EE 3611- POWER SYSTEM

SIMULATION
LABORATORY
 INDEX

PAGE
S. No. DATE NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT REMARKS
NO.

1 Formation of Y Bus Matrix 01

2 Formation of Z Bus Matrix 09

3 Load Flow Analysis by Gauss – Seidal Method 19

4 Load Flow Analysis by Newton – Raphson Method 31

5 Fault Analysis 41

6 Computation of Transmission Line Parameters 47

7 Modeling of Transmission Line 51

8 Load Frequency Control of Single Area System 55

9 Load Frequency Control of Two Area System 63

10 Transient Stability Analysis of Single 69

Machine Infinite Bus System

11 Economic Dispatch in Power System 75

12 State estimation: Weighted least square estimation 80

13 Performance analysis of over current relay 82

14 Performance analysis of impedance relay 84

15 Testing of CT, PT and Insulator string. 88

16 Relay Coordination in Radial Feeder Protection 94

Scheme.
 EE 3611 Power System Laboratory

FORMATION OF Y BUS MATRIX

EXERCISE 1

AIM
To compute bus admittance matrix for the given power system network using

MATLAB software package.

THEORY
Bus admittance matrix is often used in power system studies. In most of the power

system studies, it is necessary to form Y-Bus matrix of the system by considering certain

power system parameters depending upon the type of analysis.

For example, in load flow analysis, it is necessary to form Y-Bus matrix taking in to

account only line data and not taking into account the generator impedance, transformer

impedances or load impedances. In short circuit analysis, the generator transient reactance’s

and transformer leakage impedances must be taken into account in addition to line data

during the computation of Y-bus matrix.

In stability analysis, line data, the generator transient reactances, transformer leakage

impedances and equivalent load impedances to ground must be taken into account in

computing Y-bus matrix. Y-Bus may be computed by inspection method, only if there is

negligible mutual coupling between the lines. Every transmission line will be represented by

the nominal ߨequivalent. Shunt admittances are added to the diagonal elements of Y-bus

corresponding to the buses at which these are connected. The off diagonal elements are

unaffected by shunt admittances. The equivalent circuit of tap - changing transformer may be

considered in forming Y-Bus matrix, if tap changing transformers are present in the system.

The dimension of the [Y-Bus] matrix is (n x n) where n is the total number of buses in

the system other than reference bus which is the ground bus. In a power network, each bus is

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~1~
 EE 3611 Power System Laboratory

connected only to a few other buses. So, the [Y-Bus] of a large network is highly sparse. This

property is not evident in small systems, but in systems with hundreds of buses, the sparsity is

high. It may be as high as 99%. Hence, by applying sparsity technique, numerical

computation time as well as computer storage requirement may be drastically reduced.

FORMATION OF Y-BUS MATRIX

Yii Yij
Generalized [Y-Bus] =
Yji Yjj

Each diagonal term Yii (i = 1,2,.....n) is called the self admittance or driving point

admittance of bus i and equals the sum of all admittances terminating on the particular bus.

Each off-diagonal term Yij ( i, j = 1,2...n; j ≠ i ) is the transfer admittance between

buses i and j Yij = - yij, where yij is net admittance connected between buses i and j, n = total

number of buses. Further, Yij = Yji on account of symmetry of Y-bus matrix.

ALGORITHM FOR FORMATION OF Y - BUS MATRIX

Step (1) : Initialize [Y-Bus] matrix, that is replace all entries by zero

Yij = Yij - yij = Yji = off diagonal element

Step (2) : Compute

n
Yii= [ ¦ y ij ]+ yio= diagonal element
j 1
J zi

Where yio is the net bus to ground admittance connected at bus i.

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~2~
FLOWCHART FOR FORMATION OF Y - BUS MATRIX

START

Read no of buses (NB), no of lines (NL) &

line Data

Initialize Y Bus Matrix

Consider Line l = 1

i = sb (ll); j = eb (ll)

Y(i,i) + = y series (l) + 0.5 ysh(l)

Y(j,j) + = y series (l) + 0.5 ysh(l )
Y(i,j)+ = -y series (l) ; Y(j,i) = Y(i,j)

No Is Yes
l=l+1 l = NL? Print Y Bus

STOP

The [Y-Bus] matrix is formed by inspection method for a three-bus sample power

system. The one line diagram and line data are given below.

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SINGLE - LINE DIAGRAM

G G

Line Specification

Half-line
Series Impedance charging Rating
Line no. Start bus End bus
(P.U.) admittance (MW)
(P.U)
1 1 2 0.001 + j0.01 0.001 60
2 2 3 0.002+ j0.02 0.0005 40
3 3 4 0.004 + j0.03 0.0015 60
4 4 5 0.003 + j0.01 0.0001 60
5 5 1 0.004 + j0.03 0.0005 40
6 2 5 0.001 + j0.04 0.002 60

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Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~5~
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Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~7~
 ybus.m (Program for the Y-BUS formation)

linedata = [1 1 2 0.001 0.01 0.001

2 2 3 0.002 0.02 0.0005
3 3 4 0.004 0.03 0.0015
4 4 5 0.003 0.01 0.0001
5 5 1 0.004 0.03 0.0005
6 2 5 0.001 0.04 0.002];
fb = linedata(:,1);
tb = linedata(:,2);
r = linedata(:,3);
x = linedata(:,4);
b = linedata(:,5);
z = r + i*x;
y = 1./z;
b = i*b;
nbus = max(max(fb),max(tb));
nbranch = length(fb);
Y = zeros(nbus,nbus);
for k=1:nbranch
Y(fb(k),tb(k)) = Y(fb(k),tb(k))-y(k);
Y(tb(k),fb(k)) = Y(fb(k),tb(k));
end
for m =1:nbus
for n =1:nbranch
if fb(n) == m
Y(m,m) = Y(m,m) + y(n)+ b(n);
elseif tb(n) == m
Y(m,m) = Y(m,m) + y(n) + b(n);
end
end
end

RESULT

Thus for a given system bus admittance matrix was formulated using Mi – Power

software package and the results were presented.

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~8~
 FORMATION OF Z BUS MATRIX

EXERCISE 2

AIM

To obtain the bus impedance matrix Z – bus of the given power system network using

MATLAB software package.

THEORY

Z - bus matrix is an important matrix used in different kinds of power system studies

such as short circuit study, load flow study, etc.

In short circuit analysis, the generator and transformer impedances must be taken into

account. In contingency analysis, the shunt elements are neglected while forming the Z-bus

matrix, which is used to compute the outage distribution factors.

Z-bus can be easily obtained by inverting the Y-bus formed by inspection method or

by analytical method. Taking inverse of the Y-bus for large systems is time consuming;

Moreover, modification in the system requires the whole process to be repeated to reflect the

changes in the system. In such cases, the Z–bus is computed by Z–bus building algorithm.

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~9~
ALGORITHM FOR FORMATION OF Z-BUS MATRIX

Step 1 : Read the values such as number of lines, number of buses and line data,

Generator data and Transformer data.

Step 2 : Initialize Ybus matrix. Y-bus [i] [j] = complex (0.0,0.0) for all values of i and

Step 3 : Compute Y- bus Matrix by considering only line data.

Step 4 : Modify the Ybus matrix by adding the combined transformer and the generator

admittances to the respective diagonal elements of Y– bus matrix.

Step 5 : Compute the Z– bus matrix by inverting the modified Ybus matrix.

Step 6 : Check the inversion by multiplying modified Ybus and Z-bus matrices to see

whether the resulting matrix is unity matrix or not. If it is unity matrix, the

result is correct.

Step 7 : Print Z-bus matrix.

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FLOWCHART FOR FORMATION OF Z-BUS MATRIX

START

Read No. of buses, No. of

lines and line data

Form Y bus matrix using the algorithm

n
Yii = [ ¦ yij ]+ yi0 ; Yij = - yij = Yji
j =1
jzi

Modify Y bus by adding combined generator and

transformer admittances to the respective diagonal elements.

Compute the Z – bus matrix by inverting modified Ybus

Multiply modified [Y – bus] and [Z – bus] and check

whether the product results in unity matrix

Print all the results

STOP

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THEORY

Z – bus matrix is an important matrix used in different kinds of power system studies

such as short circuit study, load flow study, etc.

In short circuit analysis, the generator and transformer impedances must be taken into

account. In contingency analysis, the shunt elements are neglected while forming the Z – bus

matrix, which is used to compute the outage distribution factors.

This can be easily obtained by inverting the Ybus formed by inspection method or by

analytical method.

Taking inverse of the Ybus for large systems is time consuming, more over,

modification in the system requires the whole process to be repeated to reflect the changes in

the system. In such cases, the Z – bus is computed by Z- bus building algorithm.

SIMULATION

In this exercise, Z-bus for the system is developed by first forming the Ybus and then

inverting it to get the Z-bus matrix. The generator and transformer impedances are taken into

account while forming the Y-bus matrix. Note that all loads should be neglected

Y-bus is a sparse matrix, Z-bus is a full matrix, i.e. zero elements of Ybus become

non–zero values in the corresponding Z-bus elements. The bus impedance matrix is most

useful for short circuit studies.

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 G1 G2

Line Specification

Half-line charging
Series impedance
Line no. Start bus End bus admittance
(P.U.) Rating
(P.U.)
MW
1 1 2 0.001 + j 0.015 0.001 60
2 2 3 0.002 + j 0.021 0.005 40
3 3 1 0.004 + j 0.046 0.0015 65

Shunt element Details

Bus MVAR
3 50

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Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 16 ~
 zbus.m (Program for Z-bus formation)

linedata = [1 1 2 0.001 0.015 0.001

2 2 3 0.002 0.021 0.0005
3 3 1 0.004 0.046 0.0015 ];
fb = linedata(:,1);
tb = linedata(:,2);
r = linedata(:,3);
x = linedata(:,4);
b = linedata(:,5);
z = r + i*x;
y = 1./z;
b = i*b;

nbus = max(max(fb),max(tb));
nbranch = length(fb);
Y = zeros(nbus,nbus);

for k=1:nbranch
Y(fb(k),tb(k)) = Y(fb(k),tb(k))-y(k);
Y(tb(k),fb(k)) = Y(fb(k),tb(k));
end

for m =1:nbus
for n =1:nbranch
if fb(n) == m
Y(m,m) = Y(m,m) + y(n)+ b(n);
elseif tb(n) == m
Y(m,m) = Y(m,m) + y(n) + b(n);
end
end
end
Y
zbus = inv(Y)

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RESULT

Thus for a given system bus impedance matrix was formulated using Mi – Power

package.

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 LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS BY GAUSS – SEIDAL METHOD

EXERCISE 3

AIM

To conduct load flow analysis of a power system by Gauss – Seidal method using Mi

- Power software package.

THEORY

Load flow study

This study helps in designing the power system network such that there are no

overloads or over voltages or under voltages or excessive loss of power.

For each load condition, this analysis may be conducted so that the system

performance will be good under all possible load conditions. The load flow analysis program

computes the voltage magnitude, phase angles and transmission line power flow for a

network under steady state operating condition.

The main objective of the study is to obtain the magnitude and phase angle of the

voltage at each bus & Real and Reactive power in each line.

The load flow solution also gives the initial condition of the system when the transient

behaviour of the system is to be studied. This study is essential to decide the best operation of

the operating system and for planning the future expansion of the system. It is also essential

for designing a new power system. This study is used for both Off-line and On-line analysis.

Off-line Analysis : Giving the data to computer as obtained from the data book.

On-line Analysis : Giving data to computer as obtained from the system (current data)

This analysis can be done in any one of the following ways

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 1. Gauss - Seidal method

2. Newton – Raphson method

3. Fast decoupled method

PROBLEM FORMULATION (GAUSS-SEIDAL METHOD)

The performance equation of a power system may be written as

[IBUS] = [YBUS] [VBUS] (1)

Selecting one of the buses as the reference bus, we get (n-1) simultaneous equations.

The bus loading equations can be written as

Pi –jQi
Ii = (i = 1,2,3 ..... n) (2)
Vi *

n
Pi = Re Σ Vi* YikVk (3)
k=1

n
Qi = -Im Σ Vi* YikVk (4)
k=1

ADVANTAGE OF GAUSS – SEIDAL METHOD

1. Simplicity of the technique

2. Small system memory requirement

3. Less computational time per iteration

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DISADVANTAGES OF GAUSS – SEIDAL METHOD

1. Slow rate of convergence, so large number of iterations

2. Number of iterations increases with increase in number of buses

3. Convergence Depends on choice of slack bus

4. Useful only for system having small number of buses

ALGORITHM:

Step 1 : Form Y-bus matrix

Step 2 : Assume Vk = Vk (spec )‫ס‬00 at all generator buses.

Step 3 : Assume Vk = 1‫ס‬00 = 1+j0 at all load buses.

Step 4 : Set iteration count = 1 (iter = 1)

Step 5 : Let bus number i =1.

Step 6 : If ‘i’ refers to generator bus go to step no.7, otherwise go to step 8.

Step 7a: If ‘i’ refers to the slack bus go to step 9. Otherwise go to step 7(b).

Step 7b: Compute Qi using

ୡୟ୪ ୒
୧ ൌ  െ ൣσ୨ୀଵ ୧ ‫  כ‬୧୨ ୨ ൧

ܳீ௜ ൌ  ܳ௜௖௔௟ ൅  ܳ௅௜

Check for Q limit violation

If Qi (min) < QGi <Qi (max), then Qi (spec) = ܳ௜௖௔௟

If QGi < Qi (min), then Qi (spec) = Qi (min) – QLi

If QGi > Qi (max), then Qi (spec) = Qi (max) – QLi

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 If Qlimit is violated, then treat this bus as P-Q bus till convergence is obtained.

Step 8 : Compute Vi using the equation,

ଵ ௉೔ ି௝ொ೔ ௝ିଵ
ܸ௜௡௘௪ ൌ  ൤ െ  σ௜ୀଵ ܻ௜௝ ܸ௝௡௘௪ െ  σ௡௜ୀ௝ାଵ ܻ௜௝ ܸ௜௢௟ௗ ൨
௒೔೔ ௏೔೚೗೏‫כ‬

Step 9 : If i is less than the number of buses, increment i by 1 and go to step 6.

Step 10: Compare two successive iteration values for Vi

If ܸ௜௡௘௪ െ  ܸ௜௢௟ௗ < tolerance, go to step 12.

Step 11: Update the new voltage as

Vnew = Vold + ߙ (Vnew - Vold)

Vold = Vnew

iter = iter +1; go to step 5

Step 12: Compute relevant quantities.

Slack bus power, Si = ܲ௜ െ ݆ܳ௜ = V * I = σே

௝ୀଵ ܻ௜௝ ܸ௝

Line flow, Sij = Pij + jQij

= ܸ௜ ൣܸ௜‫ כ‬െ ܸ௝‫ כ‬൧ܻ௜௝௦௘௥௜௘௦

‫כ‬
൅  ȁܸ௜ ȁଶ ܻ௜௜‫כ‬

PLoss = ܲ௜௝ ൅ ܲ௝௜

QLoss = ܳ௜௝ ൅ ܳ௝௜

Step 13: Stop the execution.

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 FLOW CHART FOR THE GAUSS-SEIDAL LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS

START

Read line data, bus data, Vspec, Pspec, Q-limits, tol

and acceleration factor

Compute Y-bus matrix by Inspection method

Initialize all the bus voltages suitably

Set Iteration Count Iter =1

Bus no i = 2

B i=i+1

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 A

No
Does i refer
to P-V Bus ?
Yes

Calculate Q at bus i
QGi = QBus i + QLi

QGi > QGi max QGi < QGi min

Check for Q
limit violation

QGi = QGi max Qi = Qi calculated QGi = QGi min

Qi spec = QGi max - QLi Qi spec = QGi min - QLi

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 D

1 Pi-jQi i-1 n
Vinew = * – Σ Yij Vjnew – Σ Yij Vjold
Yii Viold j=1 j = i+1

No
Is this the
B last bus ?

Yes

At generator buses where Q limits are not violated, adjust the magnitude of
the bus voltage to the specified value using the formula
V inew = ( V inew * Vispec) / | V inew |

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 E

Yes No
~d Tol ?
~(Vinew - Viold)~
i = 1 to nb; i z slack bus

Calculate all line power Vinew = Viold + D ( Vinew – Viold)

flows, Bus voltage i = 1 to nb ; i z slack bus
magnitudes, bus voltage
angles, total line power
losses. Reactive powers Viold = Vinew
generated at P-V buses i = 1 to nb ; i z slack bus
and slack bus real and
reactive powers

Iter = Iter +1

Print the
Results
C

STOP

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 G1 G2

Bus Specifications:
Bus Generation (P.U) Load (P.U)
Bus no V spec Q-min Q-max
type P Q P Q
1 Slack 1.06 - - - - - -
2 P-V 1.02 0.6 0.25 0.0 0.0 0.25 0.75
3 P-Q 1.0 - - 0.75 0.35 - -

Line Data

Half-line
Line. Capacity
Start bus End bus Series impedance charging
No [MW]
admittance
1 1 2 0.002 + j0.02 0.0001 70
2 2 3 0.003 + j0.032 0.0002 64
3 1 3 0.0015 + j0.0035 0.00015 55

Shunt Element Data

S.No Bus. No MVAR
1 3 4.0

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Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 28 ~
Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 29 ~
RESULT

Load flow study of the given power system using Mi - Power software package is

carried out by applying Gauss – Seidal method. The results are presented

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 30 ~

 LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS BY NEWTON – RAPHSON METHOD

EXERCISE 4

AIM

To conduct load flow analysis of a power system by Newton _ Raphson method using

Mi - Power software package.

THEORY:

Load flow study

This study helps in designing the power system network such that there are no

overloads or over voltages or under voltages or excessive loss of power.

For each load condition, this analysis may be conducted so that the system

performance will be good under all possible load conditions. The load flow analysis program

computes the voltage magnitude, phase angles and transmission line power flow for a

network under steady state operating condition.

The main objective of the study is to obtain the magnitude and phase angle of the

voltage at each bus & Real and Reactive power in each line.

The load flow solution also gives the initial condition of the system when the transient

behaviour of the system is to be studied. This study is essential to decide the best operation of

the operating system and for planning the future expansion of the system. It is also essential

for designing a new power system. This study is used for both Off-line and On-line analysis.

Off-line Analysis : Giving the data to computer as obtained from the data book.

On-line Analysis : Giving data to computer as obtained from the system (current data)

This analysis can be done in any one of the following ways

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 31 ~

 1. Gauss - Seidal method

2. Newton – Raphson method

3. Fast decoupled method

LOAD FLOW SOLUTION BY NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD

The N-R technique converges equally fast for small as well as large system, usually

less than 4 or 5 iterations but more functional evaluational are required. It is become very

popular for large system studies.

The most widely used methods for solving simultaneous non linear algebraic equation

is the N-R method. This method is a successive approximation procedure based on initial

estimate of the unknown and the use of Taylor series expansion. In this method the Real and

Imaginary part of power can be represented as

P i = σே
௝ୀଵȁܸ௜ ȁ หܻ௜௝ หหܸ௝ ห cos (ߠ௜௝ + ߜ௝ - ߜ௜ ) (1)

Qi = - σே
௝ୀଵ ȁܸ௜ ȁ หܻ௜௝ หหܸ௝ ห sin (ߠ௜௝ + ߜ௝ - ߜ௜ ) (2)

ALGORITHM:

Step 1 : Form Y-bus matrix

Step 2 : Assume flat start for starting voltage solution

ߜ௜଴ = 0.0, for i = 1,…..N for all buses except slack bus.

หܸ௜଴ ห = 1.0, for I = M+1, M+2, …N (for all PQ buses)

ȁܸ௜ ȁ = หܸ௜଴ ห for all PV buses and slack bus

ሺ௦௣௘௖ሻ

Step 3 : For load buses, calculate ܲ௜௖௔௟ and ܳ௜௖௔௟ .

Step 4 : For PV buses, check for Q – limit violation.

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 If Qi (min) < ܳ௜௖௔௟ < Qi (max), then bus acts as PV bus.

If ܳ௜௖௔௟  < Qi (min), then Qi (spec) = Qi (min

If ܳ௜௖௔௟  > Qi (max), then Qi (spec) = Qi (max)

The P-V bus will act as P-Q bus.

Step 5 : Compute mismatch vector using

οܲ௜ ൌ  ܲ௜௦௣௘௖ െ  ܲ௜௖௔௟

οܳ௜ ൌ  ܳ௜௦௣௘௖ െ  ܳ௜௖௔௟

Step : 6 Compute οܲ௜ ൌ ݉ܽ‫ݔ‬ȁοܲ௜ ȁ ; I = 1,2,……,N except slack bus

οܳ௜ ൌ ݉ܽ‫ݔ‬ȁοܳ௜ ȁ ; i = M+1…..,N

Step : 7 Compute jacobian matrix using

డ௉೔ డ௉೔
డఋ డȁ௏ȁ
‫ ܬ‬ൌ ቎డொ డொ೔
቏
೔
డఋ డȁ௏ȁ

Step : 8 Obtain state correction vector

οߜ οܲ
ቂ ቃ ൌ  ሾ‫ܬ‬ሿିଵ ൤ ൨
οܸ οܳ

Step : 9 Update state vector using

ܸ ௡௘௪ ൌ  ܸ ௢௟ௗ ൅  οܸ

ߜ ௡௘௪ ൌ  ߜ ௢௟ௗ ൅  οߜ

Step :10 This procedure is continued until

ȁοܲ௜ ȁ ൏ ߝ and ȁοܳ௜ ȁ ൏ ߝ, otherwise go to step 3.

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 FLOWCHART FOR THE NEWTON-RAPHSON METHOD

START

Read line data, bus data including specified bus

powers and bus voltage magnitudes, reactive
power limits, convergence tolerance, limit on no.
of iterations (N)

Form [CCYbus ] Matrix

Initialization CVi =CVspec + j0 at all ‘PV’ buses,

CVi = 1 + j0 at all ‘PQ’ buses

Iter = 0

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ADVANTAGES

1. On account of its quadratic convergence, Newton- Raphson method is mathematically

superior to the Gauss – seidal method and is less prone to divergence with ill

conditioned systems

2. More efficient and practical for large power systems

3. Number of iterations is independent of the system size

4. More accuracy and convergence is assured

5. This method is insensitive to factors like slack bus selection, regulating transformers

etc.,

DISADVANTAGES

1. Solution technique is difficult

2. More computations are involved and hence computing time per iteration is large

3. Computer memory requirement is more

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SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM

G1 G2

Bus Specifications:

Bus Generation (P.U.) Load (P.U.)

Bus no V spec Q-min Q-max
type P Q P Q
1 Slack 1.06 - - - - - -
2 P-V 1.02 0.6 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.7
3 P-Q 1.0 - - 0.8 0.62 - -

Line Data
Half-line
Line. Capacity
Start bus End bus Series impedance charging
No [MW]
admittance
1 1 2 0.002 + j0.02 0.0001 70
2 2 3 0.003 + j0.032 0.0001 64
3 1 3 0.0015 + j0.0035 0.00015 55

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Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 37 ~
Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 38 ~
Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 39 ~
RESULT

Load flow study of the given power system using Mi - Power software package is

carried out by applying Newton - Raphson method. The results are presented.

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 40 ~

 FAULT ANALYSIS

EXERCISE : 5

AIM:

To find out the fault current for single line to ground fault.
THEORY:

The single line to ground fault the most common type is caused by lightning or by

conductors making contact with grounded structures. Figure shows a three phase generator

with neutral grounded through impedance, Zn.

Suppose a LG fault occur on phase ‘a’ connected through impedance Zn.

Assuming the generator is initially on no-load the conduction at the fault bus ‘k’ are

expressed by the following relation.

Va = ZfIa

Ib = Ic = 0 (1)

If = Ia

଴
ୟ ͳ ͳ ͳ ୟ
ଵ
቎ ା
ୟ ቏  ൌ ଷ
൥ͳ ƒ ƒଶ ൩ ൥ ୠ൩ (2)
ି
ୟ ͳ ƒଶ ƒ ୡ

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 41 ~

Substitute Ib = Ic = 0 the symmetrical components of current are,

଴
ୟ ͳ ͳ ͳ ୟ
ା ቏  ൌ ଵ ଶ൩ ൥ ൩
቎ ୟ ଷ
൥ ͳ ƒ ƒ Ͳ (3)
ି
ୟ ͳ ƒଶ ƒ Ͳ
From the equation (3) we find that
଴
ୟ ൌ ୟ Τ͵

ା
ୟ ൌ ୟ Τ͵ ൌ ୤ Τ͵

ି
ୟ ൌ ୟ Τ͵

଴ ା ି
ୟ ൌ ୟ  ൌ  ୟ ൌ ୟ Τ͵ ൌ ୤ Τ͵ (4)

From the sequence network of the generator the symmetrical voltages are given by
଴
ୟ଴ Ͳ ୩୩ Ͳ Ͳ ଴
ୟ
቎ୟା ቏ ା
ൌ ൥ୟ ൩െ ቎ Ͳ ୩୩ Ͳ ቏ ቎ ୟା ቏
ୟି Ͳ Ͳ Ͳ ି
୩୩ ୟ
ି

଴ ଴
ୟ଴ ൌ െ୩୩  ୟ଴ ൌ െ୩୩  ୟା 
ି
ୟି ൌ െ୩୩  ୟି ൌ ି
െ୩୩  ୟା 
ା
ୟା ൌ ୟ െ୩୩  ା
ୟ (5)

The phase voltages are given by

ୟ ͳ ͳ ͳ ୟ଴
൥ୠ ൩ ൌ ൥ͳ ƒ ƒଶ ൩቎ୟା ቏ (6)
ୡ ͳ ƒଶ ƒ ୟି

From equation (6) ୟ ൌ ୟ଴ ൅ ୟା ൅ ୟି

From condition ୟ ൌ ୤ Ǥ ୟ (7)

Sub Symmetrical components of voltages from equation (5) we get

଴ ା ା ା ି ା
െ୩୩  ୟ ൅  ୟ െ୩୩  ୟ  െ  ୩୩  ୟ = ୤ Ǥ ୟ

ା ଴ ା ି
ୟ െ ୟ ൫୩୩ ൅  ୩୩ ൅  ୩୩ ൯ ൌ  ୤ Ǥ ͵ ୟା 

ା ଴ ା ି ା
ୟ ൫୩୩ ൅  ୩୩ ൅  ୩୩ ൯ ൅  ୤ Ǥ ͵ ୟ  ൌ  ୟ 

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 42 ~

ା ଴ ା ି
ୟ ൫୩୩ ൅  ୩୩ ൅  ୩୩ ൅ ͵୤ ൯  ൌ  ୟ 

ା ୉౗
ୟ ൌ  ൫୞బ శ ష (8)
ౡౡ ା୞ౡౡ ା୞ౡౡ ାଷ୞౜ ൯

ା ୉౗
The fault current ୤ ൌ ୟ ൌ ͵ ୟ ൌ  ൫୞బ శ ష (9)
ౡౡ ା୞ౡౡ ା୞ౡౡ ାଷ୞౜ ൯

On sub symmetrical components of current in equation (5) and (6) the symmetrical

components of voltages and phase voltages at the fault are obtained.

SEQUENCE NETWORK:

From equation (4) and (5), the +ve sequence, -ve sequence and zero sequence network

are connected in series as shown in fig. Thus for a LG fault, the thevnin impedance at the

fault impedance is obtained for each sequence network and are connected in series.
ା ି
Mostly ܼ௞௞ ൌ  ܼ௞௞

If the generator is solidly grounded, then for solid short circuit fault

Zf = 0.

If the neutral of the generator is ungrounded the zero sequence network is open

circuited.

۷௔଴ ൌ ۷௔ା  ൌ  ۷௔ି ൌ Ͳ

And If = 0

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 43 ~

DATA:
G1, G2 : 100 MVA, 11 KV, X+ = X- = 15%, X0 = 5%, Xn = 6%

T1, T2 : 100 MVA, IIKV/220 KV, XLeak = 9%

L1, L2 : X+ = X- = 10%, X0 = 5%, on a base of 100 MVA

G1 is connected with bus no.1

G2 is connected with bus no.4

T1 is connected between bus no.1 and bus no.2

T2 is connected between bus no.3 and bus no.4

L1, L2 connected between bus no.2 and bus no.3

Assume phase at phase ‘A’ in bus no.4

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 44 ~

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 45 ~
RESULT

Fault analysis of the given power system using Mi - Power software package is

carried out and the results are presented.

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 46 ~

 COMPUTATION OF TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS
EXERCISE : 6

AIM
To calculate the inductance and capacitance of a given single circuit configuration of

a given transmission line through Mi – Power software package.

THEORY

(a). Calculation of Inductance and Capacitance

1). Inductance of 3 phase single circuit symmetrical configuration

If the three conductors A, B, C are placed symmetrically at the corners of an

equivalent triangle of side d, then d1 = d2 = d3 =d. Under such condition the flux linkage with

conductor A become

ఓ ଵ ௗ  
߮஺ ൌ ଶగబ ቂቀସ െ ݈‫ ݁݃݋‬௥ ቁ ஺ െ ஻ ݈‫ ݁݃݋‬ െ  ஼ ݈‫ ݁݃݋‬ௗ  ቃ

ఓబ ଵ ௗ 
ൌ
ଶగ
ቂቀସ െ ݈‫ ݁݃݋‬௥ ቁ ஺ െሺ ஻ ൅ ஼ ሻ݈‫  ݁݃݋‬ቃ

ఓ ଵ ௗ 
ൌ ଶగబ ቂቀସ െ ݈‫ ݁݃݋‬௥ ቁ ஺ ൅ ஺ ݈‫  ݁݃݋‬ቃ

ఓబ ୍ ಲ ଵ 
ൌ ቂቀ െ ݈‫ ݁݃݋‬௥ ቁ ൅  ݈‫ ݁݃݋‬ௗ  ቃ
ଶగ ସ

ఓబ ୍ ಲ ଵ 
ൌ ቂ ൅  ݈‫ ݁݃݋‬ௗ  െ ݈‫ ݁݃݋‬௥ ቃ
ଶగ ସ

ఓబ ୍ಲ ଵ 
߮஺ ൌ  ቂ ൅  ݈‫ ݁݃݋‬ௗΤ௥  ቃ weber – turns/m
ଶగ ସ

Inductance of conductor A
ఝಲ
‫ܮ‬஺ ൌ  H/m
୍ಲ

ఓబ ଵ 
ൌ  ቂ ൅  ݈‫ ݁݃݋‬ௗΤ௥  ቃ
ଶగ ସ

ସగ௫ଵ଴షళ ଵ 
ൌ ቂ ൅  ݈‫ ݁݃݋‬ௗΤ௥  ቃ
ଶగ ସ


‫ܮ‬஺ ൌ ͳͲି଻ ൣͲǤͷ ൅ ʹ݈‫ ݁݃݋‬ௗΤ௥  ൧ H/m

2) Capacitance of 3 phase single circuit symmetrical spacing configuration

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 47 ~

The overall potential difference between conductor A and infinite neutral plane is
ஶ ொಲ ஶ ொಳ ஶ ொ಴
ܸ஺ ൌ ‫׬‬௥ ݀‫ ݔ‬൅  ‫׬‬ௗ ݀‫ ݔ‬൅  ‫׬‬ௗ ݀‫ݔ‬
ଶగ௫ఌబ ଶగ௫ఌబ ଶగ௫ఌబ

ଵ
ൌ ଶగఌ ൫ܳ஺ ݈‫ ݁݃݋‬ଵΤ௥ ൅  ܳ஻ ݈‫ ݁݃݋‬ଵΤௗ ൅  ܳ஼ ݈‫ ݁݃݋‬ଵΤௗ ൯
బ

ଵ
ൌ ቀ൫ܳ஺ ݈‫ ݁݃݋‬ଵΤ௥ ൅  ሺܳ஻ ൅  ܳ஼ ൯݈‫ ݁݃݋‬ଵΤௗ ቁ
ଶగఌబ

Assume balnced supply QA = QB = QC = 0

QB + QC = - QA
ଵ
ൌ ଶగఌ ൫ܳ஺ ݈‫ ݁݃݋‬ଵΤ௥ െ  ܳ஺ ݈‫ ݁݃݋‬ଵΤௗ ൯
బ

ொಲ
ൌ ൫݈‫ ݁݃݋‬ଵΤ௥ െ ݈‫ ݁݃݋‬ଵΤௗ ൯
ଶగఌబ

ொ
ܸ஺ ൌ ଶగఌಲ ൫݈‫ ݁݃݋‬ௗΤ௥ ൯
బ

Capacitance of a conductor A with respect to neutral

ொಲ
‫ܥ‬஺ ൌ 
୚ಲ

ଶగఌ
‫ܥ‬஺ ൌ  ௟௢௚௘ ೏బΤೝ F/m

DATA:
(i) Symmetrical Spacing
1. Diameter of the conductor = 0.125 m

2. Spacing between conductor = 2 m

3. GMR (Inductance) = 0.00486 m

4. GMR (Capacitance) = 0.00625 m

(ii) Asymmetrical Spacing

1. Diameter of the conductor = 1.5 cm

2. GMR = 0.00386 cm

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 48 ~

(iii) Bundled Conductor
1. Diameter of the conductor = 1.427 inch

2. Spacing between conductor = 18 inch

3. GMR = 0.564 inch

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 49 ~

RESULT

The Inductance and capacitance of a given transmission determined using Mi - Power

software package

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 50 ~

 MODELING OF TRANSMISSION LINE
EXERCISE : 7

AIM:
To determine the voltage and current of receiving end of a given transmission line

through Mi – Power software package.

THEORY:

The line models are classified by their length. These classifications are

• Short line approximation for lines that are less than 80 km long.

• Medium line approximation for lines whose lengths are between 80 km to 250 km.

• Long line model for lines that are longer than 250 km.

These models will be discussed in this chapter. However before that let us introduce

the ABCD parameters that are used for relating the sending end voltage and current to the

receiving end voltage and currents.

Consider the power system shown in Fig. 2.1. In this the sending and receiving end

ሬሬሬԦௌ ൯ and ൫ܸ
voltages are denoted by൫ܸ ሬሬሬሬԦ ሬሬԦ ሬሬሬԦ
ோ ൯ respectively. Also the currents ൫‫ܫ‬ௌ ൯ and ൫‫ܫ‬ோ ൯ are

entering and leaving the network respectively.

ሬሬሬԦ ሬሬሬሬԦ
ܸௌ ൌ ‫ܸ ܣ‬ ሬሬሬԦ
ோ + ‫ܫ ܤ‬ோ (1)

ሬሬԦ
‫ܫ‬ௌ ൌ ‫ ܥ‬ሬሬሬሬԦ
ܸோ + ‫ܫ ܦ‬ሬሬሬԦ
ோ (2)

From (2) we see that where

௏ೄ
‫ܣ‬ൌ ௏ೃ
ܽ‫ݐ‬ሺ‫ܫ‬ோ ൌ Ͳሻ (3)

This implies that A is the ratio of sending end voltage to the open circuit receiving

end voltage. This quantity is dimension less. Similarly,

௏ೄ
‫ܤ‬ൌ ܽ‫ݐ‬ሺܸோ ൌ Ͳሻ ohm (4)
ூೃ

i.e., B, given in Ohm, is the ratio of sending end voltage and short circuit receiving

end current. In a similar way we can also define

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 51 ~

 ூೄ
‫ܥ‬ൌ ܽ‫ݐ‬ሺ‫ܫ‬ோ ൌ Ͳሻ mho (5)
௏ೃ

ூೄ
‫ܦ‬ൌ ܽ‫ݐ‬ሺܸோ ൌ Ͳሻ (6)
ூೃ

The parameter D is dimension less.

Nominal-π Representation

Fig. 1 Short transmission line representation.

In this representation the lumped series impedance is placed in the middle while the

shunt admittance is divided into two equal parts and placed at the two ends. The nominal-π

representation is shown in Fig. 1. This representation is used for load flow studies, as we

shall see later. Also a long transmission line can be modeled as an equivalent π-network for

load flow studies.

Let us define three currents I1, I2 and I3 as indicated in Fig. Applying KCL at nodes M

and N we get

IS = I1 + I2 = I1+ I3 +IR
௒ ௒
= ܸௌ + ܸௌ + IR (7)
ଶ ଶ

Again

VS = Z I2 + VR

௒
= Zቀܸோ ଶቁ+ VR

௒௓
=ቀ ൅ ͳቁ VR + ZIR (8)
ଶ

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 52 ~

Substituting (7) in (8) we get

௒ ௒௓ ௒
IS = ቂቀ ൅ ͳቁܸோା ‫ܫ‬ோ ቃ + ܸோ +‫ܫ‬ோ
ଶ ଶ ଶ

௒௓ ௒௓
= Y ቀ ସ ൅ ͳቁ ܸோ + Yቀ ଶ ൅ ͳቁ ‫ܫ‬ோ (9)

Therefore from (8) and (9) we get the following ABCD parameters of the nominal-π
representation
௒௓
A = D = ቀ ଶ ൅ ͳቁ

B = Z ohm
௒௓
C = ቀ ସ ൅ ͳቁmho

The constants A, B, C and D are generally complex numbers.

The constants A and D are dimensionless where as the dimensions of B and C are ohm and

mho respectively.

For a given transmission line

A=D

For a given transmission line

AD – BC = 1

DATA:
Transmission line length = 100 Km

Resistance of transmission line = 0.124 Ω/Km

Inductance of transmission line = 0.497 Ω/Km

Suspectance = 3.3 x 10-6 mho/Km

Transmission line length = 220 KV

Real power load/ demand = 40 MW

Reactive power demand = 19.37 MVAR

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 53 ~

RESULT

The ABCD parameters of a given transmission determined using Mi - Power software

package and the results are presented.

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 54 ~

 LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL OF SINGLE AREA SYSTEM

EXERCISE: 8

AIM:
To develop a single area load frequency control through Mi-power software package.

THEORY:
The real power in a power system is being controlled by controlling the driving
torques of the individual turbines of the system. The speed governor is the main primary tool
for the load frequency control.

Fly ball speed governor

It is purely mechanical speed sensitive device coupled directly to the hydraulic
amplifier which adjust the control valve opening via for the fine linkage mechanism.

As the load increases speed of the turbine decreases, and the speed changer gives raise
command, so the fly balls move outwards and the point B moves downwards and the reverse
happens with the increased speed.

Speed Changer
It makes it possible to restore the frequency to the initial (nominal) value after the
operation of the speed governor which has steady state.

characteristics corresponds to an increase ȟPC in the reference power setting.

Hydraulic Amplifier

It consists of pilot valve and main piston with this arrangement, a low power pilot
valve movement is converted into high level movement of the oil, servomotor piston. The
input to the amplifier is the position XD of the pilot valve. The output is the position XE of the
main piston. Hydraulic amplification is necessary so that steam valve or gate could be
operated against high pressure steam.

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 55 ~

Linkage Mechanism
ABC is rigid link pivoted at B and ODE is another rigid link pivoted at D. The
functions of link mechanism is to control the steam valve or gate. We get feedback from the
movement of the steam valve via link CD.

Working
As load increases the speed of the turbine decreases, the speed changer gives raise
command and the fly ball move outwards and point B moves downwards and D moves
upwards and high pressure oil enters in to the upper pilot valve and presses the main piston
downwards and opens the valve or gate i.e increases the flow of steam to the turbine.

MODEL OF SPEED GOVERNING MECHANISM:

We shall develop the mathematical model based on small deviations around a nominal
steady state. Consider the steam is operating under steady state and is delivering power ܲீ଴
from the generator at nominal frequency f0.

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 56 ~

 Let ܺௌ଴ be the steam valve setting. Let us assume that raise command ȟPC, to the speed
changer, the point A moved downwards, by a small amount ȟXA which cause the turbine
power output to change,

ȟXA = KCȟPC

Let us assume positive direction for downward movement and negative direction for
upward movement.

Movement of C:
ି௟మ
(i) ȟXA contributes ቀ ቁ ȟXA = - K1ȟXA = -K1KCȟPC
௟భ

(ii) Increase in frequency ȟf cause the fly balls to move outwards so that b moves
downwards by a proportional amount K2ȟf.

ȟXC = -K1KCȟPC + K2ȟf (1)

Movement of D:
It is contributed by ȟXC and ȟXT. The movement of ȟXD is the amount by which the
pilot valve open, thereby moving the main piston and opening the steam valve by ȟXE.

௟భ ௟య
ȟXD = ቀ௟ ቁ ȟXC + ቀ௟ ቁ ȟXE
య ା௟ర య ା௟ర

= K3ȟXC + K4ȟXE (2)

Movement ofઢXE :
The volume of oil admitted to the cylinder is thus proportional to the line integral of
ȟXD.

௧
ȟXE = K5‫׬‬଴ ሺെοܺ஽ ሻ ݀‫ݐ‬ (3)

Taking Laplace transform of equ (1), (2) and (3)

ȟXC(S)= -K1KCȟPC(S)+ K2ȟF(S) (4)

ȟXD(S) = K3ȟXC (S)+ K4ȟXE (S) (5)

ି௄ఱ
ȟXE(S)= ȟXD(S) (6)
ௌ

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 57 ~

Substituting equation (5) in (6) we get,

ି௄ఱ
ȟXE(S) = ௌ
(K3ȟXC (S)+ K4ȟXE (S))

௄ర ௄ఱ ି௄ఱ ௄య
ȟXE(S)ቀͳ ൅ ௌ
ቁ = ௌ
ȟXC(S) (7)

Substituting equ (4) in (7) we get,

௄ర ௄ఱ ି௄ఱ ௄య
ȟXE(S)ቀͳ ൅ ቁ = (-K1KCȟPC(S)+ K2ȟF(S))
ௌ ௌ

ௌା௄ర ௄ఱ ௄ఱ ௄య ௄భ ௄಴ ୼௉಴ ሺୗሻି௄మ ௄ఱ ௄య ୼୊ሺୗሻ

ȟXE(S)ቀ ௌ
ቁ =ቀ ௌ
ቁ

಼మ
௄ఱ ௄య ௄భ ௄಴ ൬୼௉಴ ሺୗሻି ୼୊ሺୗሻ൰
಼భ ಼಴
ȟXE(S)= ൭ ೄ
൱
௄ర ௄ఱ ൬ଵା ൰
಼ర ಼ఱ

಼మ
௄య ௄భ ௄಴ ୼௉಴ ሺୗሻି ୼୊ሺୗሻ
಼భ ಼಴
ȟXE(S)= ௄ర
ቆ ೄ ቇ
ଵା
಼ర ಼ఱ

This equation can be written as,

ಸ ଵ ௄
ȟXE(S)= ቂȟܲ஼ ሺሻ െ  ோ ȟ ሺሻǤ ଵାௌ் ቃ (8)
ಸ

Where,

௄భ ௄಴
R1 = – speed regulation of the governor in Hz/MW
௄మ

௄య ௄భ ௄಴
KG = ௄ర
– gain of the governor

ଵ
TG = – time constant of speed governor
௄ర ௄ఱ

- Value of TG< 100 msec

The output of a generating unit at a given system frequency can be varied only by
changing it’s “ Load reference or control point” which is integrated with the speed governing
mechanism.

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 58 ~

 Turbine model
We are integrated in the increased power generation ȟPG due to the increased steam
valve opening. There is incremental increase in turbine power ȟPT due to the change in valve
position ȟXE, which will result in an increase generator power ȟPG. If the generator
incremental loss is neglected then

ȟPT = ȟPG

The figure for non- reheat turbine is shown in fig.

Tt = Time constant of turbine

Kt = Gain constant

ȟPV = Per unit change in valve position from nominal value

Generator Load Model:

To develop the mathematical model of an isolated generator, which is only supplying
local load and is not supplying power to another area. Suppose there is a real load change of
ȟPD. The net surplus power (ȟPG - ȟPD) will be absorbed by system in two ways.

ௗ
1. By increasing the kinetic energy stored in the rotor at the rate ௗ௧ (WKE)

଴
୏୉ = H.Pr KW seconds

଴ ୎ఠబమ ଴
୏୉ = ଶ
= ୏୉ ‫݂  ן‬଴ଶ (9)

WKE ‫ ן‬ሺ݂଴ ൅  ο݂ሻଶ (10)

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 59 ~

 Dividing equ (10) by (9) we get

଴ ௙బ ାο௙ ଶ ଴ ο௙ ଶ
WKE = ୏୉ ቀ ቁ = ୏୉ ቀͳ ൅ ቁ
௙బ ௙బ

଴ ଶο௙ ο௙ మ
= ୏୉ ቀͳ ൅  ൅ ௙బమ
ቁ
௙బ

଴ ଶο௙
= ୏୉ ቀͳ ൅  ቁ neglect second order term.
௙బ

଴
Substituting ୏୉ ,

ଶο௙
WKE = H.Prቀͳ ൅  ቁ (11)
௙బ

Rate of change of kinetic energy,

ௗௐ಼ಶ ଶு௉ೝ ௗ
ௗ௧
= ௙బ ௗ௧
ο݂ (12)

2. As the frequency changes, the motor load changes being sensitive to speed

డ௉ವ
Rate of change of load with respect to frequency =B
డ௙

Where,

B = damping co-efficient in MW/Hz.

Values of damping co-efficient is positive for motor load.

ȟPG - ȟPD= Bȟf

Writing power balance equation,

ଶு௉ೝ ௗ
ȟPG - ȟPD = ሺο݂ሻ ൅ ȟˆ
௙బ ௗ௧

Dividing by Pr,

ଶு ௗ
ȟீ೛Ǥೠ െ ȟ஽೛Ǥೠ = ሺο݂ሻ ൅ ௣Ǥ௨ ȟˆ
௙బ ௗ௧

Taking laplace transform,

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 60 ~

 ଶுሺௌሻ
ȟPG(S)- ȟPD(S) = ȟF(S) ቀ ௙బ
൅ ቁ

୼୔ಸ ሺୗሻି୼୔ವ ሺୗሻ

ȟF(S) = మಹሺೄሻ
஻ቀଵା ቁ
೑బ

ು ௄
ȟF(S) = ȟPG(S) - ȟPD(S) ൬ଵାௌ் ൰
೛

Where,

ଵ
KP =஻ = Power system gain

ଶு
TP = ௙బ
= Power system time constant

Combining the governor model, turbine model and generator model, we get the
complete block diagram representation of LFC of an isolated power which is shown in fig.

DATA:

Rated capacity of the area = 2000 MVA

Normal operating load = 1000 MW

Nominal frequency = 60 Hz

Inertia Constant (H) = 5.0

Governor droop for all regulating generators =4%

Governor time constant = 0.05 sec

Turbine time constant = 0.30 sec

Sudden rise in load value = 20 MW

Rate of change of load (DPL) = 1.0

DPF = 1.0

DT = 0.01

Tmax = 20.0

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 61 ~

RESULT:

Thus for given single area system, load frequency control dynamics analysis was
carried out using Mi-Power software package and LFC pattern were presented.

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 62 ~

 LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL OF TWO AREA SYSTEM

EXERCISE 8

AIM:
To develop a two area load frequency control through Mi-power software package.

THEORY
An extended power system can be divided into a number of load frequency control
areas interconnected by means of tie lines. Without loss of generating, we shall consider a
two area case connected by a single tie line as illustrated in fig.
The control objective now is to regulate the frequency of each area and to regulate the
tie line power as per inter area power contracts. As in the case of frequency proportional plus
integral controller will be installed so as to give zero steady state error in the tie line flow as
compare to the contracted power.
It is assumed that each control area can be represented by equivalent turbine generator
and governor system. Symbols used with suffix ‘1’ refers to area ‘1’.
In an isolated control area case, the incremental power (ȟPG - ȟPD) was accounted for
the rate of increase in area load, caused by increase in frequency. Since, a tie line transports
power in or out of an area, this fact must be accounted for in the incremental power balance
equation of each area.

Power transported out of area 1 is given by,

ȁ௏భ ȁȁ௏మ ȁ
Ptie,1 = •‹ሺߜଵ଴ െ ߜଶ଴ ሻ = Pmax•‹ሺߜଵ଴ െ ߜଶ଴ ሻ
௑భమ

Where,

ߜଵ଴ ǡ ߜଶ଴ = Power angle of equivalent machines of the two area

For incremental changes in ߜଵ and ߜଶ the incremental tie line can be expressed as,

Apply partial differentiation with respect to ԢߜԢ

డ௉೟೔೐ǡభ ȁ௏భ ȁȁ௏మ ȁ

డఋభమ
= ௑భమ
‘•ሺߜଵ଴ െ ߜଶ଴ ሻሺοߜଵ െ οߜଶ ሻ

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 63 ~

 ȁ௏ ȁȁ௏ ȁ
οܲ௧௜௘ǡଵ೛Ǥೠ = ௑ భ ௉ మ ‘•ሺߜଵ଴ െ ߜଶ଴ ሻሺοߜଵ െ οߜଶ ሻ
భమ ೝభ

οܲ௧௜௘ǡଵ೛Ǥೠ = T12ሺοߜଵ െ οߜଶ ሻ

Where

ȁ௏భ ȁȁ௏మ ȁ
T12 = ‘•ሺߜଵ଴ െ ߜଶ଴ ሻ
௑భమ ௉ೝభ

Synchronizing power co-efficient or electric or dielectric (i.e) slope of the power

଴
angle curve at the initial stiffness operating angle ߜଵଶ .

T12 is defined as the differential power increase obtained per differential power angle
increase obtained per differential power angle increase.

Since incremental frequency οf is related to the phase angle of deviation,

߱ = 2ߨf

ఠ
f =
ଶగ

ଵ ௗఋ
=
ଶగ ௗ௧

ଵ ௗ
(i.e) οf = ሺοߜሻ
ଶగ ௗ௧

οߜ = ʹߨ ‫ ׬‬οˆǤ †–

We can equ T12 as,

οܲ௧௜௘ǡଵ = ʹߨଵଶ ሾ‫ ׬‬οˆଵ Ǥ ݀‫ ݐ‬െ  ‫ ׬‬οˆଶ Ǥ ݀‫ݐ‬ሿ

Where οˆଵ and οˆଶ are incremental frequency changer of areas ‘1’ and ‘2’
respectively.

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 64 ~

Similarly,

οܲ௧௜௘ǡଵ = ʹߨଶଵ ሾ‫ ׬‬οˆଶ Ǥ ݀‫ ݐ‬െ  ‫ ׬‬οˆଵ Ǥ ݀‫ݐ‬ሿ

ȁ௏ ȁȁ௏ ȁ ௉ೝ
T12 = ௑ మ ௉ భ ‘•ሺߜଶ଴ െ ߜଵ଴ ሻǤ ௉ భ
భమ ೝమ ೝభ

௉ೝభ
P21 =൬ ൰ ܶଵଶ ൌ  ܽଵଶ ܶଵଶ
௉ೝమ

Where,

௉ೝ
ܽଵଶ = ൬௉ భ ൰
ೝమ

The incremental power balance equation for area ‘1’ can be written as,

ଶு ௗ
οܲீభ െ οܲ஽భ = ሺο݂ଵ ሻ ൅  ‫ܤ‬ଵ ο݂ଵ ൅  οܲ௧௜௘ǡଵ
௙బ ௗ௧

Taking LT on equation of above and rearranging we get,

ʹ‫ܪ‬ଵ ܵ
οܲீభ ሺܵሻ െ  οܲ஽భ ሺܵሻ െ  οܲ௧௜௘ǡଵ ሺܵሻ ൌ  ο݂ଵ ሺܵሻ ൤‫ܤ‬ଵ ൅  ൨
݂଴

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 65 ~

 ο௉ಸభ ሺௌሻିο௉ವభ ሺௌሻିο௉೟೔೐ǡభ ሺௌሻ
ο݂ଵ ሺܵሻ = మಹభ ೄ
஻భ ା
೑బ

ଵΤ஻భ
= ൣοܲீభ ሺܵሻ െ  οܲ஽భ ሺܵሻ െ  οܲ௧௜௘ǡଵ ሺܵሻ൧ మಹభ ೄ
ଵା
೑బ ಳ భ

ು భ ௄ ௌ
ο݂ଵ ሺܵሻ = ൣοܲீభ ሺܵሻ െ  οܲ஽భ ሺܵሻ െ  οܲ௧௜௘ǡଵ ሺܵሻ൧ ଵାௌ் ௌ ು భ

Where,

ଵ
KPS1 = = Power system gain for area ‘1’
஻భ

ଶுభ
ܶ௉ ܵଵ = = Power system time constant for area ‘1’
௙బ ஻భ

Taking LP transform of equation,

ଶగ୘భమ
οܲ௧௜௘ǡଵ (S) = ሾοˆଵ ሺܵሻ െ  οˆଶ ሺܵሻሿ
ௌ

For the control area ‘2’,

ଶగ୘మభ
οܲ௧௜௘ǡଶ (S) = ሾοˆଶ ሺܵሻ െ  οˆଵ ሺܵሻሿ
ௌ

ିଶగ௔భమ ୘మభ
οܲ௧௜௘ǡଶ (S) = ሾοˆଵ ሺܵሻ െ  οˆଶ ሺܵሻሿ
ௌ

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 66 ~

DATA:

Number of areas =2

Rated capacity of the area = 2000 MVA

Normal operating load = 1000 MW

Nominal frequency = 60 Hz

Inertia Constant (H) = 5.0

Governor droop for all regulating generators =4%

Governor time constant = 0.08 sec

Turbine time constant = 0.30 sec

Sudden rise in load value (DPD) = 0 MW (for Area 1);

20 MW (for Area 2);

Rate of change of load (DPL) = 1.0

DPF = 1.0

DT = 0.01

Tmax = 20.0

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 67 ~

RESULT:

Thus for given two area system, load frequency control dynamic analysis was carried

out using Mi-Power software package and LFC pattern were presented.

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 68 ~

 TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS OF SINGLE MACHINE
INFINITE BUS SYSTEM
EXERCISE 10

AIM
Analyze the transienet stability analysis of a single machine infinite bus system through Mi-

Power software package.

THEORY:

For the purpose of analysis fig (a) is reduced to fig (b) using thevnin’s equivalent of

the transmission network external to the machine and the adjacent transmission.

Because of the relative size of the system to which the machine is supplying power

dynamics associated with the machine will cause virtually no change in the voltage and

frequency of thevnin’s volatage EB . Such a source of constant voltage and constant

frequency is referred to an infinite bus.

For any given system condition, the magnitude of infinite bus voltage EB remains

constant. However as the steady state condition change, the magnitude of EB may change

represent a changed generating condition of the external network.

We will analyze the small signal stability of the system with the synchronous machine

represented by models of varying degree of detail. We will begin with the classical model and

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 69 ~

gradually increase the model detail by accounting for the effects of the dynamics of the field,

circuits and excitation system.

In each case we will develop the expressions for the elements of state matrix as

explicit function of the system parameters. This will help make clear the effects of various

factor associated with a synchronous machine on system stability. In addition to the state

space representation and model analysis we will use the block diagram representation and

torque angle relationship to analyze the system stability characteristics.

CALCULATION:

Let E’ = Voltage behind X’d

ߜ = Angle by which E’ leads the infinite bus voltage EB.

With E’ as reference phasor

୉ᇲ ‫ס‬଴ିாಳ ‫ିס‬ஔ
It =
௝௑೅

୉ᇲ ‫ס‬଴ିாಳ ሺୡ୭ୱஔି୨ୱ୧୬ஔሻ
= ௝௑೅

The complex power behind Xd’ is given by

S’ = P + jQ’ = E’It*

୉ᇲ ாಳ ୱ୧୬ஔ ୉ᇲ ሺ୉ᇲ ିாಳ ୡ୭ୱஔሻ

= +݆
௑೅ ௑೅

In p.u the air gap torque is equal to the air gap power

Here,

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 70 ~

 ୉ᇲ ாಳ
Te = •‹Ɂ
௑೅

Linearizing about an initial operating condition represented by Ɂ ൌ  Ɂ଴ yields

డ்೐ ୉ᇲ ாಳ
ȟୣ = డఋ
ȟɁ = ௑೅
‘•Ɂ଴ ሺȟɁሻ

The equation of motion in p.u are

ଵ
Pȟ߱௥ = (Tm – Te – KD.ȟ߱௥ )
ଶு

PɁ = ߱଴ ȟ߱௥

Also
ଵ
Pȟ߱௥ = (ȟ Tm – KSȟɁ – KD.ȟ߱௥ )
ଶగ

Where KS is synchronizing torque co-efficient and is given by

୉ᇲ ாಳ
KS = ‘•Ɂ଴
௑೅

Linearizing the (6) we get,

PȟɁ = ߱଴ ȟ߱௥

Writing the (7) & (9) in vector matrix, we obtain

െ‫ܭ‬஽ െ‫ܭ‬ௌ ͳ
݀ ȟ߱௥ ȟ߱௥
൤ ൨ ൌ ൥ ʹ‫ܪ‬ ʹ‫ ܪ‬൩ቂ ቃ ൅  ൥ʹ‫ ܪ‬൩ ȟܶ௠
݀‫ ݐ‬ȟɁ ߱଴ Ͳ ȟɁ
Ͳ

Where

KS = Synchronising torque co-efficient

KD = Damping torque co-efficient in p.u torque/p.u speed deviation

H = Inertia constant in MW. S/MVA

ȟ߱௥ = Speed deviation in p.u

ȟɁ = Rotor angle deviation in electrical radii

ȟ = Laplace operator

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 71 ~

 ߱ = rated speed in electrical rad/s

From the block diagram, we have

ఠబ ଵ
ȟɁ = ቂ ሺെ‫ܭ‬ௌ ȟɁ െ  ‫ܭ‬஽ ȟ߱௥  ൅ ȟ୫ ሻቃ
ௌ ଶுௌ

ఠబ ଵ ୼ஔ
= ቂ ቀെ‫ܭ‬ௌ ȟɁ െ  ‫ܭ‬஽   ൅ ȟ୫ ቁቃ
ௌ ଶுௌ ఠబ

Rearranging we get,

‫ܭ‬஽ ‫ܭ‬ௌ ߱଴
ܵ ଶ ሺȟɁሻ ൅  ܵሺȟɁሻ ൅  ߱଴ ሺȟɁሻ ൌ  ȟ
ʹ‫ܪ‬ ʹ‫ܪ‬ ʹ‫ ܪ‬୫

Therefore the characteristic equation is given by

‫ܭ‬஽ ‫ܭ‬ௌ
ܵଶ ൅  ܵ ൅  ߱ ൌ Ͳ
ʹ‫ܪ‬ ʹ‫ ܪ‬଴

This is of the general form

ܵ ଶ ൅ ʹܵ߱௡ ൅  ߱௡ଶ ൌ Ͳ

Therefore the un-damped natural frequency is

௄
߱௡ ൌ  ට ೄ ߱଴ rad/sec
ଶு

and the damping ratio is

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 72 ~

 ͳ ‫ܭ‬஽
ܵ ൌ
ʹ ʹ‫߱ܪ‬௡

SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM:

DETAILED DIAGRAM:

DATA:

Generator:

555 MVA x 4 Units

Xd’ = 0.3 p.u

H = 3.5 Mw-s/MVA

Voltage = 24 KV, 60 Hz

Transformer:

Voltage Ratio = 24/220 KV

Reactance = 0.15 p.u

Line:

Reactance of line 1 = 0.5 p.u

Reactance of line 2 = 0.93 p.u

Reactance of infinite bus = 0.5 p.u

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 73 ~

Fault:

Three phase to ground fault at end of line 2 occur at t = 0 sec;

clearing at t = 0.07 sec

Et = 1.0 p.u;

PF = 0.9

Plant operating condition P = 0.9 pu

RESULT:

Thus for a given single bus infinite system, transient stability analysis was carried

out using Mi-Power software package.

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 74 ~

 ECONOMIC DISPATCH IN POWER SYSTEM
EXERCISE 11

AIM:
To solve economic dispatch and unit commitment problem of a given power system
using Mi – Power package.
THEORY:
ECONOMIC DISPATCH PROBLEM:

The purpose of economic dispatch (or) optimal dispatch is to reduce fuel costs for the
power system. By economic load scheduling, we mean to find the generation of the different
generators (or) plants, so that the total fuel cost is minimum and at the same time the total
demand and losses at any instant must be met by total generation. The economic dispatch
problem involves the solution of two different problems.

We know that FT = F1 + F2 + ……. + FN

Equality Constraint: σே
௜ୀଵ ܲீ೔ െ ܲ஽ = 0

Inequality Constraint: ܲீ೔ǡ೘೔೙ ൑ ܲீ೔ ൑ ܲீ೔ǡ೘ೌೣ

The necessary condition, for the existence of a minimum cost operating condition is
that the incremental cost rates of all the units will be equal to some undetermined value

݀‫ܨ‬௜
ൌ ߣ
݀ܲீ೔

The power balance equation is σே

௜ୀଵ ܲீ೔ ൌ ܲ஽ . There are two inequalities that must be

satisfied for each of the units.

ܲீ೔ǡ೘೔೙ ൑ ܲீ೔ ൑ ܲீ೔ǡ೘ೌೣ

The necessary conditions may be expanded slightly as shown in the set of equation.

ௗி೔
ௗ௉ಸ೔
ൌ ߣ : for ܲீ೔ǡ೘೔೙ ൑ ܲீ೔ ൑ ܲீ೔ǡ೘ೌೣ

ௗி೔
൑ ߣ : ܲீ೔ ൌ ܲீ೔ǡ೘೔೙
ௗ௉ಸ೔

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 75 ~

 ௗி೔ 
൒ ߣ : ܲீ೔ ൌ  ܲீ೔ǡ೘ೌೣ
ௗ௉ಸ೔

The net saving cost ο‫ܨ‬௧ = ο‫ܨ‬ଵ +ο‫ܨ‬ଶ

Where

ο‫ܨ‬ଵ = Increase in cost for unit 1.

ο‫ܨ‬ଶ = Increase in cost for unit 2.

ௗி
ο‫ܨ‬௜ = ‫ ׬‬ௗ௉ ೔ .݀ܲீ೔
ಸ೔

The possible observation concerned to ο‫ܨ‬௧ are,

1. If ο‫ܨ‬௧ < 0, the fuel input to the system is decreased by increasing generation on
source 1 and consequently, the intial generation schedule was not optimum.
2. If ο‫ܨ‬௧ > 0, the fuel input to the system is increased by increasing the generation of
source 1 and in this case it would not be desirable to increase the output of source 1.

Solution by ߣ - iteration method without loss

Step: 1Assign initial trial value of ࣅ or calculate ࣅ using

್೔
௉ವశ σಿ
೔సభ  మೌ೔
ߣ= భ
σಿ
೔సభ  మೌ೔

Step: 2Compute ܲீ೔ corresponding to ࣅ using equations

ܲீ೔ = ߙ௜ + ߚ௜ (IC) + ߛ௜ (IC)2

ܲீ೔ = ߙ௜ + ߚ௜ ߣ + ߛ௜ ߣ2 (or)

ఒି௕೔
ߛீ೔ = ଶ௔೔

Step: 3Compute σே
௜ୀଵ ܲீ೔ 

Step: 4Check the power balance equation σே

௜ୀଵ ܲீ೔ ൌ ܲ஽

Step: 5If σே
௜ୀଵ ܲீ೔ ൏ ܲ஽

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 76 ~

 Assign ߣ = ߣ ൅ οߣ

If σே
௜ୀଵ ܲீ೔ ൐ ܲ஽

Assign ߣ = ߣ െ οߣ

ሺο௉
Where οߣ = భ (οܲ െ ‫)݄݀݊ܽ݉݁݀݊݅݁݃݊ܽܥ‬
σಿ
೔సభ  మೌ೔

DATA

(i) Total Demand = 850MW

Operating limits:
150 MW ൑ P1 ൑ 600 MW
100 MW ൑ P2 ൑ 400 MW
50 MW ൑ P3 ൑ 200 MW
Production cost function in Rs / hr
F1 = 459 +6.48 P1 + 0.00128 P12 Rs./Hr
F2 = 310 + 7.85 P2 + 0.0019 P22 Rs./Hr
F3 = 78+ 7.97 P3 + 0.00482 P32 Rs./Hr
(ii) Total Demand = 150 MW
Operating limits:
10 MW ൑ P1 ൑ 100 MW
10 MW ൑ P2 ൑ 100 MW
Production cost function in Rs / hr
F1 = 0.05 P12 + 20 P1 + 800 Rs./Hr
F2 = 0.06 P22 + 15 P2 + 1000 Rs./Hr
B11 = 0.01; B12 = B21 =0.01; B22 = 0.024

(iii) Total Demand = 200 MW

Operating limits:
10 MW ൑ P1 ൑ 100 MW
10 MW ൑ P2 ൑ 100 MW
Incremental cost function in Rs / hr
dF1 = 0.2 P12 + 20 P1 Rs./Hr
dF2 = 0.2 P22 + 30 P2 Rs./Hr

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 77 ~

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 78 ~
RESULT:

Thus solution for economic dispatch and unit commitment problem for a given power
system was solved using Mi – Power package and the results were presented.

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering & Technology, Panruti ~ 79 ~

 EE 3611 Power System Laboratory

STATE ESTIMATION USING WEIGHTED LEAST SQUARE

ESTIMATION

EXERCISE 12
AIM
To obtain the bests possible estimate of state of the power system for the given set of

Measurement by weighted least squares method.

THEORY
State estimation plays a very important role in the monitoring and control of modern power

system. The main aim of this is to obtain the voltages and bus angles by processing the available

system data. State estimation is defined as the data processing algorithm for converting

redundant meter reading and other available information into as estimate of the state of

electrical power system. Real time measurement is collected in power system through SCADA

system. Typical data includes real and reactive line flows and real and reactive bus injections

and bus voltage magnitude. This telemetered data may contain errors.

These errors render the output useless. It is for this reason that, power system state

estimation techniques have been developed. A commonly used criterion is that of minimizing

the sum of the squares of the differences between estimated measurement quantities and actual

measurement. This is known as “weighted least squares” criterion.

The mathematical model of state estimation is based on the relation between the

measurement variable and the state variable.

Let [Z] = Set of measurements

[X] = The vector of state variables
[f(X] = The equation relating measurement variables to the state variable
[e] = The measurement error vector
We have
[Z] = [f(x)+[e]

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering and Technology, Panruti ~ 80 ~

 EE 3611 Power System Laboratory

Line Data
Reactance in
Line Number Start Bus End Bus
p.u.
1 1 2 0.2
2 2 3 0.4
3 1 3 0.25

Measurement Data
Measurement
S. No. Values (p.u) Weightages
Quantities
1 P1 0.72 1.0
2 P1, 2 0.68 1.0
3 P3, 2 -0.405 0.1
4 P1, 3 -0.04 0.2

RESULT
The state of the given system has estimated using weighted least square method and

the results are found to be correct

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering and Technology, Panruti ~ 81 ~

 EE 3611 Power System Laboratory

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF OVER CURRENT RELAY

EXERCISE 13
AIM
To study the performance analysis of over current relay.
THEORY
The over current relays are used to sense the fault currents and over-load currents and

trips off the system. Micro controller is used for the control operation. The programming is

done in such a way that when the fault current value is above the set value the relay is closed/

opened (depends on connection) and it trips the circuit. The tripping of the relay is indicated

by the LED. The LCD displays the set time, set current, fault current and tripping time. Relays

are of many types. Some Depend on the operation of an armature by some form of

electromagnet. A very large numbers of relays operate on the induction principle.

When a relay operates it closes contacts in the trip circuit which is normally connected across

110 V D.C. supply from a battery. The passage of current in the coil of the trip circuit actuates

the plunger, which causes operation of the circuit breaker, disconnecting the faulty system. In

the laboratory, a 3-phase contactor simulates the operation of the circuit breaker. The closure

of the relay contacts short-circuits the 'no volt ' coil of the contactor, which, in turn, disconnects

the faulty system.

The protective relaying which responds to a rise in current flowing through the protected

element over a pre-determined value is called 'overcurrent protection' and the relays used for

this purpose are known as over current relays. The operating time of all overcurrent relays tends

to become asymptotic to a definite minimum value with increase in the value of current.

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering and Technology, Panruti ~ 82 ~

 EE 3611 Power System Laboratory

DATA
Table 1 : Transmission Line Data on 100 MVA base
Line Charging
Bus Code Line Impedance
Admittance
1-2 j0.1 0
2-3 j0.1 0
3-4 j0.1 0
4-5 j0.1 0
5-6 j0.1 0

Generator Details :
G1 = 100 MVA, 11 kV
Maximum fault level = 1000 MVA
Relay Manufacturer : ABB REB 670, IEC Normal Inverse characteristics
Relay Details :

Relay Name R1 R2 R3 R4

Primary Rating (1,2,3,4) 800 400 200 100

Secondary Rating in Amps 5 5 5 5

Load Current in Amps 800 400 200 100

Relay Type IEC NI IEC NI IEC NI IEC NI

PERFORMANCE CURVE FOR OVER CURRENT RELAY COORDINATION

RESULT
Thus, the performance analysis of over current relay is studied.

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 EE 3611 Power System Laboratory

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF IMPEDANCE RELAY

EXERCISE 14
AIM
To study the performance analysis of impedance relay.
THEORY
A mho impedance relay generally has an operating characteristic which is a circle

passing through the origin. Actually, all modern mho impedance relays for phase, ground and

3-phase protection have an expanded characteristic that includes the origin.

Only the case in which the mho characteristic does pass through the origin is when the

source impedance (Zs) is zero. However, this case would never happen since all real-world

sources have some finite non-zero impedance.

The simple explanation is that the relay sees the source impedance from the drop in

the voltage from prefault conditions during the fault. It has been shown that traditional fixed

voltage or fixed current testing methods actually present a power system to the relay has the

following special characteristics:

™ It is a radial system (no load).

™ The zero sequence source impedance is equal to the positive sequence source
impedance.

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 EE 3611 Power System Laboratory

™ The angle of the zero-sequence line impedance is equal to the angle of the positive
sequence line impedance.
™ The angle of the fault is equal to the line impedance angle and to the source
impedance angle.

The real impedance operates times actually vary with source to line impedance ratio (SIR).
Generally, the operation times are higher with higher source to line impedance ratio values.

Fig. Typical variation of operate time for different SIR values

The fault directly in front of the relay can only be plotted on the forward fault

characteristic graph. The fault directly behind the relay can only be plotted on the reverse fault

characteristic graph. The fault directly in front of the relay cannot be plotted on the reverse

fault characteristic graph or vice versa.

™ The unfaulted phase voltages change. This is due to the mutual coupling between
phases.

™ The angle of the faulted phase voltage (Va) shifts. The value of Va depends on the line
and source positive as well as zero sequence impedances.

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering and Technology, Panruti ~ 85 ~

 EE 3611 Power System Laboratory

™ The angle between the fault voltage and current is not necessarily equal to the
impedance test angle.

In order to determine the appropriate voltages and currents to simulate a given fault condition,

it is necessary to also decide on the power system being simulated. That is:

Fault condition + Power system — Determine -> Voltages & Currents

The power system is defined by:

The circuit configuration (radial, 2-terminal, parallel line etc.)

Source + line impedances (positive, negative and zero sequence)

Source voltages (magnitude and angle)

The fault condition is defined by:

Fault section (forward, reverse, adjacent line, beyond remote end)

Position (% of line)

Fault phase(s) and type

Fault impedance (magnitude & angle)

The relay input voltages and currents include:

Faulted phase voltage and currents

Unfaulted phase voltages and currents

(Prefault voltages and currents)

Without consciously deciding on power system, some arbitrary assumption must be made about
either the voltage or the current or both and we end up with an unknown power system.

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 EE 3611 Power System Laboratory

Example:

Fault condition + — Determine -> Voltages & Currents+ unknown power system

Of course, what an impedance relay does is use some knowledge (read assumption) of the
power system which is the line impedances, and the voltages and currents to determine the fault
condition. That is:

Fault condition <– Determine — Voltages & Currents+ power system

Note that the voltages and currents include both the prefault and unfaulted phase voltages and
currents.

In actuality:

™ Any point on the R-X plane corresponds to an infinite number of possible fault
conditions even for the same power system.
™ Impedance relays use not only the faulted phase voltages and currents, but also the
prefault and unfaulted phase voltages and currents to determine operation.
™ All must be calculated properly with the same power system model that the relay is set
for to simulate the desired fault condition.

RESULT
Thus, the performance analysis of over current relay is studied.

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering and Technology, Panruti ~ 87 ~

 EE 3611 Power System Laboratory

TESTING OF CT, PR AND INSULATOR STRING

EXERCISE 15
AIM
To study the performance of CT,PT and Insulator String.
THEORY
Current transformers reduce high voltage currents to a much lower value and provide a

convenient way of safely monitoring the actual electrical current flowing in an AC transmission

line using a standard ammeter. The principal of operation of a basic current transformer is

slightly different from that of an ordinary voltage transformer. Current transformers can reduce

or “step- down” current levels from thousands of amperes down to a standard output of a known

ratio to either 5 Amps or 1 Amp for normal operation. Thus, small and accurate instruments

and control devices can be used with CT’s because they are insulated away from any high-

voltage power lines. There are a variety of metering applications and uses for current

transformers such as with Wattmeter’s, power factor meters, watt-hour meters, protective

relays, or as trip coils in magnetic circuit breakers, or MCB’s.

Potential transformer or voltage transformer gets used in electrical power system for

stepping down the system voltage to a safe value which can be fed to low ratings meters and

relays. Commercially available relays and meters used for protection and metering, are

designed for low voltage. This is a simplest form of potential transformer definition. Potential

transformer theory is just like a theory of general-purpose step-down transformer. Primary of

this transformer is connected across the phase and ground. Just like the transformer used for

stepping down purpose, potential transformer i.e. PT has lower turns winding at its secondary.

The system voltage is applied across the terminals of primary winding of that transformer, and

then proportionate secondary voltage appears across the secondary terminals of the PT.

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 EE 3611 Power System Laboratory

The secondary voltage of the PT is generally 110 V. In an ideal potential transformer or

voltage transformer, when rated burden gets connected across the secondary; the ratio of

primary and secondary voltages of transformer is equal to the turns ratio and furthermore, the

two terminal voltages are in precise phase opposite to each other. But in actual transformer,

there must be an error in the voltage ratio as well as in the phase angle between primary and

secondary voltages.

Fig. Current Transformer Circuit

Fig. Potential Transformer Circuit

A string of suspension insulators consists of a number of porcelain discs connected in series

through metallic links. Fig. 1 (i) shows string of suspension insulators. The porcelain portion

of each disc is in between two metal links as shown in Fig. 1 (ii). Therefore, each disc forms

a capacitor C as shown in Fig. 1 (iii). This is known as mutual capacitance or self

capacitance.

However, in actual practice, capacitance also exists between metal fitting of each disc

and tower or earth. This is known as shunt capacitance C1. Due to shunt capacitance, charging

current is not the same throu1gh all the discs of the string Fig. 1 (i) shows string of suspension

insulators. The porcelain portion of each disc is in between two metal links as shown in Fig. 1

(ii). Therefore, each disc forms a capacitor C as shown in Fig. 1 (iii). This is known as mutual

capacitance or self capacitance. However, in actual practice, capacitance also exists between

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 EE 3611 Power System Laboratory

metal fitting of each disc and tower or earth. This is known as shunt capacitance C1. Due to

shunt capacitance, charging current is not the same through all the discs of the string [See Fig.

1 (iii)]. Therefore, voltage across each disc will be different. Obviously, the disc nearest to the

line conductor will have the maximum voltage. Thus referring to Fig. 1 (iii), V1 will be much

more than V2 or V3.

The following points may be noted regarding the potential distribution over string of

suspension insulators:

i. The voltage impressed on a string of suspension insulators does not distribute itself
uniformly across the individual discs due to the presence of shunt capacitance.
ii. The disc nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage across it. As we move towards
the Cross-arm, the voltage across each disc goes on decreasing.
iii. The unit nearest to the conductor is under maximum electrical stress and is likely to
be punctured. Therefore, means must be provided to equalize the potential across each
unit.
iv. If the voltage impressed across the string were d.c, then voltage across each unit would
be the same. It is because insulator capacitances are ineffective for d.c.

String Efficiency:

The ratio of voltage across the whole string to the product of number of discs and the

voltage across the disc nearest to the conductor is known as string efficiency.

ܸ‫݃݊݅ݎݐݏ݄݁ݐݏݏ݋ݎܿܽ݁݃ܽݐ݈݋‬
ܵ‫ ݕ݂݂݁ܿ݊݁݅ܿ݅ܧ݃݊݅ݎݐ‬ൌ
݊‫ݎ݋ݐܿݑ݀݊݋݄ܿ݁ݐ݋ݐݐݏ݁ݎܽ݁݊ݏݏ݋ݎܿܽ݁݃ܽݐ݈݋ݒݔ‬

where n – number of discs in the string

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 EE 3611 Power System Laboratory

String efficiency is an important consideration since it decides the potential distribution

along the string. The greater the string efficiency, the more uniform is the voltage distribution.

Thus 100% string efficiency is an ideal case for which the voltage across each disc will be

exactly the same. Although it is impossible to achieve 100% string efficiency, yet efforts should

be made to improve it as close to this value as possible.

Methods to Improve String Efficiency:

i. By using longer cross-arms

ii. By grading the insulators.
iii. By using a guard ring

The potential across each unit in a string can be equalized by using a guard ring which
is a metal ring electrically connected to the conductor and surrounding the bottom insulator.
The guard ring introduces capacitance between metal fittings and the line conductor. The guard
rings contoured in such a way that shunt capacitance currents i1, i2 etc. are equal to metal
fitting line capacitance currents i′1, i′2 etc. The result is that same charging current I flows
through each unit of string. Consequently, there will be uniform potential distribution across
the units.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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 EE 3611 Power System Laboratory

PROCEDURE:
Without Guard Ring:
i. Connect the circuit as per the Fig. 3. From one of the Variac output terminals connect
to terminals S1 and other Variac output terminal to G as shown in Fig. 3.
ii. Apply voltage from the Variac across the string in steps of 20V starting from 30V to
110V.
iii. Measure the voltage across S1 and S2(which is to be noted as E1); S2 and S3(which is
to be noted as E2); S3 and S4(which is to be noted as E3); S4 to G (which is to be
noted as E4)
iv. Tabulate the voltages E1 to E4 in the tabular column 1.
v. Calculate the string efficiency without guard ring.

With Guard Ring:

i. Connect the circuit as per the Fig. 4.From one of the Variac output terminals connect
to terminals S1 and other Variac output terminal to G. To connect the guard ring to the
string,
ii. connect the terminals S4-S7, S3-S8, S2-S9 and also make connections between S1-
S10, S1-S11 and S1-S12
iii. Apply voltage from the Variac across the string in steps of 20V starting from 30V to
110V.
iv. Measure the voltage across S1 and S2(which is to be noted as E1); S2 and S3(which is
to be noted as E2); S3 and S4(which is to be noted as E3) ; S4 to G( which is to be
noted as E4)
v. Tabulate the voltages E1 to E4 in the tabular column 2.
vi. Calculate the string efficiency with guard ring.

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering and Technology, Panruti ~ 92 ~

 EE 3611 Power System Laboratory

CALCULATIONS:
ܸ‫݃݊݅ݎݐݏ݄݁ݐݏݏ݋ݎܿܽ݁݃ܽݐ݈݋‬
ܵ‫ ݕ݂݂݁ܿ݊݁݅ܿ݅ܧ݃݊݅ݎݐ‬ൌ
݊‫ݎ݋ݐܿݑ݀݊݋݄ܿ݁ݐ݋ݐݐݏ݁ݎܽ݁݊ݏݏ݋ݎܿܽ݁݃ܽݐ݈݋ݒݔ‬

TABULAR COLUMN:
Without Guard Ring:
E E1 E2 E3 E4 String Efficiency

With Guard Ring:

E E1 E2 E3 E4 String Efficiency

RESULT:
Thus, testing of CT, PT and Insulator string is studied.

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering and Technology, Panruti ~ 93 ~

 EE 3611 Power System Laboratory

RELAY COORDINATION IN RADIAL FEEDER PROTECTION

EXERCISE 16
AIM
To study the performance of relay coordination in radial feeder protection.
THEORY
Whole of the power system can be subdivided in to number of radial feeders fed from
one end. Generally such radial feeders are protected by over current and earth fault relays used
as primary relays for 11 kV and 66 kV lines. For lines of voltage rating beyond 66 kV, distance
protection is applied as a primary protection whereas over current and earth fault relays are
used as back up relays.
A simplified radial feeder network without transformers (in actual practice transformers
do exist at substations) is shown in single line diagram of fig. below.

Fig. Typical
cal Radial Trans
smission L
Transmission Line

If the fault occurs in distribution network, fuse should isolate the faulty section. Should
the fuse fail, relay R3 shall give back-up protection. Relays R1, R2, and R3 act as primary
relays for faults in section I, section I, and section III respectively.
If fault in section III is not cleared by relaying scheme at relaying point R3, relay R2
will act as a back-up. Similarly back-up protection is provided by relay R1 for faults in section
II. A,B, C and D are substations in fig.
Generally Inverse time over current relays with Definite Minimum Time feature (IDMT
relays) are used in practice. There are many types of such relays available in relay market, viz.
normal inverse relays, very inverse relays and extremely inverse relays.

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 EE 3611 Power System Laboratory

The other types of o/c relays are 3 second relay and 1.3 second relay. This means the
time of operation of the relay is either 3 or 1.3 second at Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) equal
to 10. Long time inverse relays are used for o/c cum overload application. Voltage restrains
o/c relays have their own application.

Very inverse relays are less prone to the ratio ZS/ZL. Extremely inverse relays are yet
better. Very inverse relays are faster in operation for close-in faults yet maintaining the
discrimination with fuse and other relays. Extremely inverse relays are more meritorious in this
aspect too. Instantaneous o/c relays are not immune to ZS/ZL ratio. Definite time o/c relays are
100 % immune to this ratio.

Very inverse relays can be used with an additional advantage while protecting a
machine or a transformer as they match with the heating characteristic of equipment better than
their normal inverse equivalent.

LIVE MODELOF AC CIRCUIT

This is only a single phase version of a radial feeder. Faults in different sections can be
created by switches S1, S2 and S3. Fault limiting resistance of 18 ohms is used for practical
purposes only. Here C.T. secondary rating is 5 Amp and relay rating is 1 Amp. This is
contradicting the practice for practical purpose.

RESULT:
Thus, the relay coordination in radial feeder protection is studied

Department of EEE, St. Anne’s College of Engineering and Technology, Panruti ~ 95 ~