LEARNING UNIT 2: IMPLEMENT

HARDWARE SYSTEM

Learning Outcomes
2.1 Design Electronic system
2.2 Mount Components
2.3 Testing Wiring Connections

(The contents Covered in Level 6)

LO 2.1. Design Electronic system

The design process encompasses all creative, manual, and technical activities
necessary to define the product and which need to be carried out to convert a system
definition to a sufficiently detailed system design specification for product
manufacture and deployment [1]. Design is a low-level description of the
architecture or a single element in the architecture.
Architecture of any system describes the structure of the system and the principles
within the system and the elements. It focuses on the required elements in the system
but not necessary details of the elements.

2.1.1. Interpretation of electronic component datasheet

Datasheets are essential instruction manuals for electronic components. They

provide detailed information about a component’s functionality, specifications, and
usage.

While they can be challenging to read, especially for newcomers, understanding

them is crucial for designing circuits and using components effectively [2].

a) Nominal Current and Minimum Current:

 Nominal Current: This value represents the typical operating current for the
component under normal conditions.

 Minimum Current: It indicates the lowest current at which the component

can function reliably. Operating below this current may lead to unexpected
behavior or failure.

b) Nominal Voltage, Maximum Voltage, and Minimum Voltage:

 Nominal Voltage: The voltage at which the component operates optimally. It

is the standard voltage level for the component.

 Maximum Voltage: The highest voltage the component can handle without
damage. Exceeding this voltage may cause breakdown or permanent failure.

 Minimum Voltage: The lowest voltage required for the component to

function correctly. Operating below this voltage might result in unreliable
behavior.

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c) Electrostatic Breakdown Value:

This parameter indicates the voltage level at which the component becomes
susceptible to electrostatic discharge (ESD). Proper handling and protection are
crucial to prevent ESD damage.

d) Isolation Resistance and Contact Resistance:

 Isolation Resistance: Measures how well the component isolates one circuit
from another. High isolation resistance ensures minimal leakage between
circuits.

 Contact Resistance: Refers to the resistance encountered when current flows

through the component’s contacts (e.g., switches, connectors). Lower contact
resistance is desirable for efficient signal transmission.

e) Power Rating: The power rating specifies the maximum power (in watts) the
component can handle without overheating. Exceeding this rating may lead to
component failure.
2.1.2. Design of electronic system
a) Block Diagram

Block diagrams are used to comprehend and design complete circuits by breaking
them down into smaller sections or blocks. Each block represents a specific function,
and the block diagram illustrates how these blocks are interconnected. Unlike
detailed circuit diagrams, block diagrams do not show individual components within
a block; they only depict the inputs and outputs of each block [3], [4].

IoT block diagram is composed with the following key components:

 Power Unit:

The power unit supplies electrical energy to the entire system. It ensures that all
components receive the necessary power for their operation. Sources of power can
include batteries, solar panels, or direct connection to the electrical grid.

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  Input Unit:

The input unit gathers data from various sensors and devices. These sensors can
monitor physical parameters such as temperature, humidity, light intensity, motion,
or gas levels. Examples of input devices include Temperature sensors (like
thermistors or digital temperature sensors), Light sensors (photodiodes or LDRs),
Motion detectors (PIR sensors), Gas sensors etc. The data collected by the sensors is
crucial for decision-making and control within the IoT system.

 Control Unit:

The control unit processes the input data and makes decisions based on predefined
rules or algorithms. It can be implemented using microcontrollers (such as Arduino,
Raspberry Pi, or ESP8266/ESP32) or specialized IoT platforms.
The control unit manages the following tasks:

• Analyzing sensor data.

• Executing control algorithms.
• Communicating with other devices.
• Handling user interactions.

 Output Unit:

The output unit acts based on the decisions made by the control unit. The output unit
ensures that the desired actions are carried out effectively. It interacts with actuators
or devices to affect the physical world. Examples of output devices include:

• Relays: Used to switch electrical loads (e.g., turning on/off lights, fans,
or motors).
• Servo motors: Used for precise control (e.g., opening/closing valves,
adjusting blinds).
• LEDs or displays: Provide visual feedback.
• Buzzers or speakers: Emit audible alerts.
An IoT system involves collecting data from sensors (input), processing it (control),
and taking appropriate actions (output) based on the objectives of the system. The
power unit ensures continuous operation by providing energy to all components.

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Figure 1 shows an example of an IoT Block diagram.

Figure 1: Example of An IoT block diagram

b) Circuit diagram
Circuit diagrams provide a detailed representation of an electronic system. They
show the actual components (such as resistors, capacitors, transistors, etc.) and their
connections. A circuit diagram provides a comprehensive view of the entire system,
including the arrangement of components and their interconnections.

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Figure 2: Example of an IoT Circuit Diagram Example [5]

2.1.3. Selection of PCB software

When it comes to selecting PCB design software, there are several excellent options
available. The above is few of them [6]:

 Altium Designer: Widely used by professionals in top tech companies,

Altium Designer offers an industry-leading experience. It provides a unified,
photorealistic 3D design environment, efficient interactive routing tools, and
advanced features for managing parts, data, and suppliers. However, it’s not
available on Mac or Linux1.

 KiCad: If you are looking for a free option, KiCad is a strong contender. It
offers a push-andshove router, 3D visualization, and is suitable for both
beginners and experienced designers. Plus, it’s 100% free with no
limitations12 [7].

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  EasyEDA: A popular choice among designers, EasyEDA is browser-based
and offers full functionality. It’s user-friendly, although it occasionally
displays ads1.

 Upverter: Ideal for beginners and educators, Upverter has a shallow learning
curve and provides an easy introduction to PCB design1.

 DipTrace: Known for its ease of use, DipTrace is suitable for both beginners
and advanced users. It offers a straightforward interface and efficient tools1.

 LibrePCB: If you prefer open-source software, consider LibrePCB. It’s a

robust option for PCB design1

 Fusion 360/Eagle: While Fusion 360/Eagle is primarily for Mac and Linux
users, it’s a great free option. It integrates mechanical and electronic design
seamlessly1.
2.1.4. Development of PCB

The steps for developing a printed circuit board

(PCB):

a) Convert schematic to PCB

 Begin by creating a schematic diagram of your circuit using a tool like KiCad,
Eagle, or Altium Designer.

 Ensure that all components are correctly connected and labeled in the
schematic.

 Once your schematic is complete, you can proceed to convert it to a PCB

layout.

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b) PCB layout
 Open your PCB design software and import the schematic. Arrange the
components on the PCB board, considering factors like signal integrity, power
distribution, and thermal management.
 Route the traces (connections) between components. Pay attention to signal
paths, ground planes, and power traces.
 Place vias where necessary to connect traces between different layers of the
PCB.
 Optimize the layout for manufacturability, minimizing trace lengths and
avoiding tight corners.
 Add any necessary mounting holes, labels, and silkscreen markings.

b) PCB Etching
Once your PCB layout is finalized, you will need to create the physical board.
 Start by printing the PCB design onto a special transfer paper using a laser
printer.
 Transfer the design onto a copper-clad board using heat and pressure (ironing
method).
 Etch the board using a chemical solution (such as ferric chloride) to remove
the excess copper, leaving behind the traces.
 Rinse and clean the board thoroughly after etching.
 Drill holes for component placement and solder pads.
 Apply solder mask and silkscreen layers if desired.

Don’t forget to follow best practices for PCB design, such as proper grounding,
signal integrity, and component placement.

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LO 2.2. Mount Components
2.2.1. Selection of tools equipment and materials
Electronic components: are the building blocks of the circuit and vary depending
on the specific project. They can include resistors, capacitors, transistors, diodes,
LEDs, and integrated circuits (ICs). There are various tools, equipment, and
materials for soldering and working with electronic components. Some of them are
listed below:

a) Soldering Iron

A soldering iron is a tool which heats solder to create electrical connections between
components and the PCB. Soldering iron comes with many different types.

b) Soldering Accessories

 Solder Wire: Essential for creating strong electrical connections.

 Desoldering Pump: A desoldering pump helps to remove unwanted solder
from circuits, useful for making repairs or modifications.
 Solder Assist Tools: Assist in positioning components during soldering.
 Desoldering Wick: Helps remove excess solder.

 Tip Cleaner: Keeps the soldering iron tip clean.

 Tool Bag: Convenient for organizing and carrying your tools.
c) Equipment

 Digital Multimeter: Used for measuring voltage, current, and resistance.

Handy for troubleshooting and verifying connections. Essential for measuring
voltage, current, and resistance.
 Magnifier Tools: Useful for inspecting small components and solder joints
and ensure precise soldering. Magnifier tools improve visibility for precision
soldering, especially with small components.
 Sensors: Components that detect and respond to physical or environmental
changes (e.g., light sensor, temperature sensor).
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 Depending on the project, you choose a sensor based on project requirements.
Common types include temperature, motion, light, pressure, and distance
sensors.
 Actuators: Components that convert electrical signals into physical actions.
They are selected based on desired outputs. Common types include motors,
servos, solenoids, and relays.
 IoT Board: An IoT board is a specialized piece of electronic equipment
designed to connect various sensors and actuators and enable them to
communicate with the internet. It allows you to connect your project to the
internet. If you are working on Internet of Things (IoT) projects, an IoT
development board is essential. Choose a popular and well-supported board
like Arduino, Raspberry Pi, or ESP (ESP8266/ESP32) series based on project
complexity and features needed (e.g., Wi-Fi connectivity).

 Soldering station: A soldering station is a piece of equipment that is used

for soldering. It typically includes a soldering iron, a base station, and a
temperature control unit. The soldering iron is the hand-held tool that heats
up the solder, while the base station provides a place to store the iron when it
is not in use and often includes a temperature control unit that allows you to
adjust the temperature of the soldering iron tip.

d) Material
 Blank PCB: A blank PCB is the raw material used to build electronic
circuits. It forms the foundation upon which other components are assembled
in other words a blank PCB is a platform where electronic components are
soldered to create a circuit. You have to select a PCB with appropriate size,
number of holes, and material based on component layout and requirements.

2.2.2. PCB assembling

a) Soldering safety measures [8].

 Ventilation: Always work in a well-ventilated area to avoid inhaling

harmful fumes from solder.
 Eye Protection: Wear safety goggles or glasses to shield your eyes from
splattering solder.
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  Heat Protection: Use heat-resistant gloves to protect your hands from
burns.
 Fire Safety: Keep a fire extinguisher nearby and be cautious with open
flames.
 Lead Safety: If using lead-based solder, wash your hands
thoroughly after handling it.

b) Good soldering characteristics

 Smooth: The solder joint should have a smooth surface without any rough
edges.
 Bright and Shiny: A well-done solder joint appears bright and shiny,
indicating proper bonding.
 Clean: Remove any dirt, oxidation, or contaminants from the surfaces before
soldering.
 Concave Solder Fillet: The solder should form a concave shape around the
joint, ensuring good contact.
 Good Wetting: Proper wetting ensures that the solder adheres well to the
components.
 Covered Wire or Lead: The end of the wire or lead should be fully covered
with solder for a secure connection.

2.2.3. Identification of mounting technologies

a) Surface Mount Technology

Surface Mount Technology (SMT), originally known as planar mounting, involves
directly mounting electrical components onto the surface of a PCB. These
components are referred to as surface-mount devices (SMDs).
Advantages:
• Automation: Robustness: THT components are mechanically secure due to
their leads passing through the board.
• Higher Density: More components can fit on a given area of the substrate.
• Smaller Size: SMT components are usually smaller than their through-hole
counterparts. SMT is commonly used for most electronic printed circuit
assemblies.

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b) Thru-Hole Technology

Thru-Hole Technology (THT) involves inserting components through holes in the

PCB and soldering them on the opposite side. These components have leads that pass
through the PCB.
Advantages:
• Robustness: THT components are mechanically secure due to their leads
passing through the board.
• Suitability: THT is used for components like large transformers and heat-
sinked power semiconductors.
THT is still relevant for specific components alongside SMT [9].

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LO 2.3. Testing wiring connections
2.3.1. Different types of PCB testing methods

There are various PCB testing methods used during the manufacturing process.
These methods play a crucial role in ensuring the quality and reliability of printed
circuit boards. Here are the key testing approaches [10]:

a) In-Circuit testing

ICT is robust and widely used. It powers up and actuates individual circuitry on the
board, checking for faults. It can find over 90% of faults. It has high accuracy,
minimal human error. It requires proper design-for-manufacturing considerations.

b) Flying probe testing

Non powered test that checks for opens, shorts, resistance, capacitance, inductance,
and diode issues. It is less expensive than ICT, suitable for smaller batches. It may
be slower and less error-prone than ICT. It is used in Prototypes or low-volume
productions.

c) Automated optical inspection (AOI)

Uses cameras to inspect the board for defects such as solder joint quality, component
placement, and polarity. It is Fast, non-contact, and can handle high volumes. It is
Fast, non-contact, and can handle high volumes. It is used in Post-reflow inspection.

d) Burn-in testing

It Applies stress to the board (e.g., temperature, voltage) to identify latent defects.
It is Accelerated aging to weed out weak components. It is used in common for
semiconductor devices.

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 e)X-ray inspection

It uses X-rays to inspect hidden features like solder joints, BGA connections, and
internal layers. It is non-destructive and provides insights into hidden defects. It is
used in complex boards.

f) Functional testing

Functional testing verifies if the board functions as intended. It ensures overall

system functionality. It is essential for end products.

g) Other functional tests

Other functional tests include solderability, contamination checks and more.

Thorough PCB testing ensures reliable products and prevents costly failures. Each
method has its place in the manufacturing process, and the choice depends on factors
like board type, volume, and budget[11].

2.3.2. Application of different Techniques of PCB Troubleshooting

a) Checking Solder Joints: This technique involves inspecting the physical

connection points between components and the PCB traces.

b) Troubleshooting Discrete Components: Discrete components like resistors,

capacitors, transistors, and diodes can fail in various ways. Troubleshooting
involves isolating the component and verifying its functionality.

Troubleshooting steps:

 Component data sheet: Refer to the component’s datasheet to understand

its expected behavior and specifications.

 Multimeter: Measure resistance, capacitance, or voltage depending on the

component type and compare the measured values to the datasheet
specifications.

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  Component replacement: If the component measures outside
specifications, replace it with a known-good equivalent.

c) Checking Integrated Circuits (ICs): ICs are complex circuits and can be more
challenging to diagnose.

These techniques can help:

 Visual Inspection: Look for physical damage like cracks, burns, or missing
parts.

 Data Sheet: Review the IC's datasheet for known failure modes and
troubleshooting tips.

 Functional Testing: If possible, isolate and test the IC functionality with

specific test equipment or in a simplified circuit.
 Replacement: Replacing the IC with a known-good one might be necessary
if other methods fail.

d) Visual Inspection: This is the most basic but essential technique. Look for
obvious signs of damage like:

 Burn marks or discoloration on the PCB

 Cracked or broken components
 Missing components or solder
 Deformed or bulging components

e) Functionality Test: This involves testing the overall function of the PCB
according to its specifications. This might include:

 Powering the PCB and observing expected outputs (lights, sounds, etc.)
 Measuring voltages and currents at specific points on the PCB
 Comparing the actual behavior to the expected behavior based on the
schematic or user manual.

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REFERENCES
[1] J. Lienig and H. Bruemmer, Fundamentals of electronic systems design. 2017.
[2] “Electronic Component Data Sheet Manufacturer’ s Data Sheets Typical Data
Sheet Information Example,” pp. 1–7, 2011.
[3] “Block Diagrams.” https://electronicsclub.info/blockdiagrams.htm.
[4] T. Sturtevant and T. Sturtevant, “Electronics Block Diagrams,” 2019.
[5] H. S. Kim, S. T. Oh, and J. H. Lim, “Development of local area alert system
against particulate matters and ultraviolet rays based on open IoT platform with
P2P,” Peer-to-
Peer Netw. Appl., vol. 11, no. 6, pp. 1240–1251, 2018, doi: 10.1007/s12083-
017-0592-2.
[6] “10 Best PCB Design Software in 2023 (All Skill Levels),” 2023.
https://www.3dsourced.com/3d-software/best-pcb-design-software/.
[7] “KiCad EDA.” https://www.kicad.org/.
[8] I. Aalaei, “Soldering Safety and Health Guidelines,” Stand. Oper. Guidel. MIT,
pp. 1–5, 2020.
[9] “Through-Hole vs Surface Mount Components: A Comprehensive
Comparison,” [Online]. Available:
https://components101.com/articles/differences-between-through-hole-
andsurface-mount-components.
[10] C. D, “What Are the Different Types of PCB Testing Methods?”
[11] JLCPCB, “PCB Testing Methods: A Comprehensive Guide to Testing and
Characterizing PCBs.”

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