Semiconductors - I

Syllabus
Module IV - Semiconductors - I: Introduction, intrinsic and extrin-
sic semiconductors,carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductors, carrier
concentration in n-type and p-type semiconductors, conductivity of extrin-

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sic semiconductors, variation of carrier concentration and conductivity with

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temperature, drift and diffusion currents in semiconductors, carrier transport
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phenomena.

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Contents
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Syllabus 1
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List of Figures 3
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1 Introduction 4
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2 Intrinsic Semiconductors 5
2.1 Intrinsic Carrier concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Calculation of density of electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
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2.3 Calculation of density of holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2.4 Intrinsic carrier concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
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2.5 Fermi Energy level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.6 Electrical conductivity of semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.7 Determination of Bandgap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.8 Limitations of Intrinsic semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 Extrinsic Semiconductors 13
3.1 n-type semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1.1 Fermi level in n-type semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
CONTENTS 2

3.1.2 Density of electrons in the conduction band . . . . . . . . . 14

3.1.3 Temperature variation of n-type carrier concentration . . . . 14
3.2 p-type semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2.1 Fermi level in p-type semiconductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.2 Density of holes in the valence band . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.3 Temperature variation of p-type carrier concentration . . . . 17
3.3 Conductivity in extrinsic semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

4 Carrier Transport Phenomena 18

4.1 Drift and diffusion currents in semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.1.1 Drift Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.1.2 Diffusion current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.1.3 Transport phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2 Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3 Multiple Choice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

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4.4 Short type Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

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4.5 Descriptive type Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
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Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

LIST OF FIGURES 3

List of Figures
1 The Fermi-Dirac distribution function (a) at T = 0K and (b) at
T > 0K. The figure shows that, the valence band is completely
filled while the conduction band is completely empty at T = 0K
i.e., a semiconductor behaves like perfect insulator at T = 0K. For
T > 0K, we can observe holes in the valence band and electrons in
the conduction band. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Graph between log R ∼ 1/T will have a slope value equal to E(gap)/(2K),
where E(gap) = Eg is the band gap energy and K = KB is the
Boltzmann constant. This graph provides the value of band gap
energy Eg = 2KB × (slope of the log R ∼ 1/T graph). . . . . . . . . 12
3 Variation of concentration as a function of inverse of temperature. . 18
4 Variation of conductivity as a function of temperature for n-type
semiconductor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

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Drift current inside a semiconductor of cross sectional area A when

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subjected to an electric field E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
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Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

1 Introduction 4

1 Introduction
Definition : Semiconductor are those substances whose electrical behavior lies be-
tween that of conductors and insulators i.e., it’s resistivity value lies in between
that of a conductor and an insulator. Some of the examples of semiconductors
include Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge), Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) etc. Devices
made from semiconductor materials are the foundation of modern electronics, in-
cluding radio, computers, telephones and many other devices. Semiconductor
devices include the transistor, many kinds of diodes including the light emitting
diodes (LED), the silicon controlled rectifier, and digital and analog integrated
circuits. Solar photovoltaic panels are large semiconductor devices that directly
convert light energy into electrical energy.
In a metallic conductor, current is carried by the flow of electrons through drift
only. In semiconductors, current can be carried either by the flow of electrons or
by the flow of positively charged holes in the electron structure of the material.

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Thus current flows via drift as well as diffusion in semiconductor materials. Silicon

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is used to create most semiconductors commercially.
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Valence Band : The valence band is the highest range of electron energies

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where electrons are normally present at absolute zero temperature. In semicon-
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ductors and insulators, there is a band gap above the valence band, followed by
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conduction band above that. In metals, the conduction band has no energy gap
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separating it from the valence band.
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Conduction Band : The conduction band is the range of electron energy,

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higher than that of the valence band, sufficient to make the electrons free to accel-
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erate under the influence of an applied electric field and thus constitutes an electric
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current. Electrons in semiconductor valence band may reach this conduction band
when they are excited.
Description of Energy band structure in semiconductors :-
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• At 0K, the valence band states are fully occupied by electrons while the
conduction band states are empty.
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• Forbidden energy gap (Eg ) is very small of the order of 1eV . For example
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in case of Ge, Eg = 0.72eV while in case of Si, Eg = 1.1eV .

• Because of the empty conduction band the semiconductors acts as an insu-

lator at 0K.

• When the temperature is increased, some of the valence electrons acquire

thermal energy greater than the forbidden energy gap and jump to the con-
duction band. These free electrons can move under the influence of an applied
field constituting a small current.

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

2 Intrinsic Semiconductors 5

• The absence of the electron in the valence band is represented by the presence
of a hole. The hole is an empty state that allows electrons in the valence
band some degree of freedom to move.

• The resistance of a semiconductor decreases with an increase in tempera-

ture and hence they are said to have a negative temperature coefficient of
resistance.

There is always some finite non zero conductivity in insulators/semiconductors

which is due to thermal excitation of the electrons that get enough energy to jump
the band gap to go to the conduction band. Once they are in the conduction band,
they can conduct electricity, and they leave behind a hole in the valence band.
Types of semiconductors - Semiconductor materials are of two types. Semi-
conductors in its purest form are often called as ”intrinsic” or ”pure semiconduc-
tors”. The other type of semiconductor materials which are formed by doping are

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called as ”extrinsic semiconductors” or ”impure semiconductors”.
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2 Intrinsic Semiconductors

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Definition : Intrinsic semiconductors are those in which impurities are not present
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and therefore called pure semiconductors. Example - if an intrinsic Si crystal is

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considered, all atoms present in it are Si only. In these semiconductors the Fermi
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level exists exactly at mid way of the energy gap.

Let us consider Si. It has atomic number 14. As a result 14 electrons are
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filled as per the Pauli’s exclusion principle 1s2 2s2 2p6 ; 3s1 3p3 . It leaves four
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valence electrons in the outer shell of silicon atom. These four electrons form four
sp3 hybridized states. In order to gain stability these four sp3 electrons make four
covalent bonds with the neighboring Si atoms and form a diamond like close packed
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tetrahedral structure. The electrons which take part in the covalent bonding are
the valence electrons.
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If some energy is supplied, then covalent bonds can break, thus electrons will
come out of the valence band and move freely. This results in the formation of
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vacant sites in the covalent bonds. These positive charge carriers are called as
holes. The electrons which come out of the covalent bonds move freely in the
conduction band without any constraints and thus have more energy than the
electrons in the covalent bond or valence band. For each electron the conduction
band we have a hole in the valence band. Thus, the number of conduction electrons
will be equal to the number of vacant electron sites (holes) in the valence band.

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

2.1 Intrinsic Carrier concentration 6

2.1 Intrinsic Carrier concentration

As semiconductors become conducting at higher temperatures, we expect a large
number of electrons to be found in the conduction band. Similarly a large number
of holes can be found in the valence band. We would like to know the number of
electrons ne in the conduction band and number of holes nh in the valence band.
For computing these we need to know the density of states, g(E) as a function of
energy, which tells us the number of available energy states per unit volume per
unit energy interval at energy E.
However, all the available energy states are not filled in an energy band. A
particular energy is occupied or not, is determined by the probability that the
carrier has energy E. This probability is given by the Fermi-Dirac distribution
function
1
f (E) =  . (1)
E − EF
1 + exp

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The value of f (E) = 1, if the energy level E is filled by an electron and f (E) = 0
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for an empty energy level. The symbol EF is called the Fermi energy or Fermi

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level. This provides a reference with which other energy levels can be compared.
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Characteristics of Fermi-Dirac distribution function:-

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• At absolute zero temperature T = 0K
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The Fermi function, at absolute zero temperature, is shown in Fig 1. It says

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that
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Figure 1: The Fermi-Dirac distribution function (a) at T = 0K and (b) at T > 0K.
The figure shows that, the valence band is completely filled while the conduction
band is completely empty at T = 0K i.e., a semiconductor behaves like perfect
insulator at T = 0K. For T > 0K, we can observe holes in the valence band and
electrons in the conduction band.

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

2.1 Intrinsic Carrier concentration 7

(i) for energy levels below the Fermi energy E < EF ⇒ (E − EF ) < 0,
the argument of the exponential function is −∞. Thus f (E) = 1/[1 +
exp(−∞)] = 1. This implies that all the energy levels below the Fermi
energy are occupied by electrons. For semi conductors this means that
the entire valence band is completely filled.
(ii) for the energy levels above the Fermi energy E > EF ⇒ (E − EF ) > 0,
the argument of the exponential function is +∞. So, f (E) = 1/[1 +
exp(∞)] = 0. This implies hat all the energy levels above the Fermi
energy are completely empty. For semi conductors this means that the
entire conduction band is empty of any electrons.
(iii) at Fermi level E = EF ⇒ E − EF = 0 making the argument of the
exponential function indeterminable. So, the value of Fermi function at
the Fermi energy is indeterminate. As such, its value is an undetermined
value between zero and unity.

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• At temperature T > 0K
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Due to thermal excitation, some of the electrons get excited to vacant levels
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in the conduction band. So the probability of finding electrons at energy
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levels greater than the Fermi level E > EF

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f (E) =   > 0. (2)
E−EF
1 + exp KB T
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In semiconductors this is achieved by breaking of covalent bond and elec-

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trons escaping to the conduction band leaving behind an empty site in the
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valence band (called a hole). Now consider the probability of an electron not
occupying the energy state E i.e.,
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1
1 − f (E) =  .
−(E−EF )
1 + exp KB T
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This provides the probability of finding a hole with energy E less than the
Fermi energy.
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If a hole is present in a semiconductor, then it is relatively easy for another

valence electron in a neighboring atom to leave its covalent bond and fill this
hole thereby leaving a hole in its initial position. Thus, holes effectively move
in the opposite direction that of the electron. Therefore in semiconductors, both
holes and electrons are charge carriers in transport of current. Since, these charge
carriers are due to breaking of covalent bonds the number of holes is equal to the
number of free electrons. At thermal equilibrium there is not only the formation
of electron-hole pairs but also recombination of electron-hole pairs.

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

2.2 Calculation of density of electrons 8

Using the above informations, we can calculate the number of carriers per unit
volume within a given energy range. It depends both on the density of states
lying in the given energy range E and E + dE and the probability that the carriers
acquire sufficient energy to occupy the energy state in that range. Thus, the carrier
concentration in the energy interval E and E + dE is given by

N (E)dE = f (E)g(E)dE (3)

N (E) is known as the carrier distribution function.

The density of energy states g(E)dE between the energy interval E and
E + dE is given by
4π √
g(E)dE = 3 (2m)3/2 E dE. (4)
h
Substituting this and the value of f (E) from equation (1) into equation (3), we
get

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√
4π sic
(2m)3/2 E

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N (E)dE = 3   dE. (5)
h E − EF
1 + exp
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KB T

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This can be integrated at any temperature T over an energy band to determine

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the carrier concentration in that particular energy band. Thus the carrier concen-
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tration over an energy band is given by
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n = N (E)dE
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energy band
√
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Z
4π E
= (2m)3/2   dE (6)
h3
energy band E − EF
1 + exp
KB T
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2.2 Calculation of density of electrons

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To calculate the carrier concentration of electrons or the density of electrons in

the conduction band ne , we need to integrate equation (6) from the bottom of
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conduction band EC to the top of the conduction band. Thus,

Z ∞ √
4π ? 3/2 E − EC
ne = 3 (2me )   dE. (7)
h EC E − EF
1 + exp
KB T

In writing the above equation, we have replaced the mass of the electron by its
effective mass m?e . This is because the electron is moving in a periodic potential;

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

2.3 Calculation of density of holes 9

similarly as the energy of the electron E starts at the bottom of the conduction
band its energy has been replaced by E − EC .
To integrate
 the above equation,  temperatures E − EF 
−1we notethat at all
E − EF EF − E
KB T . Hence 1 + exp ≈ exp . Therefore
KB T KB T
Z ∞p  
4π ? 3/2 EF − E
ne = (2me ) E − EC exp dE
h3 Ec KB T
 Z ∞p  
4π ? 3/2 EF − EC (E − EC )
= (2me ) exp E − EC exp − dE
h3 kB T Ec KB T
 Z ∞r    
4π ? 3/2 EF − EC E − EC (E − EC ) (E − EC )
= (2me KB T ) exp exp − d
h3 kB T Ec KB T KB T KB T

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To simplify further, we replace (E − EC )/KB T = x. Thus,
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 Z ∞
4π ? 3/2 EF − EC
ne = 3 (2me KB T ) exp x1/2 exp(−x) dx (8)
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h kB T

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√
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Using gamma functions it can be shown that the value of the integral is π/2
giving y,
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2 ? 3/2 EF − EC
ne = 3 (2πme KB T ) exp (9)
h kB T
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Thus, the number of electrons per unit volume i.e., the concentration of electrons
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in the semiconducting material is given by

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3/2
2πm?e KB T
  
EF − EC
ne = 2 exp (10)
h2 kB T
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2.3 Calculation of density of holes

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To calculate the carrier concentration of holes or the density of holes in the con-
duction band, we need to modify the equation (6) in order to take care of the
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probability of finding a hole ie., we replace f (E) with 1 − f (E) and the limit of
integration starts from the bottom of the lowest energy to the top of the valence
band EV . Also since EV is the topmost energy of the valence band the energy E
in the integration will be replaced by EV − E. By incorporating these changes, we
get for the density of holes nh
Z EV √
4π E −E
nh = 3 (2mh ) ? 3/2
V  dE. (11)
h −∞ −(E − EF )
1 + exp
KB T

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

2.4 Intrinsic carrier concentration 10

For all the holes E < EF also EF − E  KB T . So we approximate

 
1 E − EF
  ≈ exp . (12)
−(E − EF ) KB T
1 + exp
KB T
EV − E E − EF EV − EF
Further we assume x = , then = − x and dE =
KB T KB T KB T
−KB T dx. Substituting these values we obtain
  Z ∞
4π ? 3/2 EV − EF 3/2
nh = (2mh ) exp (KB T ) x1/2 exp(−x) dx
h3 KB T 0

3/2
2πm?h KB T
   
EV − EF
= 2 2
exp (13)
h kB T

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2.4 Intrinsic carrier concentration sic

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In intrinsic semiconductors ne = nh = ni which is called the instrinsic carrier
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concentration. Multiplying equations (10) and (13) we get

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2 2πKB T ? ? 3/2 EV − EC
ni = ne nh = 4 (me mh ) exp
h2 y, KB T
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 3  
2πKB T −Eg
= 4 (m?e m?h )3/2 exp
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h2 KB T
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 3/2  
−Eg
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2πKB T ? ? 3/4
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⇒ ni = 2 (me mh ) exp (14)

h2 2KB T
where Eg = EC − EV is the energy of the forbidden energy gap.
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2.5 Fermi Energy level

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Since ne = nh , equating equations (10) and (13) we have (after cancelling the
common factors)
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? 3/2 EF − EC ? 3/2 EV − EF
(me ) exp = (mh ) exp
KB T KB T
   ? 3/2  
2EF mh EV + EC
⇒ exp = exp (15)
KB T m?e KB T
Taking logarithm on both sides and rearranging the terms
m?h
 
3KB T EV + EC
EF = log ? + (16)
4 me 2

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

2.6 Electrical conductivity of semiconductors 11

Thus, at T = 0K, EF = (EV + EC )/2 i.e., the Fermi energy level is located half
way between the valence band and conduction band. And if we assume m?e = m?h ,
then not only the Fermi level located in the middle of the valence and conduction
bands but also is independent of temperature. However, in actual case m?h > m?e
making the Fermi level just above the middle and it rises slightly with increasing
temperature.

2.6 Electrical conductivity of semiconductors

For semi-conducting materials the electrical conductivity σ is due to the movement
of electrons in the conduction band and the movement of holes in the valence
band. So, σ = ne eµe + nh eµh , where µe and µh are the electrical conductivities
of the electron and holes respectively. Mobility is the velocity acquired by the
charge carriers under unit potential gradient. For an intrinsic semiconductor ne =
np = ni , Hence, σ = ni e(µe + µh ). Substituting the value of the intrinsic carrier

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concentration from equation (14), we get

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3/2
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2πkB T ? ? 3/4 −Eg

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σ = (µe + µh )2e (me mh ) exp (17)
h2 2KB T
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Now the mobilities are determined by the interaction of electrons and holes with
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the lattice waves (or phonons). As such both µe and µh are both proportional to
T −3/2 . Hence, the electrical conductivity
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−Eg Eg
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σ = A exp ⇒ log σ = log A − (18)

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2KB T 2KB T
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where, A is a constant independent of temperature. Therefore, a typical log σ ∼

1/T graph will have a negative slope of −Eg /(2KB ).
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2.7 Determination of Bandgap

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As resistivity can be written in terms of the area a and length L of the material
ρ = 1/σ = R a/L, we can write
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Ra 1 Eg
= exp
L A 2KB T
   
L Eg Eg
⇒R = exp = C exp (19)
aA 2KB T 2KB T
where C = L/(a A). Now again taking logarithms of both sides we get
Eg
log R = log C + . (20)
2KB T

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

2.8 Limitations of Intrinsic semiconductors 12

Thus by measuring the resistance of an intrinsic semiconductor at different tem-

peratures we can measure the forbidden energy gap Eg . Note : - For a plot of
log R ∼ 1/T (see fig. 2), the slope provides the value of Eg /(2KB ) from which we
can obtain the value of bandgap Eg .

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Figure 2: Graph between log R ∼ 1/T will have a slope value equal to
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E(gap)/(2K), where E(gap) = Eg is the band gap energy and K = KB is

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the Boltzmann constant. This graph provides the value of band gap energy
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Eg = 2KB × (slope of the log R ∼ 1/T graph).

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2.8 Limitations of Intrinsic semiconductors

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• Intrinsic semiconductors have low conductivity e.g., Ge has a conductivity

of 1.67 S/m, which is nearly 107 times smaller than copper.
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• Conductivity strongly depends on the temperature and increases exponen-

tially as the temperature increases.
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• The conductivity cannot be controlled from outside by controlling the volt-

age.

Because of these limitations, the intrinsic semiconductors are not useful for device
manufacturing.

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

3 Extrinsic Semiconductors 13

3 Extrinsic Semiconductors
A semiconducting material in which the charge carriers originate from impurity
atoms added to the material is called impurity semiconductors or extrinsic
semiconductors. Addition of impurity increases the carrier concentration and
hence the conductivity of the conductor. Depending on the type of impurities
there are two types of extrinsic semiconductors. They are
• n-type semiconductors and

• p-type semiconductors.

3.1 n-type semiconductors

When pentavalent elements like Phosphorus P, Arsenic As or antimony Sb is added

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to the intrinsic semiconductor, then four electrons are engaged in covalent bonding
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with the neighbouring pure semiconductor atoms; while the fifth electron remains

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weakly bound to the parent atom. In the energy level diagram the energy of this
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fifth electron is called the donor level. This donor level is so close to the conduc-

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tion band that even for lesser thermal energy this fifth electron is released into the
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conduction band leaving the parent atom positively ionised. During this process
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no hole is generated. If the thermal energy is sufficiently high, in addition to ion-

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ization of donor impurity atoms, breaking of covalent bonds may occur giving rise
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to electron-hole pairs. Since, these pentavalent elements donate negative electrons

they are called n-type impurities and the semiconductors doped with pentava-
p

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lent impurities are called n-type semiconductors. In these of semiconductors

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electrons are majority charge carriers while holes are minority charge carriers.

3.1.1 Fermi level in n-type semiconductor

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Let’s assume Nd as the donor concentration i.e., the number of donor atoms per
unit volume of the material and Ed is the energy of the donor level. At very
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low temperatures all the donor levels are filled with electrons. With increase of
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temperature more and more donor atoms get ionised and the density of electrons
increase in the conduction band. As per the previous calculations the density of
electrons in the conduction band is given in equation (10). Now, if we assume EF
lies more than a few KB T above the donor level, then the density of ionised donors
is given by  
Ed − EF
nd = Nd [1 − F (Ed )] ≈ Nd exp . (21)
KB T
At low temperatures, when electron-hole pairs are not generated due to breakage
of the covalent bonds, the number of electrons in the conduction band must be

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

3.1 n-type semiconductors 14

equal to the number of ionised donors i.e., ne = nd or

3/2
2πm?e KB T
    
EF − EC Ed − EF
2 exp = Nd exp . (22)
h2 KB T KB T

Taking logarithms of both sides and rearranging we get

3/2
2πm?e KB T

EF − EC Ed − EF
− = log Nd − log 2 , (23)
KB T KB T h2

giving the value of Fermi energy to be

 
Ed + EC KB T Nd
EF = + log   (24)
 
3/2 
2 2 ?
2 2πmhe2KB T

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Thus for T = 0K, we have EF = (Ed + EC )/2 i.e., at 0K the Fermi level for
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a n-type semiconductor lies exactly at the middle of the donor level Ed and the

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bottom of the conduction band EC .
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3.1.2 Density of electrons in the conduction band y,

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Substituting the value of Fermi energy EF from equation (24) into the value of ne
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in equation (22), we obtain the concentration of electrons in the conduction band

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of an n-type semiconductor to be
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   
3/2
2πm?e KB T
  
E + E 
d C 1 Nd EC 
nen = 2 exp + log   3/2  −
 
h2  2KB T 2 2πm?e KB T KB T 
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2
 
h2

 1/2
3/2
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2πm?e KB T
  
Ed − EC Nd
= 2 exp
 
h2 2KB T
   3/2 
2πm?e KB T
2
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h2

3/4
2πm?e KB T
  
1/2 Ed − EC
= (2Nd ) exp . (25)
h2 2KB T

3.1.3 Temperature variation of n-type carrier concentration

At absolute zero temperature, all the electrons are bound to the parent atom. As
a result the donor atoms are not ionized. Thus the conduction band is empty,

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

3.2 p-type semiconductors 15

while the valence band is full. It makes the doped semiconductor behave like an
insulator.
As temperature rises, the donor atoms start to ionize giving the donor electrons
to the conduction band. In this process holes are not created in the valence
band, instead the donor electrons leave the donor energy level to populate the
conduction band. Thus the concentration increases slowly. This region is called
as the ionization region. Once all the donor atoms are ionized, further increase in
temperature does not produce donor electrons and the electron concentration in
the conduction band reaches a saturation value. This plateau region is called as
the depletion region. In this region the electron concentration in the conduction
band is nearly equal to the concentration of dopant atoms.
As temperature is increased further, some of the covalent bonds start to break
releasing electrons from the valence band into the conduction band. The con-
duction band thus contains electrons coming from (i) donor level by donor atom

s
ionization and (ii) from valence band by intrinsic process. The intrinsic process
sic
not only produce electrons in the conduction band but also holes in the valence

IT
band. At very high temperatures, electrons from the valency band gets thermally
hy
excited to the conduction band by intrinsic process and their number far exceeds

G
the number of donor electrons in the conduction band. This region is called intrin-
P

y,
sic region.In n-type semiconductor the number of electrons outnumber the number
of

of holes and constitute as the majority charge careers, while holes are the minority
sit
charge careers.
er
p t.

iv

3.2 p-type semiconductors

De

Un

When trivalent elements such as Aluminium Al, Gallium Ga or Indium In is added

to the intrinsic semiconductor, then three electrons of the trivalent elements are
engaged in covalent bonding with the neighboring pure semiconductor atoms. The
AM

trivalent elements need one more electron to complete the covalent bonding with
the pure semiconductors. This can be supplied by the intrinsic semiconductor cre-
IT

ating a hole in the semiconductor atom. Since, the trivalent elements accept one
extra electron, the energy level of this impurity atom is called as the acceptor
G

level. This acceptor level lies just above the valence band. Even at relatively
low temperatures, these acceptor atom gets ionized taking electrons from the va-
lence band giving rise to holes in the valence band for conduction. Thus, due to
ionization of acceptor atoms only holes are created and no electrons are gener-
ated during this process. If the thermal energy is sufficiently high, in addition
to ionization of acceptor impurity atoms, breaking of covalent bonds may occur
giving rise to more electron-hole pairs.So, in these of semiconductors holes are the
majority charge carriers while electrons are the minority charge carriers. Since,
these trivalent elements accept negative electrons they are called acceptor impu-

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

3.2 p-type semiconductors 16

rities and the semiconductors doped with trivalent impurities are called p-type
semiconductors.

3.2.1 Fermi level in p-type semiconductor

To calculate the Fermi level, let’s assume that the acceptor concentration is Na
i.e., the number of acceptor atoms per unit volume of the material and Ea is the
energy of the acceptor level. At very low temperatures all the acceptor levels are
empty. With increase of temperature, more and more electrons from the intrinsic
semiconductor fill these empty sites leaving behind a hole in the valence band. So,
the density of holes increase in the valence band. As per the previous calculations
the density of holes in the valence band is given in equation (13). Now, if we
assume EF lies less than a few KB T below the acceptor level, then the density of
electrons in the acceptor level is given by

s
 
(Ea − EF )
sic
na = Na F (Ea ) ≈ Na exp − . (26)

IT
KB T
hy

G
At low temperatures, when electron-hole pairs are not generated due to breakage
P

of the covalent bonds, the number of holes in the valence band must be equal to
y,
the number of electrons in the acceptor level i.e., nh = na or
of

sit
3/2
2πm?h KB T
    
EV − EF EF − Ea
2 exp = Na exp . (27)
er
t.

h2 KB T KB T
p

iv

Taking logarithms of both sides and rearranging we get

De

Un

3/2
2πm?h KB T

EV − EF EF − Ea
− = log Na − log 2 , (28)
KB T KB T h2
AM

giving the value of Fermi energy to be

IT

 
EV + Ea KB T Na
EF = − log   (29)
G

 
3/2 
2 2 ?
2πmh KB T
2 h2

Thus for T = 0K, we have EF = (Ea + EV )/2 i.e., at 0K the Fermi level for a
p-type semiconductor lies exactly at the middle of the acceptor level Ea and the
top of the valence band EV .

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

3.2 p-type semiconductors 17

3.2.2 Density of holes in the valence band

Substituting the value of Fermi energy EF from equation (29) into the value of
nh in equation (27), we obtain the concentration of holes in the valence band of a
p-type semiconductor to be
  
3/2
2πm?e KB T
  
 E 
V EV + Ea 1 Na 
nhp = 2 exp − + log
 
h2 3/2 
 KB T 2KB T 2
   
2πm?h KB T
2
 
2 h

 1/2
3/2
2πm?h KB T
  
EV − Ea Na
= 2 exp
 
3/2 
h2 2KB T
  ?
2πmh KB T
2 h2

3/4

s
2πm?h KB T
  
1/2 EV − Ea
= (2Na )
h2
expsic 2KB T
. (30)

IT
hy

G
3.2.3 Temperature variation of p-type carrier concentration
P

At absolute zero temperature, the acceptor level in p-type semiconductor is vacant

y,
while the valence band is full. This absence of careers in the materials make it
of

sit
behave as an insulator.
At slight increase in temperatures make the electrons from the valence band
er
t.

jump to the acceptor level populating it and in the process generates a hole in
p

iv

the valence band. Slowly the acceptor level is saturated and some of the electrons
De

Un

might jump to conduction band also. Once all the acceptor atoms are ionized,
further increase in temperature does not produce any holes in valence band. This
region is called saturation region. In this region the hole concentration in the
AM

valence band is nearly identical to the concentration of the dopant acceptor atoms.
As the temperature is further increased, some electrons from the valence band
are excited to the conduction band and the valence band contains holes generated
IT

by (i) ionization of acceptor atoms and (ii) break down of valence band by intrinsic
G

process. At high enough temperatures a very large number of electron hole pairs
are generated. Thus the number of holes generated by thermal breakdown of
covalent bonds far exceeds the number of holes generated by ionization of dopant
acceptor impurities. This region is called intrinsic region. In p-type semiconductor
the number of holes outnumber the number of electrons. So, holes constitute as
the majority charge carriers while electrons are the minority charge carriers.
The nature of variation of concentration for extrinsic semiconductors as a func-
tion of inverse of temperature is shown in figure 3.

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

3.3 Conductivity in extrinsic semiconductors 18

Figure 3: Variation of concentration as a function of inverse of temperature.

s
sic

IT
3.3 Conductivity in extrinsic semiconductors
hy

G
The conductivity of the n-type semiconductor is given by
P

σn = nen e µe + nhn e µh , y, (31)

of

sit
where e is the magnitude of electron charge, nen , nhn are the concentrations and µe
er
t.

and µh are the mobilities of electrons and holes respectively. As the concentration
p

iv

of holes is negligible compared to the concentration of electrons in the saturation

De

region, we can write

Un

σn ≈ nen e µe . (32)
Similarly the conductivity of the p-type semiconductor is given by
AM

σp ≈ nhp e µh . (33)
IT

The general dependence of the conductivity for extrinsic semiconductors is given

in figure 4.
G

4 Carrier Transport Phenomena

When no electric field is applied to a semiconductor, then at thermal equilibrium,
the charge carriers do not stay idle inside the material. Instead they undergo
Brownian motion inside the material and are in constant interaction with the
vibrating lattice as well as charged dopants. The process is characterized by an
average collision time τ and the mean free length λ between collisions. In between

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

4.1 Drift and diffusion currents in semiconductors 19

Figure 4: Variation of conductivity as a function of temperature for n-type semi-

conductor.

s
sic

IT
hy

G
collisions the carriers acquire a thermal velocity vth . The thermal velocity is related
P

to the average collision time and the mean free length λ by

y,
of

λ = τ vth (34)
sit
er
t.

4.1 Drift and diffusion currents in semiconductors

p

iv

At thermal equilibrium, in absence of an external stimulus, the average velocity

De

Un

of the electrons and holes is zero. As a result no net current flows through the
crystal. Also the net distribution of electrons and holes will be uniform through
out the crystal. When this equilibrium is disturbed by an external agent, the
AM

chaotic motion of the electrons is replaced by a directional motion leading to the

flow of a current in the material. Examples of external agents are electric field
IT

and concentration gradient. The current can be divided into two parts viz., drift
current due to the electric field and diffusion current due to the presence of a
G

concentration gradient.

4.1.1 Drift Current

When an electric field is applied the charge carriers acquire a direction motion over
and above their thermal motion. This produces a drift current. Thus the drifting
of electrons in the conduction band, due to the presence of an external electric
field, produces a current component called as the drift current.

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

4.1 Drift and diffusion currents in semiconductors 20

Figure 5: Drift current inside a semiconductor of cross sectional area A when

subjected to an electric field E.

The drift current density is given by

J( drif t) = e φ = e n vd = n e µ E, (35)

where vd = µ E is the drift velocity with µ being the mobility of the charge carrier.

s
Using this we can write the electrons the current density as
sic

IT
Je (drif t) = ne e µe E. (36)
hy

G
Similarly the holes drifting in the valence band causes a current component given
P

by
Jh (drif t) = nh e µh E. y, (37)
of

sit
Combining together, the total drift current density will be
er
t.

Jdr = Je (drif t) + Jh (drif t) = (ne µe + nh µh ) e E. (38)

p

iv
De

Drift current occurs only when an external electric field is present across the solid.
Un

Although the electrons and the holes move in opposite directions, the direction of
conventional current flow due to both of the carriers is in the same direction.
AM

4.1.2 Diffusion current

IT

In case of a semiconductor, current can also flow without any external electric field
but due to external agents such as light or heat. Then the external agent generates
G

additional electron-hole pairs leading to a sudden increase in the concentration of

charge carriers at that end. In the rest of the volume, the concentration of charge
carriers is at equilibrium value. The difference in the concentration results in the
diffusion of carriers from the region of higher concentration to the region of lower
concentration. This movement of charge carriers continues until the equilibrium
is restored. This motion of charge carriers produces the diffusion current. The
concentration gradient across any surface causes a directional motion of charge
carriers across that surface. This diffusion current continues until all the carriers
are evenly distributed through the material. .

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

4.1 Drift and diffusion currents in semiconductors 21

The diffusion current across a boundary is given by

dn
J(dif f ) = −q D , (39)
dx
where q is the charge of the charge carrier, and D = vth λ/2 is the diffusion coeffi-
cient of the carrier and dn/dx is the concentration gradient across the boundary.
Thus the diffusion current is proportional to the concentration gradient. i.e., the
rate of change of carrier concentration per unit length of the semiconductor. Using
this we can write, the current component due to electron diffusion as
dne
Je (dif f ) = e De , (40)
dx
similarly the hole diffusion current is
dnh
Jh (dif f ) = −e Dh . (41)
dx

s
sic
where De and Dh are the diffusion coefficients for electrons and holes respectively.

IT
hy
4.1.3 Transport phenomena

G
P

In a semiconductor both drift and diffusion currents coexist together. Thus the
y,
total current inside a semiconductor is written as a sum of the drift and the
of

sit
diffusion currents. For electrons this total current is
 
dne
er
t.

Je = e ne µe E + De . (42)
dx
p

iv

Similarly for holes, the total current is

De

Un

 
dnh
Jh = e nh µh E − Dh . (43)
dx
AM

In extrinsic semiconductor the minority charge carriers experience a huge concen-

tration gradient compared to majority charge carriers. Thus the electrical behavior
of a semiconductor is mainly controlled by minority charge carriers.
IT

The diffusion lengths and the mean life times of electrons as well as holes are
G

related by p p
λe = De τe and λe = Dh τh . (44)
Although drift and diffusion are two different processes, the parameters such as
mobility µ and the diffusion coefficient D are not independent. Since both these
parameters are determined by the thermal and scattering motion of the carriers,
they are related as
Dh /µh = KB T /e and De /µe = KB T /e. (45)
These equations are known as Einstein relations.

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

4.2 Solved Problems 22

Important Questions
4.2 Solved Problems
1. Find the resistance of an intrinsic Ge sample of dimensions 1cm long, 1mm
width and 1 mm thick at 300 K. Given that the carrier density of the material
at 300 K to be 2.5 × 1019 /m3 and the mobility of charge carriers to be
0.39 m2 /V s for electrons and 0.19 m2 /V s for the holes.
Solution :
The conductivity is given by σ = e(ne µe + nh µh ), where µe and ne are
the mobility and the charge density for the electrons and µh and nh are the
mobility and the charge density for the holes. For an intrinsic semiconductor
ne = nh . This makes the conductivity to be σ = e ne (µe + µh ). Substituting
the given values we get the conductivity of the material to be

s
σ = 1.6 × 10−19 × 2.5 × 1019 × (0.39 + 0.19) = 2.32 f/m
sic

IT
which provides the value of resistivity ρ of the material to be
hy

G
1 1
ρ= = = 0.431 Ω m
P

σ 2.32
y,
of

sit
No the resistance of a material of length L and cross section area A is given
by
er

ρL
t.

R=
p

A
iv
De

As per the given data L = 1cm = 0.01m and Area A = 1mm × 1mm =
Un

10−6 m2 . Substituting all these values we get the resistance of the material
to be
0.431 × 0.01
AM

R= = 4310Ω
10−6
2. The energy gap of the Silicon is 1.12 eV and the average electron mass is 0.31
IT

times the mass of the free electron mass. Using this information calculate
the concentration of electrons in the conduction band of electron at 300 K.
G

Assume that the effective mass of electrons and holes are same.
Solution :
The intrinsic carrier concentration of electrons is given by
3/2
2 π m?e kB T
  
EF − EC
ne = 2 exp
h2 kB T

Given that the effective mass of the electron and the holes are same. In this
case the Fermi energy is given by EF = EC +E 2
V
. Also since Eg = EC − EV

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

4.3 Multiple Choice Questions 23

therefore, EF − EC = EC +E 2
V
− EC = EV −E 2
C
= −Eg /2. Substituting this
into the above equation we obtain
3/2
2 π m?e kB T
  
−Eg
ne = 2 exp
h2 2 kB T
3/2
2 × 3.14 × 0.31 × 9.1 × 10−31 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300

= 2
(6.634 × 10−34 )2
−1.12 × 1.6 × 10−19
 
exp
2 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300
= 1.717 × 1015 atoms/m3

3. Calculate the increase in Fermi energy level (compared to 0 K) at 300 K for

Germanium with 5 × 1022 arsenic atoms/m3 .

s
Solution : sic

IT
When Ge is doped with arsenic it provides a n-type semiconductor whose
hy
Fermi energy at a temperature T is given by

G
P

" #
Ed + Ec KB T Nd
EF (T ) =
2
+
2
log y,
2 2 π me2KB T

3/2
of

sit
h

As per the above equation EF = Ed +E

er

c
at T = 0 which means the increase
t.

2
in the Fermi level will be
p

iv
De

" #
KB T Nd
Un

EF (T ) − EF (0) = log
3/2

2 2 2 π me2KB T
h
AM

 
1.38 × 10−23 × 300 5 × 1022
= log
 
−19
2 × 1.6 × 10 )
 
−31 ×1.38×10−23 ×300
3/2 
2 2×3.14×9.1×10
IT

(6.634×10−34 )2
G

= −8.04 × 10−2 eV

4.3 Multiple Choice Questions

1. A semiconductor is different from a conductor because
(a) it possess a forbidden energy gap
(b) there is overlapping of valence band with the conduction band
(c) At absolute zero temperature, all the electrons are present in conduction band
(d) None of the above

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

4.3 Multiple Choice Questions 24

2. An intrinsic semiconductor has

(a) only one type of atoms present everywhere in the solid
(b) the property of insulators at absolute zero temperature
(c) equal concentration of electrons and holes at any finite temperature
(d) All the above
3. A n-type semiconductor is formed when an intrinsic semiconductor is doped
with
(a) pentavalent impurities (b) Arsenic
(c) Phosphorus (d) All the above
4. A p-type semiconductor is formed when an intrinsic semiconductor is doped
with
(a) trivalent impurities (b) Aluminium
(c) Gallium (d) All the above

s
sic

IT
5. For an intrinsic semiconductor the Fermi energy
hy
(a) at 0 K lies in the middle of valence band and conduction band

G
(b) increases linearly with increase in temperature
P

(c) Both (a) and (b)

(d) None of the above y,
of

sit
6. For a n-type semiconductor, the slope of the curve between the logarithmic
er
t.

of conductivity vs inverse of temperatures in the intrinsic region will be

p

iv

(a) − 2kEBg (b) − 2EkgB (c) − (E2d −E c)

(d) (Ed −Ec )
De

kB 2 kB
Un

7. For extrinsic semiconductors, the concentration of charge carriers is propor-

tional to
AM

(a) concentration of dopants (b) Ed − Ec for a n-type semiconductor

(c) Ev − Ea for a p-type semiconductor (d) All of the above
IT

8. The drift current in a semiconductor is due to

(a) temperature variations (b) thermal fluctuations
G

(c) external electric field (d) concentration variations

9. The diffusion coefficient D and the mobility of charge carriers in a semicon-
ductor are related by
D D 1
(a) µ
∝T (b) µ
∝ T
D
√
(c) µ
∝ T (d) None of the above

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

4.4 Short type Questions 25

4.4 Short type Questions

1. What is an intrinsic semiconductor ?

2. Explain the significance of Fermi energy level?

3. What is the position of Fermi energy level at 0 K for an (i) intrinsic and (b)
extrinsic semiconductor?

4. How does the electron-hole pairs formed in an semiconductor?

5. What is the charge for a hole? How does it move inside a semiconductor?

6. What are the different types of extrinsic semiconductors?

7. Differentiate between n-type and p-type semiconductors?

s
8. What are the majority and the minority charge carriers for different types
sic

IT
of extrinsic semiconductors?
hy
9. what do you mean by drift and diffusion currents in a semiconductor?

G
P

4.5 Descriptive type Questions y,

of

sit
1. Derive the expressions of electron concentration and hole concentration in
er

an intrinsic semiconductor.
p t.

iv

2. Using the expressions derived above, determine the Fermi energy for the
De

Un

intrinsic semiconductor?

3. From the expressions of electron and hole concentrations in a pure semicon-

AM

ductor, determine the carrier concentration in terms of the band gap energy.

4. If a silicon is doped with Na Aluminum atoms per unit volume, then deter-
IT

mine the value of Fermi energy for the material at a temperature T . Also
derive the expression of concentration of holes in the valence band.
G

5. Derive the expression of concentration of electrons in the conduction band

of a n-type material at a finite temperature T and determine the value of
Fermi energy for it.

6. Describe the variation of concentration of electrons and holes in n-type and

p-type materials as a function of temperature.

7. How does the conductivity varies as a function of temperature for a doped

semiconductor.

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU

4.5 Descriptive type Questions 26

8. Provide the expressions of drift and diffusion currents and describe how they
change with concentration. Using this provide the total current due to elec-
trons and the holes inside a semiconductor.

s
sic

IT
hy

G
P

y,
of

sit
er
p t.

iv
De

Un
AM
IT
G

Classnotes by Dept. of Physics, GIT, GU