Expt No:-1

Date:………….
Concave Mirror and convex lens

Aim:
To determine the focal length of a concave mirror and a convex lens by obtaining the
image of a distant object.

Materials Required:
A concave mirror , convex lens, screen ,Mirror or lens holder , a measuring scale; etc.

Theory:
Focal length of Concave Mirror
Parallel rays coming from a far object after reflection from a concave mirror meet at its
focus (F).
The distance between the pole of the mirror and the focus is equal to the focal length
of the mirror. This property of a concave mirror is used to determine its focal length.

focal Length of Convex Lens

When a parallel beam of light falls on a convex lens, the rays, after refraction converge
at a point on its other side.
If the parallel beam of light comes from a distant object, a real, inverted image of very
small size is formed at the focus of the lens.
The distance between the optical centre of lens ‘O’ and the principal focus ‘F’ of the
lens is called focal length of a lens, ‘f’ is the representation of focal length
(Left side)

Procedure:
For finding focal length of concave mirror:

• Select a distant object from the laboratory window (distance should be more
than 50 ft).
 • Fix the concave mirror on the mirror stand placed on the table, facing the
distant object.
• Place the screen in front of the reflecting surface of the mirror. Move the screen
back and forth until a clear, sharp image of the distant object is obtained on the
screen.
• Measure the distance between the concave mirror and the screen with a metre
scale. This distance is the focal length of the given concave mirror. Record the
focal length.
• Repeat the above procedure twice and record the readings. Take three readings
and calculate the average focal length.
For finding focal length of convex lens

• Arrange the wooden bench capable of holding the lens and screen horizontally
on a table, so that the lens and screen are not disturbed.
• Keep the lens in a holder facing a distant object.
• Fix the screen on another holder and keep it on the bench.
• Adjust the position of the screen in such a way that a sharp image of the given
distant object falls on it.
• Measure the distance from lens to screen and record.
• Focus the lens towards various distant objects and repeat the experiment to
find the position of sharp image and thereby the focal length.
• Add all the focal lengths found out and find the mean value of the focal length
of the convex lens.

Observation (left)
Focal length of given concave mirror =…………………cm
Focal length of given convex Lens =…………………….cm

Result:
The focal length of the given concave mirror = ………. cm
The focal length of the given convex lens = ………. cm

Precautions: (any two each for mirror and lens)

• Always place the concave mirror near an open window.

• The polished surface of the concave mirror must face the distant object.
• There should be no obstacle or hurdle in the path of rays of light from the
distant object, incident on the concave mirror.
• The base of the stands of the concave mirror and screen should be parallel to
the measuring scale.
• The mirror holder along with the mirror should be kept perpendicular to the
measuring scale for precise measurements.
• Convex lens should be placed vertically.
• There should be no obstacle or hurdle in the path of rays of light from the
distant object incident on the common lens.
• To get a well illuminated and distinct image, it must be ensured that the distant
object is well illuminated.
• The base of the stands of the convex lens and screen should be parallel to the
measuring scale.
Expt No:-2
Date:…………. Rectangular glass slab
Aim:
Tracing the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different
angles of incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, angle of
emergence and interpret the result.
Materials required:
A drawing board, rectangular glass slab, office pins, drawing sheet, Protractor and
sharply pointed pencil.
Theory
The refraction of light is a property of light due to which it changes its path when it
passes from one medium to the other.
• When a light ray travels from air to glass, the angle of incidence is greater than
angle of refraction as ray bends towards normal.

• When a light ray travels from glass to air, the angle of refraction (also called
angle of emergent in case of glass) is greater than the angle of incidence of
glass-air interface as ray of light bends away from the normal.
• If the angle of incidence is zero, i.e. the incident ray is normal to the interface,
the ray of light continues to travel in the same direction after refraction.
• The angle of emergence and angle of incidence will be equal.
• Emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray along with original direction but it
will be laterally displaced to the left of the incident ray.

Diagram (left side)

Procedure
• Take a soft drawing board. Fix a white sheet on it with the help of thumb pins.
 • Place the rectangular glass slab in the centre of the white paper and draw its
outline boundary with pencil.
• Mark this rectangular figure obtained as ABCD.
• On one side of this figure, i.e., AB take one point E, draw a perpendicular EN
and label it as normal .
• With the help of a protractor draw one angle of 30° with the EN. Fix two pins P
and Q on the ray of this angle, the distance between the pins should be more
than 4-5 cm.
• Put the glass slab on the rectangular figure ABCD.
• See through the glass slab from side CD and fix pin R and S such that when
seen through the glass slab all
the pins lie in straight line, [i.e., Pins P, Q, R and S should lie in straight line
when seen through the glass slab], ‘
• Now, remove the pins P, Q, R and S one by one and draw small circles around
the pin points.
• Remove the glass slab.
• Join points R and S such that it meets CD at point F.
• Draw perpendicular to CD at point F as N’M’.
• Join points E and F with the pencil.
• Measure the angles formed at AB and CD, i.e., the incident angle, refracted
angle and emergent angle.
• Extend ray PQ with scale and pencil in dotted line. It will be parallel to ray FRS.
The distance between these two parallel rays is called lateral displacement (d).
• Measure the lateral displacement.
• Repeat the above procedure for angles 45° and 60°.

Observations: (left side)

Sl.No. Angle of incidence Angle of refraction Lateral displacement

1.
2.

Result:
• The angle of incidence is nearly equal to the angle of emergence.
• The angle of refraction is less than angle of incidence.
Precautions(any two)
• The glass slab should be perfectly rectangular with all its faces smooth.
• The drawing board should be soft so that pins can be easily fixed on it.
• The angle of incidence should lie between 30° and 60°.
• All pins base should lie in straight line.
• While fixing the pins P and Q or the pins R and S, care should be taken to
maintain a distance of about 5 cm between the two pins.
• Draw thin lines using a sharp pencil.
• Use a good quality protractor having clear markings.
• Place the protractor correctly to measure the angles.
• Perpendiculars should be drawn correctly.
Exp No:3
Date:…………...
Glass Prism
Aim
To trace the path of the rays of light through a glass prism.
Materials Required
A white sheet, soft board, thumb pins, 4-6 all pins, prism, pencil, scale, protractor,
drawing board.
Theory

• A prism has a triangular base and three triangular lateral surfaces. These surfaces
are inclined to each other.
• In the given figure, ABC represents the base of a glass prism. Let PE be the
incident ray of light on face AB of the prism. EF represents the bending of light
when it enters the prism and hence show the refraction of light.
• RS is the emergent ray at face AC of the prism.The angle D shows the angle of
deviation.The ∠BAC of the prism is called the angle of the prism and it is denoted
by ‘A’.
(Figure-Left side)

• In the figure, the relation between

• angle of incidence ∠i, i. e., ∠PQN
• angle of refraction ∠r, i.e., ∠FEN,
• angle of deviation ∠D, i.e., ∠HGF and
• angle of prism ∠A, i.e., ∠BAC. ∠A + ∠D = ∠i + ∠e

Procedure

• Fix a white sheet on a drawing board using drawing pins.

• Place the triangular prism resting on its triangular base. Using a pencil, draw
the outline of the prism.
 • Draw NEN normal to the face of the prism AB. Make an angle between 30° and
60° with the normal.
• On the line PE, fix two pins at a distance of 5cm from each other and mark
these as P and Q.
• Look for the images of the pins at P and Q through the other face of the prism
AC.
• Fix two pins at R and S such that they appear as a straight line as that of the P
and Q when it is viewed from the AC face of the prism.
• Remove the pins and the prism.
• At point F, make the points R and S meet by extending them.
• PQE is the incident ray which is extended till it meets face AC. SRF is the
emergent ray which is extended backward to meet at point G.
• Now mark the angle of incidence ∠i, angle of refraction ∠r and the angle of
emergence ∠e and the angle of deviation ∠D as shown in the experimental
setup.

Result

• At surface AB, the light ray enters and bends towards the normal on refraction.
• At surface AC, the light ray bends away from the normal as it travels from one
medium (glass) to the other (air)
• For the angle of incidence……… angle of deviation is………

Precautions(any two)

• For drawing the boundary of the prism, a sharp pencil should be used.
• Soft board and pointed pins should be used.
• The distance between the pins should be 5cm or more.
• The pins should be fixed vertically and should be encircled when they are
removed from the board.
• The angle of incidence should be between 30° and 60°.
• The arrows drawn for incident ray, reflected ray and emergent ray should be
proper.
• For viewing the col-linearity of all four pins and images, the head should be
slightly tilted on either side. While doing this it can appear as if all are moving
together.
Expt.No: 4

Date:…………..
Ohm’s Law
Aim:
To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the
current (I) passing through it and determine its resistance. Also plot a
graph between V and I.
Materials Required:
• A resistance wire
• A voltmeter and an ammeter of appropriate range
• A battery (battery eliminator)
• A rheostat
• A metre scale
• Key
• Connecting wires
• A piece of sand paper

Theory:
According to the Ohm's law, "The current flowing through a
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across
its ends “.
If I be the current flowing through a conductor and V be the
potential difference across its ends, then according to Ohm's Law,
v ∝I
V= I R
where, R is the constant of proportionality. It is known as resistance of
the conductor.
Factors affecting Resistance:
➢ The nature of the material used.
➢ The length of the wire. (R∝ 𝑙)
➢ The cross-sectional area of the wire. R ∝ 1/A
Circuit Diagram (Draw at the left side of the record)

Procedure:
• Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the
 arrangement diagram.
• Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper to remove
insulation, if any.
• Make neat, clean and tight connections according to the circuit
diagrams. While making connections ensure that +ve marked
terminals of the voltmeter and ammeter are joined towards the +ve
terminals of the battery.
• Determine the least count of voltmeter and ammeter, and also note
the zero error, if any.
• Insert the key K, slide the rheostat contact and see that the
ammeter and voltmeter are working properly.
• Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat such that a small current
pass through the resistance coil or the resistance wire.
• Note down the value of the potential difference V from the voltmeter
and current I from the ammeter.
• Shift the rheostat contact slightly so that both the ammeter and
voltmeter show full divisions readings and not in fraction.
• Record the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter.
• Take at least five sets of independent observations.
• Cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals,
stretch it and find its length by the meter scale.
• Record your observations as follows.
Observations: (Write at the left side of the record)
Range of the given ammeter = .............. A.
Range of the given voltmeter = ............ V.
Least count of ammeter = ................. A.
Least count of voltmeter =................. V.
Zero error in ammeter, = ................. A.
Zero error in voltmeter, = .................. V.
(Write at the left side of the record)

Sl. Voltmeter reading (V) Ammeter reading(I) Resistance (R)

No. V A 𝛀
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

Mean value of R =
 Results:
• Resistance of the given wire is ...................... Ω.
• The graph of V and I is a straight line. This shows that V ∝ 𝐼. This
verifies Ohm’s law.

Precautions:

• All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

• Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
• Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance
may be introduced in the circuit.
• Calculate the least count of the voltmeter and ammeter correctly.
• The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero mark
when no current flows through the circuit.
Expt No:5
Date:……….
Combination of Resistors
Aim:
Determination of the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in series
and parallel.
Materials Required
Two resistors of different values, Battery of 6 volt,Ammeter, plug key, connecting
wires, a piece of sand paper, voltmeter and rheostat.
Theory
Resistors are joined in the circuit in two different methods, i.e., in series and in
parallel.
Resistors in series
• If two resistors named as R1 and R2 are joined end to end they are said to be
connected in series.
• Effective resistance in series combination R = R1 + R2
Resistors in parallel
• Two or more resistors are said to be connected in parallel when the voltage is
the same across all the resistors. In such circuits, the current is branched out
and recombined when branches meet at a common point.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
• Effective resistance in Parallel combination 𝑹 = 𝑹 + 𝑹
𝑷 𝟏 𝟐

(Figure-left side)
Series Combination

Parallel Combination
Procedure
Resistors in series combination
• Make the connections according to the diagram given below.
• Do not ‘on’ the key.
• Connect ammeter in series and voltmeter in parallel and rheostat in series in
the circuit.
• Carefully check the +ve and -ve terminals of the battery, voltmeter and
ammeter, and the connections as shown in Fig. I.
• Record the ammeter reading and the voltmeter reading by inserting the key.
• By adjusting rheostat note three readings.
• Now connect voltmeter in parallel one by one to individual resistance as shown
in Fig. II and note down the readings.
• Plug the key. Measure the potential difference across the first resistor. Let it be
V1 .
• Similarly, measure the potential difference across the second resistor,
separately. Let the value be V2.
• Calculate the relationship between V, V1, and V2.
Resistors in parallel combination

• Now connect the circuit as shown in figure II below.

• The resistors are connected in parallel and voltmeter is also connected in
parallel.
• Use the rheostat and record three different readings of ammeter and voltmeter.
• Remove the key.
• Do the calculations from the observation table.
Observation: (left side)

Resistor used Voltmeter reading Ammeter reading Resistance , 𝑅 =

𝑉
𝐼
(v) (A)
(Ω)
R1

R2

Rs= R1+ R2
(In series)
R1 and R2
(in Parallel)

Calculations: (left side)

Series Combination:
Experimental value of Rs = …………………..
Theoretical value of Rs = Rs= R1+ R2 =……………………….= ................
Difference (if any) = ………………
Parallel Combination:
Experimental value of Rp = …………………..
𝑹𝟐 +𝑹𝟏
Theoretical value of Rp = =................
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
Difference (if any) = ………………
Result

1. The calculated value of Rs = ……………

2. The experimental value of Rs = …………………………
3. The calculated value of Rp =………………….
4. The experimental value of Rp = ……………………….

Precautions:

• All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

• Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
• Connections should be tight otherwise some external resistance
may be introduced in the circuit.
• Calculate the least count of the voltmeter and ammeter correctly.
• The pointers of the ammeter and voltmeter should be at zero mark
when no current flows through the circuit