1.

Basics of Computer Network

1.1.1 Definition

• A Computer Network is a system where multiple computers or devices are

interconnected to share resources, information, and services.

• Networks use hardware and software components to facilitate communication

between devices.

Key Idea: Sharing resources like printers, files, and the internet.

1.1.2 Goals

The main goals of computer networks are:

1. Resource Sharing: Sharing hardware devices (e.g., printers) and software applications.

2. Communication: Allowing users to communicate via emails, chat, or video

conferencing.

3. Reliability: Distributing data across multiple systems to ensure availability and backup.

4. Cost Reduction: Centralized resource sharing reduces overall hardware and software
costs.

5. Scalability: Easy to add new devices or systems without significant disruption.

6. Access to Remote Information: Access data stored on distant servers via the Internet.

1.1.3 Applications

Computer networks are used in various domains:

1. Business:

o Email communication, file sharing, and video conferencing.

o Managing e-commerce websites and cloud-based applications.

2. Education:

o Online learning platforms, research collaboration, and virtual classrooms.

3. Entertainment:

o Online gaming, video streaming services, and social media platforms.

4. Healthcare:

o Telemedicine, patient monitoring systems, and digital health records.

5. Banking:
 o Online banking, ATM networks, and stock market trading systems.

6. Government:

o Public services, e-governance, and secure communication channels.

1.1.4 Network Hardware

Types of Communication:

1. Broadcast:

o One device sends a message, and it is received by all devices in the network.

o Example: Ethernet, radio communication.

2. Point-to-Point:

o A dedicated communication link between two devices.

o Example: Telephone line, direct cable connections.

Network Hardware Components:

• Router: Connects different networks and directs traffic.

• Switch: Connects devices in a local network and forwards data based on MAC
addresses.

• Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices on the network.

• Modem: Converts digital signals to analog signals and vice versa.

• Access Point: Provides wireless connectivity.

1.1.5 Components of Data Communication

Data communication involves 5 essential components:

1. Sender:

o Device that sends the data.

o Example: Computer, mobile phone.

2. Receiver:

o Device that receives the data.

o Example: Another computer, server.

3. Message:

o The data being transmitted (text, audio, video, image).

4. Transmission Medium:
 o The physical pathway used for communication.

o Example: Twisted-pair cable, fibre optics, co-axial Cable, wireless signals.

5. Protocol:

o A set of rules that govern data communication.

o Example: TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP.

1.2 Network Topologies

A network topology refers to the arrangement or layout of devices (nodes) in a computer

network. It defines how devices are connected and communicate with each other.

1.2.1 Mesh Topology

• Definition: In a mesh topology, every device is connected to every other device in the
network.

Types of Mesh Topology:

1. Full Mesh: Every node has a direct connection to all other nodes.

2. Partial Mesh: Some nodes are connected to all others, while others are connected to
only a few nodes.

Advantages:

• High reliability as there are multiple paths for data transmission.

• Failure of one connection does not disrupt the network.

• Ideal for mission-critical applications.

Disadvantages:

• High cost due to the large number of connections.

• Complex setup and maintenance.

Example:

• WANs (Wide Area Networks) and critical systems like military communication.

1.2.2 Star Topology

• Definition: All devices are connected to a central hub, switch, or server, forming a
star-like structure.

How it Works:

• The central device acts as a communication point for all other devices.
 • Data passes through the central hub before reaching its destination.

Advantages:

• Easy to install and manage.

• Failure of one device does not affect the entire network.

• Adding or removing devices is simple.

Disadvantages:

• Failure of the central hub disrupts the entire network.

• The central hub can become a bottleneck if overloaded.

Example:

• Common in Local Area Networks (LANs).

1.2.3 Bus Topology

• Definition: All devices are connected to a single central cable (called a backbone or
bus) that acts as a shared communication medium.

How it Works:

• Data is transmitted in both directions along the bus.

• Terminators are used at both ends of the bus to absorb signals and prevent reflection.

Advantages:

• Low cost and simple to set up.

• Suitable for small networks.

Disadvantages:

• Single point of failure: If the central cable fails, the entire network stops working.

• Network performance decreases as more devices are added.

• Troubleshooting can be difficult.

Example:

• Early Ethernet networks.

1.2.4 Ring Topology

• Definition: Devices are connected in a circular fashion, forming a ring. Each device has
exactly two connections (to its neighbors).

How it Works:
 • Data travels in one direction (unidirectional) or both directions (bidirectional) around the
ring.

• A token-passing method is often used to manage data transmission.

Advantages:

• Reduced chances of collision due to token passing.

• Equal access for all devices.

Disadvantages:

• Failure of one device breaks the entire network.

• Troubleshooting and adding new devices can be complex.

Example:

• Used in older token ring networks.

Summary Table of Topologies

Topology Advantages Disadvantages Examples

WANs, critical
Mesh High reliability, fault-tolerant Expensive, complex setup
systems

Easy setup, failure-resistant Central hub failure disrupts

Star LANs
nodes all

Central cable failure stops Early Ethernet

Bus Low cost, simple design
all networks

Single device failure

Ring No collision, equal access Token ring networks
disrupts

1.3 Types of Networks

Computer networks are categorized based on their geographical coverage, size, and
technology used.

1.3.1 LAN, MAN, WAN

1. LAN (Local Area Network)

o Definition: A LAN connects computers and devices within a small geographical

area such as a single building, office, or campus.

o Characteristics:
 ▪ High data transfer rates (e.g., up to 1 Gbps or more).

▪ Owned, controlled, and maintained by a single organization.

▪ Uses Ethernet cables and Wi-Fi for connectivity.

o Advantages:

▪ Fast communication and data transfer.

▪ Easy to set up and maintain.

o Disadvantages:

▪ Limited to a small area.

o Example:

▪ Office networks, computer labs, home networks.

2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

o Definition: A MAN connects devices across a city or large campus. It is larger

than a LAN but smaller than a WAN.

o Characteristics:

▪ Covers distances up to 50 kilometers.

▪ Often uses fiber optics or wireless connections.

o Advantages:

▪ Covers larger areas while maintaining good speed.

▪ Useful for connecting multiple LANs.

o Disadvantages:

▪ More expensive than LAN.

o Example:

▪ Cable TV networks, citywide Wi-Fi networks.

3. WAN (Wide Area Network)

o Definition: A WAN connects devices and networks across large geographical

areas such as countries or continents.

o Characteristics:

▪ Uses public networks (e.g., the internet) and private leased lines.

▪ Slower than LAN/MAN due to long distances.

o Advantages:

▪ Covers vast geographical areas.

▪ Enables global communication and resource sharing.

 o Disadvantages:

▪ Slower speed and high setup cost.

▪ Requires more complex infrastructure.

o Example:

▪ The Internet, corporate networks between multiple branches.

1.3.2 Internetwork

• Definition: An internetwork connects multiple networks (LANs, MANs, or WANs) using

devices like routers and gateways.

• It allows communication between different types of networks to form a single cohesive

system.

• How it Works:

o Uses routers to route data between networks.

o Based on the TCP/IP protocol suite for communication.

Types of Internetworks:

1. Intranet: A private network within an organization.

2. Extranet: A controlled network that allows limited access to external users.

3. Internet: A global network of interconnected devices.

Advantages:

• Allows seamless communication between geographically distant networks.

• Integrates multiple networks into a single large network.

Example:

• The Internet itself is the largest example of an internetwork.

1.3.3 Wireless Network

• Definition: A wireless network allows devices to connect and communicate without

physical cables, using radio waves, infrared, or satellite signals.

Types of Wireless Networks:

1. Wireless LAN (WLAN):

o Wireless version of LAN, commonly using Wi-Fi.

o Example: Home and office Wi-Fi networks.

2. Wireless MAN (WMAN):

 o Wireless networks covering cities using technologies like WiMAX.

o Example: City-wide public Wi-Fi hotspots.

3. Wireless WAN (WWAN):

o Covers large areas using cellular networks (4G, 5G).

o Example: Mobile networks providing internet access.

Advantages:

• No need for cables, providing flexibility and mobility.

• Easy to set up and expand.

Disadvantages:

• Slower than wired networks.

• Susceptible to interference and security issues.

Examples:

• Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular networks (4G/5G), and satellite communications.

Summary Table

Type Coverage Speed Example

LAN Small area (building, campus) High Office, school networks

MAN City or large campus Medium Cable TV, city Wi-Fi

WAN Large areas (global) Lower Internet, corporate networks

Internetwork Connects multiple networks Varies Internet, intranet

Wireless Varies (no cables) Moderate to low Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, 4G/5G

1.4 Modes of Communication

The modes of communication define the direction of data flow between two communicating
devices. There are three primary modes: Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Full-Duplex.

1.4.1 Simplex Mode

• Definition: In simplex mode, data flows in one direction only. One device acts as the
sender and the other as the receiver.

• The receiver cannot send data back to the sender.

Characteristics:

• Unidirectional communication (one-way).

• The sender transmits, and the receiver only receives.

Advantages:

• Simple and low cost.

• Useful when no feedback is required.

Disadvantages:

• No two-way communication.

• Limited use in modern systems.

Examples:

• Television: The broadcasting station sends signals, and viewers only receive them.

• Radio: Signals are transmitted to radios, but there is no return communication.

• Keyboard to Monitor: The keyboard sends input to the monitor (output device).

1.4.2 Half-Duplex Mode

• Definition: In half-duplex mode, data flows in both directions, but only one direction
at a time.

• Devices can both send and receive data, but not simultaneously.

Characteristics:

• Two-way communication (bidirectional), but only one device can send at a time.

• Communication alternates between sender and receiver.

Advantages:

• Efficient use of the medium when full-duplex is not required.

• Simple and cost-effective compared to full-duplex.

Disadvantages:

• Slower because data cannot be sent and received at the same time.

Examples:

• Walkie-Talkie: One person speaks while the other listens; roles switch.

• Two-Way Radio: Communication happens one direction at a time.

1.4.3 Full-Duplex Mode

 • Definition: In full-duplex mode, data flows in both directions simultaneously.

• Devices can send and receive data at the same time.

Characteristics:

• Simultaneous two-way communication.

• Requires two separate communication channels or a shared channel divided into two
directions.

Advantages:

• Faster and more efficient communication.

• Allows real-time communication without delays.

Disadvantages:

• More complex and costly to implement compared to simplex and half-duplex.

Examples:

• Telephone: Both parties can talk and listen simultaneously.

• Internet: Data is sent and received simultaneously.

• Video Calls: Both audio and video signals are transmitted in real time.

Summary Table

Mode Direction of Data Flow Communication Example

One-way only Television, radio,

Simplex Sender → Receiver
(unidirectional) keyboard

Half- Two-way, one direction at a Walkie-talkie, two-way

Sender ↔ Receiver (alternate)
Duplex time radio

Full- Sender ↔ Receiver

Two-way, simultaneous Telephone, video calls
Duplex (simultaneous)

1.5 Server-Based LANs & Peer-to-Peer LANs

In a Local Area Network (LAN), devices are interconnected within a limited area like an office,
school, or home. LANs are classified into two types based on how resources and
responsibilities are managed:

1. Server-Based LANs
 2. Peer-to-Peer LANs

1.5.1 Server-Based LANs

• Definition: In a Server-Based LAN (also called Client-Server LAN), there is a dedicated

central computer, called a server, that manages resources, services, and
communication for other computers called clients.

Characteristics:

• The server acts as the central authority for the network.

• Clients (computers) request resources such as files, data, printers, and applications
from the server.

• Servers perform tasks like file sharing, data storage, security management, and
application hosting.

Advantages:

1. Centralized Management:

o Data, applications, and network resources are centrally managed, making

administration easier.

2. Scalability:

o Easy to expand the network by adding more clients.

3. Improved Security:

o Centralized control ensures better security and access management.

4. High Performance:

o Dedicated servers can handle large amounts of data efficiently.

Disadvantages:

1. High Cost:

o Requires expensive server hardware and software.

2. Dependency on Server:

o If the server fails, the entire network may stop functioning.

3. Complex Setup:

o Requires trained personnel to set up and manage the server.

Examples:

• Corporate office networks.

• Banks and educational institutions with dedicated servers.

• Web servers, file servers, and database servers.

1.5.2 Peer-to-Peer LANs

• Definition: In a Peer-to-Peer (P2P) LAN, there is no central server. All computers on

the network are equal and can function both as a client and a server, sharing resources
directly.

Characteristics:

• Each device (node) can share its files, data, and peripherals with others.

• There is no dedicated server; all computers are responsible for managing their own
resources.

• Typically used in small networks with fewer devices (up to 10 computers).

Advantages:

1. Low Cost:

o No need for expensive server hardware or software.

2. Simple Setup:

o Easy to configure and does not require special technical expertise.

3. No Single Point of Failure:

o If one computer fails, others can continue to function.

Disadvantages:

1. Limited Scalability:

o Not suitable for large networks due to performance issues.

2. Lack of Centralized Management:

o Difficult to manage security and resources in a large network.

3. Performance Issues:

o Resource sharing can slow down computers as they act both as servers and
clients.
Examples:

• Small office networks.

• Home networks for sharing files or printers.

• File sharing platforms like BitTorrent (a large-scale P2P system).

Comparison Between Server-Based LANs and Peer-to-Peer LANs

Aspect Server-Based LAN Peer-to-Peer LAN

Central Authority Managed by a central server No central authority

Cost High (requires server setup) Low (no server required)

Scalability Highly scalable Limited scalability

Performance High performance (dedicated server) Slower (shared resources)

Security Centralized and better security Less secure (no central control)

Complexity Requires expertise for setup Simple to set up and manage

Example Corporate networks, banks Home networks, small offices

Conclusion

• Server-Based LANs are ideal for large organizations that need centralized control, high
performance, and security.

• Peer-to-Peer LANs are suitable for small networks where simplicity and low cost are
priorities.

1.6 Protocols and Standards

1.6.1 Protocols

• Definition:
A protocol is a set of rules and conventions that define how data is transmitted and
received in a network. It ensures proper communication between devices.

• Role of Protocols:

o Enable devices with different architectures to communicate.

 o Define how data is formatted, transmitted, and processed.

o Ensure reliability, error control, and security during data exchange.

Key Network Protocols

1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

o Used for transferring web pages over the internet.

o Example: Accessing a website through a browser.

2. HTTPS (HTTP Secure)

o Secure version of HTTP; encrypts data using SSL/TLS for secure communication.

o Example: Online banking, e-commerce sites.

3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

o Used for transferring files between computers over a network.

o Example: Uploading or downloading files to/from a server.

4. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

o Used for sending emails.

o Example: Sending messages via Gmail or Outlook.

5. POP3 (Post Office Protocol v3) / IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)

o POP3: Downloads emails to a local device.

o IMAP: Allows accessing emails from a remote server without downloading them.

6. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)

o The fundamental suite of protocols used for communication on the internet.

o TCP ensures reliable delivery of data.

o IP handles addressing and routing.

7. UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

o Provides faster but unreliable data transfer (no error checking).

o Example: Streaming audio/video, online gaming.

8. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)

o Used for diagnostic and error messages in networks.

o Example: The ping command.

9. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

o Resolves an IP address to a MAC address.

 10. DNS (Domain Name System)

• Translates domain names (e.g., google.com) into IP addresses.

1.6.2 Standards

• Definition:
A standard is an established guideline or specification developed to ensure uniformity,
compatibility, and interoperability of technologies across different systems and
manufacturers.

Types of Standards

1. De Facto Standards:

o Standards that are widely accepted by usage or market dominance.

o Example: Microsoft Windows as an operating system.

2. De Jure Standards:

o Official standards developed by recognized standardization organizations.

o Example: ISO, IEEE, ITU standards.

3. Proprietary Standards:

o Standards developed by a single company for its specific products.

o Example: Apple's iOS and Microsoft Office file formats.

4. Open Standards:

o Standards that are publicly available and free to use.

o Example: HTML (used in web development).

Standard Organizations

1. ISO (International Organization for Standardization)

o Develops international standards across industries, including networking.

o Example: ISO/OSI model.

2. IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)

o Develops standards for electrical, electronic, and networking technologies.

o Example: IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet), IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi).

3. IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)

o Develops protocols for the internet.

 o Example: TCP/IP, HTTP, DNS.

4. ITU (International Telecommunication Union)

o Develops standards for global telecommunication and radio networks.

o Example: Standards for telephone systems.

5. ANSI (American National Standards Institute)

o Develops standards for the United States.

Protocols vs. Standards

Aspect Protocols Standards

Rules for communication between Guidelines ensuring uniformity and

Definition
devices. interoperability.

Data transmission and Compatibility, consistency, and system

Focus
communication. design.

Examples HTTP, TCP/IP, FTP, DNS. ISO, IEEE, ANSI, ITU.

Authority Defined by engineers or organizations. Established by standard bodies.

Conclusion

• Protocols ensure smooth communication by defining rules for data exchange.

• Standards ensure uniformity and interoperability of hardware and software across

networks globally.

1.7 Network Software

Network software provides the necessary logic and functionality for data communication in a
computer network. It enables devices to communicate by following specific rules, organizing
communication into multiple layers, and addressing design issues.

1.7.1 Protocol Hierarchies, Layers, Peers, and Interfaces

Protocol Hierarchies

• Definition:
Protocols are organized into a hierarchy of layers, where each layer provides a specific
functionality to support network communication.

• This hierarchy allows a modular design, where one layer can be modified without
affecting others.
Layers

• Definition:
Layers are logically organized levels in a network system, where each layer performs a
specific task and interacts only with its neighboring layers.

• A layer can send data to or receive data from:

o The layer above (higher layer).

o The layer below (lower layer).

• Layers ensure that complex networking tasks are broken into smaller, manageable
parts.

Peers

• Definition:
Peers are entities at the same level (layer) in two communicating devices.

• Each layer in the sender communicates with its corresponding peer layer in the receiver
using a protocol.

• Example:

o The transport layer on Computer A communicates with the transport layer on

Computer B using the TCP protocol.

Interfaces

• Definition:
An interface is the point where two layers interact with each other.

• Each interface defines how data and control information are passed between adjacent
layers.

• Interfaces are crucial to ensure smooth communication between layers.

Example of Protocol Hierarchy (OSI Model)

Layer Function

Application Layer User applications (e.g., HTTP, FTP)

Transport Layer Reliable data delivery (e.g., TCP, UDP)

Network Layer Routing and addressing (e.g., IP)

Data Link Layer Frame delivery (e.g., Ethernet)

Layer Function

Physical Layer Transmission of bits over a medium

1.7.2 Design Issues of the Layers

When designing layers in a network protocol hierarchy, several issues need to be addressed:

1. Reliability

o Ensure data transmission is error-free and reaches the correct destination.

o Implement error detection and correction mechanisms.

2. Flow Control

o Manage the rate at which data is sent to prevent a fast sender from
overwhelming a slow receiver.

3. Error Control

o Use techniques like checksums and acknowledgments to detect and correct

errors during data transmission.

4. Addressing

o Assign unique addresses to devices so that data is routed correctly.

o Example: IP addresses at the Network Layer.

5. Sequence Control

o Ensure that data packets are delivered in the correct order.

o Important for protocols like TCP.

6. Connection Management

o Establish, maintain, and terminate connections.

o Applicable in connection-oriented services.

7. Security

o Protect data from unauthorized access, tampering, and eavesdropping.

o Use encryption and authentication techniques.

1.7.3 Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services

1. Connection-Oriented Service

• Definition:
A communication service where a connection is established between sender and
receiver before data transfer begins.
 • Data is delivered reliably and in the correct order.

Characteristics:

• A setup phase is required to establish the connection.

• Data delivery is guaranteed.

• Provides mechanisms for error control and flow control.

• Data packets are sent sequentially.

Advantages:

• Reliable communication.

• Ensures error-free and ordered data delivery.

Disadvantages:

• Connection setup introduces delay.

• More overhead compared to connectionless services.

Examples:

• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

o Ensures reliable data delivery over the internet.

• Telephone Call

o A connection is established before the call begins.

2. Connectionless Service

• Definition:
A communication service where no connection is established before data transfer.
Each data packet is transmitted independently.

Characteristics:

• No setup phase is required.

• Data delivery is not guaranteed.

• Packets may arrive out of order or may be lost.

• Faster and requires less overhead.

Advantages:
 • Faster and more efficient for applications where reliability is not critical.

• Low overhead and simpler implementation.

Disadvantages:

• No guarantee of data delivery or order.

• Requires additional mechanisms for error checking if needed.

Examples:

• UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

o Used for streaming audio, video, and online gaming.

• Postal Mail

o Each letter (packet) is sent independently without prior connection.

Comparison of Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services

Aspect Connection-Oriented Connectionless

Connection Setup Required before data transfer Not required

Reliability Reliable, guarantees delivery Unreliable, no guarantees

Overhead Higher due to connection setup Lower overhead

Order of Delivery Maintains order No order maintained

Example Protocol TCP UDP

Use Case File transfer, web browsing Streaming, video calls

Conclusion

• Protocol hierarchies organize communication into logical layers to simplify design and
implementation.

• Addressing design issues like reliability, error control, and flow control ensures effective
communication.

• Connection-oriented services provide reliability, while connectionless services offer

speed and simplicity.