Protection, Support

and Movement
 Integument

The integument is this the protective outer

covering of the animal body

It includes the skin and structures associated

with the skin (derivatives of the skin) such as
hair, nails, scales, feathers, and horns
Functions of the Integument
Protection from mechanical & chemical injury
Protection against invasion by microorganisms
Regulation of body temperature
Excretion of waste materials
Vitamin D production
Reception of environmental stimuli
Locomotion/movement
Controls movement of nutrient and gases
 Invertebrate Integument
Some singled-celled protozoa have only a plasma membrane
for external covering (Amoeba)

Other protozoa have a thick protein coat called pellicle outside

the plasma membrane (Paramecium)

Most multicellular invertebrates have a single-layered epidermis

covering the body (nematodes, annelids)

Others have added a secreted non-cellular cuticle over the

epidermis (crustaceans, arachnids, insects)

Additional protection

Old cuticles need to be shed periodically in a process called

molting to permit growth
Invertebrate Integument
Invertebrate Integument
 Invertebrate Integument

Molluscs have a delicate epidermis.

Protection is provided by the shell

Cephalopods have a more complex epidermis

with a cuticle, simple epidermis, layer of
connective tissue, & a layer of iridocytes - a
guanine-containing cell in the skin of sh and
some cephalopods, giving these animals their
iridescence
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 Invertebrate Integument
Arthropods have a complex
integument that provides
protection and skeletal support

Single layered epidermis

(hypodermis) which secretes
a complex cuticle

Procuticle – layers of
chitin and protein

Epicuticle – moisture
proo ng barrier
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 Invertebrate Integument
The arthropod cuticle may remain tough, but
exible as in many small crustaceans and insect
larvae, or it may become hardened

Decapod crustaceans have a cuticle stiffened

by calci cation (deposition of calcium
carbonate in the procuticle)

In insects, hardening occurs by sclerotization

where protein molecules bond together
producing the insoluble protein sclerotin
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 Other Examples of
Invertebrate Integument
Rotifers – cuticles are thin and elastic

Arthropods – cuticles are thick and rigid

Cnidarians – epidermis is only a few cell layers thick (Hydra),

contains mucous glands that secrete calcium carbonate shells
(corals)

Platyhelminthes – covering is a tegument (functions for nutrient

ingestion and for protection)

Nematodes and annelids – have an epidermis that is one cell thick

and secretes a multilayered cuticle

Echinoderms – integument consists of a thin, ciliated epidermis & an

underlying connective tissue dermis that contains calcium carbonate
 Other Examples of
Invertebrate Integument

Cnidarians

Rotifers
 Other Examples of
Invertebrate Integument

Nematodes

Platyhelmintes
 Other Examples of
Invertebrate Integument

Echinoderms

Annelids
 Vertebrate Integument
Vertebrate Integument
includes:

Epidermis – thin outer

strati ed epithelial
layer, derived from
ectoderm

Dermis – thick inner

layer, derived from
mesoderm
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 Epidermis

The epidermis gives rise to hair, feathers, and hooves (epidermal

derivatives)

Epidermis is strati ed squamous epithelium

Cells in the basal part undergo frequent mitosis

As cells are displaced upward, cytoplasm is replaced by keratin

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 Epidermis

Keratin is a tough protein that is also light and

exible

Reptile scales are composed of keratin

Birds have keratin in feathers, beaks, and claws

Mammals use keratin in hair, hooves, claws, and

nails
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 Dermis
The dermis is a dense
connective tissue
layer containing blood
vessels, collagenous
bers, nerves,
pigment cells, fat
cells, and broblasts

Dermis serves to
support, nourish, and
cushion the epidermis
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 Dermis
The dermis may contain bony structures of dermal
origin

Ostracoderms and placoderms had heavy bony

plates

Living sturgeons
 Dermis

Scales of shes are

bony dermal
structures that
evolved from the
armor of Paleozoic
shes
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 Dermis

In reptiles, dermal bone contributes to the armor

of crocodilians, the beaded skin of some lizards,
and portions of a turtle’s shell (carapace &
plastron)

Dermal bone is found in the antlers of mammals.

 Dermis
Claws, beaks, nails, and horns are composed of a
combination of epidermal (keratinized) and
dermal components.
Examples of Vertebrate Integument

Agnathans (jawless shes) – several types of glandular cells

may be present; multicellular slime glands produce large
amounts of slime that covers the body

Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous shes) – skin is multilayered

and with mucous and sensory cells; dermis has bones in
the form of denticles
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Examples of Vertebrate Integument
Osteichthyes (bony shes) – skin has scales; skin
is permeable and functions in gaseous exchange;
epidermis may also contain mucous cells; dermis
is richly supplied with capillary beds to facilitate
its use in respiration

Functions of Mucus:

Prevents bacterial and fungal infections

Reduces friction as the sh swims

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Examples of Vertebrate Integument
Amphibians – strati ed epidermis and a dermis
containing mucous, serous glands and with
pigmentation

Keratin: protects the skin against UV and physical

abrasions

Mucus: helps prevent desiccation and facilitates

gaseous exchange

Poison glands: produce an unpleasant-tasting or

toxic uid that acts as a predator deterrent
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Examples of Vertebrate Integument
Examples of Vertebrate Integument

Reptiles – stratum corneum is very thick and

modi ed into keratinized scales

Functions:

Resist abrasion

Inhibit dehydration

Acts as a “suit of armor” for protection

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Examples of Vertebrate Integument
Birds – show many reptilian features

Epidermis: over most of the body is thin and only 2 or 3 cell layers
thick

Outer keratinized layer is soft

Feathers are the most prominent parts of the epidermis

Dermis: with blood, lymphatic vessels, nerves, sensory bodies

Arrector plumose: dermal smooth muscle associated with feathers

(control the position of the feathers)

Aquatic birds – may also have fat deposits in the hypodermal layer
that store energy & help insulate the body
Examples of Vertebrate Integument
Mammalain Skin (Human Skin)
Notable features of mammalian skin are:

a highly strati ed, corni ed epidermis

a dermis with blood and lymphatic vessels, nerve

endings, small muscles, glands, hair follicles

a hypodermis composed of loose connective

tissue, adipose tissue and skeletal muscles – the
hypodermis attaches the skin to the underlying
muscles
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Skin (Integument)
 Sweat Glands
Different types prevent overheating of the body; secrete sweat,
cerumen and milk

Eccrine sweat glands – found in palms, soles of the feet, and

forehead

Apocrine sweat glands – found in axillary and anogenital

areas

Ceruminous glands – modi ed apocrine glands in external

ear canal that secrete cerumen

Mammary glands – specialized sweat glands that secrete

milk
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 Sebaceous Glands

Simple alveolar glands found all over the body

Soften skin when stimulated by hormones

Secrete an oily secretion called sebum

 Skin Receptors

Meissner’s corpuscles – touch receptors

Pacinian corpuscles – pain receptors

Ruf ni’s corpuscle – heat receptors

End Bulbs of Krause – cold receptors

Merkel’s disk – texture and touch receptors

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Structures associated with Skin
Hair

Composed of keratin- lled dead cells that

developed from epidermis

Nails

Modi cation of epidermis

Flat, horny plates on dorsal surface of distal

segments of the digits
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 Skeletal Systems
Skeleton is the hardened part of the animal body
Functions:
Supports the body
Framework of the body
Protects vital organs of the body
Blood cell formation/hematopoiesis
Site for the attachment of muscles
Accessory to movement
Storage of minerals
 Hydrostatic Skeletons
In the hydrostatic skeleton of an earthworm,
muscles in the body wall develop force by
contracting against incompressible coelomic uids

Alternate contractions of circular and longitudinal

muscles of the body wall enable a worm to move
forward

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Hydrostatic Skeletons
Hydrostatic Skeletons
 Rigid Skeletons
Rigid skeletons contain some kind of rigid elements

Provide anchor points for pairs of opposing

muscles

Provides protection & support

Exoskeleton – found in molluscs, arthropods, some

invertebrates & vertebrates

Endoskeleton – found in echinoderms, sponges,

and chordates
Exoskeletons
Exoskeletons
Endoskeletons
Endoskeletons
Vertebrate Endoskeleton

The vertebrate endoskeleton

is composed of bone and
cartilage (types of
connective tissue)

Bone provides support,

protection, and serves as a
reservoir for calcium and
phosphorous
 Cartilage

Jawless shes (eels, hag shes) and elasmobranchs

(sharks, sting rays) have cartilaginous skeletons

Most vertebrates have bony skeletons, with some

cartilaginous parts
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 Cartilage
Cartilage is a soft,
pliable tissue that resists
compression and is
variable in form

Hyaline cartilage has a

clear, glassy appearance
with chondrocytes
surrounded by a matrix

No blood vessels
 Cartilage

Cartilage is often found at articulating surfaces of

many bone joints, larynx, trachea, vertebral
column, nose, pinnae, and Eustachian tube
 Bone
Bone is highly vascular living tissue that contains
signi cant deposits of inorganic calcium salts

Endochondral (replacement) bone develops

from another form of connective tissue –
usually cartilage

Intramembranous bone develops directly from

sheets of embryonic cells

Face, cranium, clavicle

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Structure of the Bone
 Bone
Bone can vary in density.

Spongy bone consists of

open, interlacing
framework of bony tissue,
oriented to give strength

Compact bone is dense –

the open framework of
spongy bone has been
lled in by additional
calcium salts.
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 Bone
Compact bone is
composed of a calci ed
bone matrix arranged in
sets of concentric rings
- osteons

Bones consist of
bundles of osteons
interconnected with
blood vessels and
nerves.
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 Bone

Between the rings are lacunae (cavities) lled with

osteocytes (bone cells) connected by tiny
passageways that distribute nutrients (canaliculi)

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 Bone - Dynamic Tissue

Bone is a dynamic tissue

Osteoclasts are bone destroying/resorbing cells

Osteoblasts are bone forming/building cells.

Both processes occur together so that new osteons

are formed as old ones are resorbed.
 Bone - Dynamic Tissue

Hormones (parathyroid hormone for resorption

and calcitonin for deposition) are responsible for
maintaining a constant calcium level in the blood.
 Vertebrate Skeleton
The vertebral column serves as the main stiffening
axis

In shes it provides points for muscle

attachment, provides stiffness, and preserves
body shape during muscle contraction
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 Vertebrate Skeleton
Most vertebrates have paired appendages

Pectoral and pelvic ns in shes supported by the

pectoral and pelvic girdles

Tetrapods have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs

(although they may be highly modi ed through
bone loss or fusion)

The pelvic girdle is generally rmly attached to the

axial skeleton, while the pectoral girdle is more
loosely attached
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Vertebrate Skeleton

Axial skeleton includes the

skull, vertebral column,
ribs, and sternum

Appendicular skeleton
includes the limbs and
pectoral and pelvic girdles

Human skeleton is
composed of 206 bones
Bones of the Skeleton

The adult skeleton contains 206 bones

Divisions of Skeleton

Axial and
Appendicular
Skeletons
 Axial Skeleton
THE AXIAL SKELETON - CONSIST OF THE SKULL,
VERTEBRAL COLUMN, AND THE RIB CAGE

Skull

Vertebral column

Rib cage (ribs + sternum)

 Appendicular Skeleton
THE APPENDICULAR
SKELETON – consists of
bones of the:

ARMS (upper limbs)

LEGS (lower limbs)

SHOULDER GIRDLE
(pectoral girdle)

HIP GIRDLE (pelvic girdle)

Bone Classi cation by Shape

5 Types
Long
Short
Flat
Irregular
Sesamoid
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 Shapes of Bones

Long bones are longer than they are wide and

work as levers. The bones of the upper and lower
extremities (ex. humerus, tibia, femur, ulna,
metacarpals, etc.) are of this type.

Short bones are short, cube-shaped, and found in

the wrists and ankles.
 Shapes of Bones
Flat bones have broad surfaces for protection of organs and
attachment of muscles (ex. cranial bones, ribs, and bones of
hip and shoulder girdles).

Irregular bones are all others that do not fall into the previous
categories. They have varied shapes, sizes, and surface features
and include the bones of the vertebrae and a few in the skull.
 Animal Movement
Most animal movement depends on contractile
proteins which can change their shape to relax or
contract

These brils will contract when powered by ATP

Actin and myosin form a contractile system

found in most animals

Cilia and agella utilize different proteins called

tubulin.
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 Amoeboid Movement

Ameboid movement is
found in ameobas, white
blood cells, and
embryonic cells

Movement using
pseudopods (false feet)
depends on actin and
myosin
Amoeboid Movement
Ciliary and Flagellar Movement
Cilia are found throughout the
animal kingdom (except in
nematodes, rare in arthropods)

Uniform in diameter (0.2-0.5

µm) and structure

Basal body similar to a centriole

– 9 triplets of microtubules
composed of the protein tubulin

Cilium has 9 pairs surrounding

two individual microtubules
Ciliary and Flagellar Movement
 Ciliary and Flagellar Movement

A agellum is a whiplike
structure longer than a
cilium and usually
present singly

Structure is the same

Different beating pattern

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Ciliary and Flagellar Movement
Ciliary and Flagellar Movement
 Muscular Movement
Muscle cells ( bers) can only do work by contraction

They can’t actively lengthen

They are often arranged in opposing (antagonistic) pairs

Three types of muscle tissue

Skeletal

Smooth

Cardiac
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 Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal, (striated)
muscle appears to be
striped

Multinucleate bers

Attached to skeleton

Voluntary

Fast acting, but fatigues

quickly.
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 Smooth Muscle

Smooth muscle lacks striations

Fusiform cells with a single, oval nucleus

Involuntary

Slow acting, but can maintain prolonged contractions

Muscles of the stomach, intestines, uterus are smooth muscle

 Cardiac Muscle

Cardiac muscle, found only in the heart, is striated and fast acting
like skeletal muscle

Involuntary, with one or two nucleus per ber

Fibers are joined by junctional complexes called intercalated discs

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 Muscles

A skeletal muscle
consists of a bundle of
long bers running
parallel to the length of
the muscle

A muscle ber is itself a

bundle of smaller
myo brils arranged
longitudinally
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 Muscles
The myo brils are composed of two kinds of laments:

Thin laments, consisting of two strands of actin and one strand of

regulatory protein

Thick laments, staggered arrays of myosin molecules

The functional unit of the myo bril is a sarcomere

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 Muscles

Actin and myosin are contractile proteins

 Muscle Contraction

Striated muscle contraction is explained by the sliding lament hypothesis

Actin & myosin laments become linked together by cross bridges (myosin
heads), which act as levers to pull the laments past each other

Z-lines pulled closer together, sarcomere shortens.

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 Muscle Contraction

Muscles contract in response to nerve stimulation

Skeletal muscles are innervated by motor neurons

whose cell bodies are in the spinal cord
 Muscle Contraction

One motor neuron has many terminal branches

that may innervate many muscle bers

A motor unit includes the motor neuron and all

the bers it innervates
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 The Neuromuscular Junction

The place where a motor axon terminates on a

muscle ber is called the neuromuscular junction

The synaptic cleft is a small gap that separates the

nerve ber & muscle ber

Acetylcholine is stored in synaptic vesicles in

the neuron
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The Neuromuscular Junction
When a nerve impulse arrives, acetylcholine is
released into the cleft starting a wave of
depolarization in the muscle ber

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Excitation-Contraction Coupling

In the resting state, muscle shortening does not

occur because thin tropomyosin strands on the
actin myo laments lie in a position that prevents
the myosin heads from attaching to actin
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Excitation-Contraction Coupling

When the muscle is

stimulated, calcium ions
are released that bind to
troponin

This causes a change

in shape that causes
the tropomyosin to
move out of the way
exposing binding sites
on the actin molecule
 Energy for Contraction

Energy for muscle contraction comes from ATP

ATP is synthesized during aerobic metabolism