCthan performs
PEMFC. better thanG.PEMFC.
Whyatt Whyatt
et al. [94] investi‐G. et al. [94]
investigated
gated the potential theSOFC
of using potential of using SOFC
for generating for generating
electricity on Boeing 787electricity
as a caseon Boeing 787 as a
study.
Elamn et al.case
[90] study.
compared Elamn et al. [90] compared
the performance of SOFC‐GT the performance
and PEMFC‐GT of SOFC-GT and PEMFC-GT
hybrid config‐
hybrid
urations against theconfigurations
conventional gas against
turbinethe(GT)‐APU.
conventional gas turbine
According to the(GT)-APU.
study, the According
find‐ to the
study, the findings indicate that concepts incorporating solid
ings indicate that concepts incorporating solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) demonstrate sig‐ oxide fuel cells (SOFCs)
demonstrate
nificantly higher system significantly higher system
efficiencies, suggesting efficiencies,
a greater suggesting
potential to replace a greater
conven‐potential to
replace
tional auxiliary powerconventional
unit (APU) auxiliary
systems.power
Similarunit (APU)
work wassystems. Similar
conducted work was
by Daggett conducted by
[95]
in which SOFC‐GT was proposed as a hybrid system on Boeing 777 as a case study. He
predicted that the SOFC‐GT APU would be 60% efficient at sea level. Rajashekara et al. [85]
modeled different hybrid architectures of FC‐GT APU in an attempt to find the optimal con‐
figuration for generating electrical power on board the 305‐seat Boeing 777. The authors con‐
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156 19 of 26

Daggett [95] in which SOFC-GT was proposed as a hybrid system on Boeing 777 as a case
study. He predicted that the SOFC-GT APU would be 60% efficient at sea level. Rajashekara
et al. [85] modeled different hybrid architectures of FC-GT APU in an attempt to find the
optimal configuration for generating electrical power on board the 305-seat Boeing 777.
The authors concluded that the hybrid SOFC-GT combination is highly attractive. It was
predicted to have a fuel efficiency of 73.7% at high altitude and 60.6% at sea level.
In a similar vein, the research conducted by Gummalla et al. [96] examined the per-
formance of the solid oxide fuel cell–gas turbine (SOFC-GT) auxiliary power unit (APU)
concept for a 162-passenger, more electric, short-range aircraft with a range of 1000 nautical
miles and a peak load of 360 kW. The study estimated that the system could achieve fuel
savings of 6.7% compared to the baseline GT APU system. Furthermore, Collins F. et al. [76]
investigated the utilization of a hybrid configuration combining SOFC-GT and battery
systems for onboard electric power generation in four different aircraft: the Fokker F70,
Boeing 787-8, and Airbus models A300 and A380. The hybrid system, comprising the
SOFC-GT–battery setup, was optimized to maximize passenger payload when compared
to existing turbine technology operating on jet fuel, as well as next-generation turbine
technology utilizing liquid hydrogen. The energy and power analysis conducted suggests
that the SOFC-GT–battery hybrid configuration could have a significant role to play in
future commercial aircraft.

7.2. Fuel Cells for Propulsive Applications

Presently, most large civil aircraft use turbofan engines as their primary power source.
Smaller aircraft, such as sport aircraft, commuter aircraft, or AUVs, prefer to use a motor
or turbo-propeller engine. The required power for large commercial aircraft is generally
above 400 kW, whereas the required power for smaller aircraft is typically in the range of
5–240 kW [84,97–99]. For a small electrical UAV to achieve flight, it generally requires a
power-to-weight ratio ranging from 20 to 200 watts per kilogram. To provide an example,
a UAV with a take-off weight of 4.5 kg and a wingspan of 5 m would necessitate approx-
imately 100 W of power. In contrast, larger UAVs capable of carrying a load of 300 kg
might require around 1.5 kW of power. For high-altitude and long-endurance (HALE)
UAVs, the power requirement could be in the tens of kWs [100]. Many researchers have
presented analytical studies proposing fuel cell technology to provide a propulsive function
to different types of aircraft.
Suewatanakul et al. [101] introduced a hybrid mechanism consisting of a proton
exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) and a battery for an autonomous underwater
vehicle (AUV) aircraft. The UAV in question has a wingspan of 4 m and a maximum
take-off weight of 25 kg. Their research findings revealed that by utilizing a 650 W fuel
cell in combination with a 100 Wh battery pack and an 80 g compressed hydrogen fuel
supply, the aircraft was capable of completing a 2 h journey. Similarly, Farajollahi et al. [102]
explored a hybrid propulsion system that incorporates a PEMFC and a battery for a small
unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV). Similar work was conducted by Wang et al. [103] in which
they investigated the performance of hybrid UAV systems comprising a battery pack and
three different types of fuel cells: PEMFC, DMFC, and SOFC.
Qin et al. [104,105] have proposed a SOFC turbine-less jet engine to provide electric
propulsion for long-endurance AUVs. In their proposal, the compressor is driven by the
SOFC instead of a turbine. Figure 13 shows a schematic of the proposed propulsion system.
Different jet fuels were studied to produce the needed hydrogen through a reformer for
the SOFC. The following fuels were used: methane, methanol, decane, and propane. The
researchers reached the conclusion that the efficiency and specific power of the SOFC jet
engine surpass those of combustion engines.
 Qin et al. [104,105] have proposed a SOFC turbine‐less jet engine to provide electric
propulsion for long‐endurance AUVs. In their proposal, the compressor is driven by the
SOFC instead of a turbine. Figure 13 shows a schematic of the proposed propulsion sys‐
tem. Different jet fuels were studied to produce the needed hydrogen through a reformer
for the SOFC. The following fuels were used: methane, methanol, decane, and propane.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156 20 of 26
The researchers reached the conclusion that the efficiency and specific power of the SOFC
jet engine surpass those of combustion engines.

Figure
Figure 13.13. Schematic
Schematic ofof SOFC
SOFC turbine-less
turbine‐less jetjet engine
engine asas proposed
proposed byby [104].
[104].

Gonzalez-Espasandinetetal.
Gonzalez‐Espasandin al. [106]
[106] proposed
proposed PEMFC
PEMFCand andDMFC
DMFChybridization
hybridization concepts
con‐
with electric batteries for UAVs. The batteries were used to overcome the fuel cells’
cepts with electric batteries for UAVs. The batteries were used to overcome the fuel cells’ lower
power density. Marinaro et al. [107] presented a numerical analysis of the propulsion
lower power density. Marinaro et al. [107] presented a numerical analysis of the propul‐
system based on PEMFC as the primary power source as well as a battery backup and
sion system based on PEMFC as the primary power source as well as a battery backup
ultra-capacitor for a secondary energy source. The PEMFC unit was designed to meet
and ultra‐capacitor for a secondary energy source. The PEMFC unit was designed to meet
continuous electrical loads during the cruising segment of the flight, and the battery pack
continuous electrical loads during the cruising segment of the flight, and the battery pack
was designed to provide an extra energy boost during take-off and climbing. The ultra-
was designed to provide an extra energy boost during take‐off and climbing. The ultra‐
capacitor was sized to avoid a high discharge rate of the battery pack and to contribute to
capacitor was sized to avoid a high discharge rate of the battery pack and to contribute to
the power mix during the maximum power demand. The power management strategy
the power mix during the maximum power demand. The power management strategy
used is shown in Figure 14. The system was designed to generate at least 30 kW. Two power
used is shown in Figure 14. The system was designed to generate at least 30 kW. Two
architectures were analyzed: one comprising the battery pack alone and the other made
power
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER architectures were analyzed: one comprising the battery pack alone and the22other
upREVIEW
of the PEMFC and battery pack working in synergy. According to their findings, of the
28
made up of the PEMFC and battery pack working in synergy. According to their findings,
hybrid architecture, which consists of PEMFC and a battery pack, provides greater energy
the hybridonboard
density architecture, which consists of PEMFC and a battery pack, provides greater
the aircraft.
energy density onboard the aircraft.

Figure14.
Figure Schematicofofthe
14.Schematic thepower
powermanagement
managementstrategy
strategyused
usedby
by[107].
[107].

InInconclusion,
conclusion,whenwhenititcomes
comestotousing
usingfuel
fuelcells
cellstotoreplace
replacethetheconventional
conventionalAPUs
APUs
onboardaircraft,
onboard aircraft,the
themost
mostpromising
promisingarchitecture
architectureisisthe
theSOFC‐GT
SOFC-GThybrid
hybridsystem
system[92,108].
[92,108].
The literature survey showed that SOFC-GT hybrid systems could achieve
The literature survey showed that SOFC‐GT hybrid systems could achieve efficiencies as efficiencies as
high as 75%, much higher than the non-hybrid option (maximum
high as 75%, much higher than the non‐hybrid option (maximum of 38%) [108]. Other of 38%) [108]. Other
hybridizationsofofGT
hybridizations GT with
with PEMPC
PEMPC andand batteries
batteries seem
seem toless
to be be less likely.
likely. Although
Although PEM-
PEMFCs’
technology is more mature than SOFCs, SOFCs have some qualities that make themthem
FCs’ technology is more mature than SOFCs, SOFCs have some qualities that make the
the preferred option for replacing the conventional APU on aircraft. Among these qual-
preferred option for replacing the conventional APU on aircraft. Among these qualities
ities are (i) the possibility of internal fuel reforming for short-chain hydrocarbon fuels
are (i) the possibility of internal fuel reforming for short‐chain hydrocarbon fuels such as
such as methane, ethanol, methanol, and natural gas [109], (ii) higher power density, and
methane, ethanol, methanol, and natural gas [109], (ii) higher power density, and (iii)
greater efficiency [108]. An external reformer would be needed for long‐chain hydrocar‐
bon fuels such as gasoline and kerosene [110–112]. Reforming fuels requires high temper‐
atures (700–800 °C), which are compatible with the operating temperature of SOFCs (600–
1000 °C) but not in the case of PEMFCs (80–100 °C). Furthermore, because SOFCs operate
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156 21 of 26

(iii) greater efficiency [108]. An external reformer would be needed for long-chain hy-
drocarbon fuels such as gasoline and kerosene [110–112]. Reforming fuels requires high
temperatures (700–800 ◦ C), which are compatible with the operating temperature of SOFCs
(600–1000 ◦ C) but not in the case of PEMFCs (80–100 ◦ C). Furthermore, because SOFCs
operate at high temperatures, their hybridization with gas turbine power plants results
in high cycle efficiencies [84,85]. Furthermore, it has been reported that, for similar stack
power densities, PEMFC is about 50% heavier than SOFC due to the larger PEMFC size,
which results in lower system efficiency [90].
Dong et al. [113] conducted a synthesis analysis to implement electric propulsion in
large civil aircraft. Seitz et al. [114] proposed a SOFC-GT hybrid concept for the propulsion
system of commercial aircraft whereby the byproduct water of SOFCs is injected into the
gas turbine to increase its efficiency. The water is converted into superheated steam and
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
injected into the combustion chamber to increase thermodynamic efficiency, as shown 23 of in
28

Figure 15.

SOFC-GT architecture studied by [115].

Figure 15. Schematic of SOFC‐GT

It is
It is worth
worth mentioning
mentioning here,here, however,
however, that the deployment
that the deployment of of fuel
fuel cells
cells for
for propulsive
propulsive
applications in the foreseeable future is most likely to take place in UAVs,
applications in the foreseeable future is most likely to take place in UAVs, sport aircraft, sport aircraft,
commuter aircraft, and regional aircraft. To accommodate the size of the
commuter aircraft, and regional aircraft. To accommodate the size of the liquid hydrogen liquid hydrogen
(LH2) tanks on
(LH2) tanks on medium‐
medium- and and long‐range
long-range aircraft,
aircraft, the
the fuselage
fuselage must
must be be significantly
significantly ex‐
ex-
tended. Increasing the size of the fuselage would lead to an increase in fuel
tended. Increasing the size of the fuselage would lead to an increase in fuel consumption consumption of
about 25% compared to a conventional aircraft. Therefore, the implementation
of about 25% compared to a conventional aircraft. Therefore, the implementation of fuel of fuel cell
technology
cell technology for propulsive
for propulsivefunction in medium
function and large
in medium aircraft
and large may may
aircraft have have
to wait
to until
wait
new aircraft designs are made. Such development could be 20 years away. Meanwhile,
until new aircraft designs are made. Such development could be 20 years away. Mean‐
the use of synthetic fuel (synfuel) is likely to be a more cost-effective solution for reducing
while, the use of synthetic fuel (synfuel) is likely to be a more cost‐effective solution for
emissions [72,115].
reducing emissions [72,115].
8. Conclusions
8. Conclusions
This article presents a comprehensive examination of the application of hydrogen
This(HFC)
fuel cell articletechnology
presents a within
comprehensive examination
the transportation of the
sector, application aofwide
encompassing hydrogen
range
fuel cell (HFC) technology within the transportation sector, encompassing a wide range
of vehicles from bicycles and scooters to commercial airplanes. The analysis provides
compelling evidence of the considerable potential for HFC technology to secure a signifi‐
cant portion of the market in this industry by the end of the present decade. The distinct
advantages inherent in HFCs, namely zero emissions, compactness, durability, and high
World Electr. Veh. J. 2023, 14, 156 22 of 26

of vehicles from bicycles and scooters to commercial airplanes. The analysis provides
compelling evidence of the considerable potential for HFC technology to secure a significant
portion of the market in this industry by the end of the present decade. The distinct
advantages inherent in HFCs, namely zero emissions, compactness, durability, and high
efficiency, far outweigh those offered by most alternative energy sources. Conversely,
HFCs do encounter several limitations, such as the costliness of catalysts and the relatively
low power density, in addition to the challenges associated with hydrogen itself, such as
production, storage, and distribution infrastructure.
Among the different types of HFCs, two types were noticed to be the most prevalent:
PEMFCs and SOFCs. Due to the similarity of their operating temperatures, PEMFCs are most
commonly used in two-wheeled vehicles, cars, drones, and small aircraft, whereas SOFCs are
primarily used in large and medium-sized airplanes in hybridization with gas turbines.
The penetration of HFC for propulsion functions in large commercial airplanes would
require redesigning the airplanes in order to accommodate the large size of hydrogen
tanks needed. Hence, the use of HFCs in large airplanes will be limited to electric power
generation in the foreseeable future. To overcome the drawbacks of low power density and
the slow response of HFCs, hybridization with ICEs, batteries, and/or supercapacitors is
sometimes used.
In conclusion, this study has shed light on the challenges and solutions associated
with hydrogen fuel cells in transportation systems. To further guide researchers in this
field, it is essential to identify the research gaps and highlight the challenges that need
to be addressed. Key areas of focus include understanding the long-term durability and
performance of fuel cell systems, evaluating the impact of environmental conditions on
efficiency, exploring the economic feasibility and scalability of hydrogen infrastructure, and
investigating advanced materials and catalysts. Additionally, challenges such as enhancing
onboard hydrogen storage, developing cost-effective production and distribution methods,
addressing safety concerns, and integrating fuel cell systems with renewable energy sources
have been identified.

Author Contributions: All authors contributed substantially and equally to writing and original
draft preparation. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no extra external funding.
Data Availability Statement: As this paper is a review paper, no new data were created in this study.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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