Scalars and Vectors; Multiplication of Vectors by Real Numbers

Scalars vs. Vectors

Scalars Vectors

A scalar quantity has only magnitude. A vector quantity has both magnitude and
direction.

Scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied, Vectors cannot be added, subtracted, and
and divided just as the ordinary numbers i.e., multiplied following some simple arithmetic
scalars are subjected to simple arithmetic laws. Arithmetic division of vectors is not
operations. possible at all.

Example: Mass, volume, time, distance, Example: Displacement, velocity,

speed, work, temperature acceleration, force

Distance & Displacement:

Position Vector

Position vector of a point in a coordinate system is the straight line that joins the origin and
the point.

Magnitude of the vector is the length of the straight line and its direction is along the angle θ
from the +ve x-axis.

Displacement Vector

Straight line joining the initial and final positions

Equality of Vectors

Two vectors and are said to be equal if and only if they have the same magnitude and the
same direction.

Multiplication of Vectors by Real Numbers

 Multiplication of a vector with positive number k only changes the magnitude of

the vector keeping its direction unchanged.

if k > 0

 Multiplication of a vector with negative number −k gives a vector in the

opposite direction.

Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

Addition of Vectors: Triangle Method

 The given vectors and have to be arranged head to tail, keeping their directions
unchanged.
  The line , joining the starting point of and the end point of , represents a
vector that is the sum (resultant vector) of the vectors and , i.e., = +
 Vector addition obeys commutative law and associative law, i.e.,

and

Subtraction of Vectors

 Difference between two vectors and is defined as the sum of two vectors and
.

Parallelogram Method of Vector Addition

 The given vectors and have to be arranged, keeping their directions unchanged,
such that their starting point is a common point O.
  If a parallelogram OQSP is drawn with these two vectors as the two sides, then the
diagonal OS is the sum (resultant vector) of the given two vectors.

 Length of the diagonal is the magnitude of the resultant vector, and its direction is
along the diagonal OS.

Resolution of Vectors

Unit Vector

 A unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude and points towards a particular direction.

 Unit vector can be expressed as

 are three special unit vectors along x, y, and z axes respectively.

Resolution of Vector in Rectangular Components (in Two Dimensions)

 The process of splitting a vector into rectangular components is called resolution of

vector.
 The components of a vector are found by projecting the vector on the axes of a
rectangular coordinate system. The coordinate system can be considered according to
our convenience.

 are the components of vector along x-axis and y-axis respectively.

From triangle law of vector addition, we have

Let and be the unit vectors along x-axis and y-axis respectively.

and

Hence,
From right-angled triangle ORP, ax = a cos q and ay = a sin q

Thus, the magnitudes of the components are

ax = a cos θ and ay = a sin θ

Therefore, if the components of a vector are known, then its magnitude and direction can be
determined by using the following equations.

and

Rectangular Components of a Vector in Three Dimensions

Using triangle law of vectors,

Using parallelogram law of vectors,

If, α, β, and γ are the angles which makes with x, y, and z axes respectively, then

ax = a cos α, ay = a cos β, az = a cos γ

And,

Addition of Vectors by Analytical Method

Let and represent the two vectors and , making an angle θ.

For right-angled triangle ONS,

OS2 = ON2 + SN2

However, ON = OP + PN = A + B cosθ

SN = B sinθ

OS2 = (A + B cosθ)2 + (B sinθ)2

⇒ R2 = A2 + B2 = 2AB cosθ … (i)

In ΔOSN, SN = OS sin α = R sin α

In ΔPSN, SN = PS sinθ = B sinθ

Similarly,

PM = A sinα = B sinβ

Combining equations (ii) and (iii), we obtain

Using equation (iv), we obtain

Where ‘R’ is given by equation (i)

Equation (i) gives the magnitude of the resultant and equation (v) and (vi) its directions.

Equation (i) is known as the law of cosines and equation (iv) as the law of sines.

Problems Based on Addition of Vectors by Analytical Method

Example − Two forces 10 N and 15 N are acting at an angle of 120° between them. Find the
resultant force in magnitude and direction.

Solution

Here, A = 10 N, B = 15 N

θ = 120°; R =?; α = ?

⇒ R = 13.2 N

⇒
⇒

⇒ α = 76°

Motion in a Plane

Displacement

Suppose the particle is at point P at time t and P' at time . The displacement is

In component form,

Velocity

The instantaneous velocity is given by the limiting value of the average velocity as the time
interval approaches zero i.e.,
Acceleration

The instantaneous acceleration is the limiting value of the average acceleration as the time
interval approaches zero i.e.,

Motion in a Plane with Constant Acceleration and Relative Velocity in Two Dimensions

Suppose that an object is moving in x−y plane and its acceleration is constant.

Let

→ Initial velocity of the object at time t = 0

→ Final velocity of the object at time t = t

Then,

In terms of components,

vx = v0x + axt
vy = v0y + ayt

Let be the position vector of the particle at time 0 and be the position vector of the
particle at time t.

The displacement is the average velocity multiplied by the time interval.

[From (i)]

In component form:

Motion in a plane can be treated as two separate simultaneous one-dimensional motions with
constant acceleration along two perpendicular directions.

Relative Velocity in Two Dimensions

Suppose that two objects A and B are moving with velocities and . Then, velocity of
object A relative to that of B is

And the velocity of object B relative to that of A is

and

 A special case − Relative velocity of rain with respect to the moving man

Let

Velocity of man walking West represented by

Velocity of the rain falling downwards

 Relative velocity of rain with respect to man

From the given figure, it is evident that represents the relative velocity of rain with
respect to the man.

Note

If the man wants to protect himself from rain, then he should hold an umbrella at an angle

towards his motion with the vertical.

Example − A boy is riding a bicycle with a speed of 10 ms−1 from East to West direction.
Rain falls vertically with a speed of 30 ms−1. What is the direction in which he should hold
his umbrella?

Solution

Velocity of rain, = 30 ms−1 downwards

Velocity of the bicycle, = 10 ms−1 towards West

The boy can protect himself from rain if he holds his umbrella in the direction of relative
velocity of rain with respect to his bicycle.

The relative velocity of rain with respect to the bicycle will be the resultant of and
.

with the vertical towards the West

Projectile Motion

 The motion of a projectile may be thought of as the result of horizontal and vertical
components.
 Both the components act independently.

Projectile Given Angular Projection

 Equation of path of projectile − Suppose at any time t, the object is at point P (x, y).

For motion along horizontal direction, the acceleration ax is zero. The position of the object at
any time t is given by,

Here, x0 = 0, ux = u cos θ, ax = 0

[ Velocity of an object in the horizontal direction is constant]

Putting these values in equation (i),

⇒ x = ut cos θ

For motion along vertical direction, the acceleration ay is −g.

The position of the object at any time t along the vertical direction is given by,

Here,

Putting the value of t from equation (ii),

This is an equation of a parabola. Hence, the path of the projectile is a parabola.

 Time of flight −

Total time for which the object is in flight

It is denoted by T.

Total time of flight = Time of ascent + Time of descent

∴ T = t + t = 2t [ Time of ascent = Time of descent = t]

⇒
At the highest point H, the vertical component of velocity becomes zero. For vertical motion
of the object (from 0 to H),

 Maximum height − Maximum height ‘h’ reached by the projectile

For vertical upward motion from 0 to H,

Using the relation we obtain

That is,

 Horizontal Range − Horizontal distance covered by the object between its point of
projection and the point of hitting the ground. It is denoted by R.

‘R’ is the distance travelled during time of flight T.

⇒
⇒

For the maximum horizontal range,

sin 2θ = 1 = sin 90°

⇒ 2θ = 90°

⇒ θ = 45°

∴ Maximum horizontal range (Rm) is

Uniform Circular Motion

 Angular displacement (θ) − Angle traced out by the radius vector at the centre of the
circular

Path in a given time:

 Angular velocity (ω) − Rate of change of angular displacement

 Relation between linear velocity and angular velocity

Let ω→ Uniform angular velocity of point object moving along PQ

v → Linear speed

r → Radius of circular path

t → Time at which the object is at point P

t + Δt → Time at which the object is at Q

Let POQ = Δθ and

It means that an object describes an arc PQ of length Δl in time interval Δt.

Also,

From equations (i) and (ii),

o Direction of − Velocity at any point in circular motion is directed along the

tangent to the circle at that point in the direction of motion.

 Angular acceleration (α) − Rate of change of angular velocity

  Relation between linear acceleration and angular acceleration

We know that v = rω

Differentiating with respect to time, we obtain

 Centripetal acceleration −

 Acceleration acting on the object undergoing uniform circular motion is called

centripetal acceleration.


 Consider a particle of mass m, moving with a constant speed v and uniform angular
velocity ω.
 Let at any time, the particle is at point P, where and at time t + Δt, the particle
be at Q, where and POQ = Δθ

 Also,

 Now,
 Let and be the velocity vectors of the particle at locations P and Q respectively.
 We can represent and in magnitude and direction by the tangents and .
 Since the particle is moving with a uniform speed v, the length of the tangents is equal

i.e,
 To find the change in velocity in time interval t and t + Δt, take an external point .
Draw and representing the velocity vectors and .

 Clearly,
 From triangle law of vectors,


 As , lies close to . Then, can be taken as an arc of circle of

radius


 When

 represents the magnitude of centripetal acceleration at P, which is given by,

 Thus
 Direction of centripetal acceleration − Centripetal acceleration vector acts along the
radius of the circular path and is directed towards the centre of the circular path.