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SMT. KAMALA AND SRI VENKAPPA M. AGADI

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
LAKSHMESHWAR-582116

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET OF THINGS

ENGINEERING & TECNOLOGY COURSE (ETC)

SUBJECT CODE: BETCK105H

Notes – Module 1

1ST SEMESTER

2022 SCHEME
Course Title: Introduction to Internet of Things – BETCK105H Faculty: Dr. Arunkumar Joshi

MODULE – 1
1.2 Network Types

Computer networks are classified according to following parameters:

1) Type of connection,
2) Physical topology, and
3) Reach of the network.
These classifications are helpful in deciding the requirements of a network setup and provide
insights into the appropriate selection of a network type for the setup.

1.2.1 Connection types

Depending on the way a host communicates with other hosts, computer networks are of two
types.
1. Point-to-Point
Point-to-point connections are used to establish direct connections between two hosts. Day-
to-day systems such as a remote control for an air conditioner or television is a point to point
connection, where the connection has the whole channel dedicated to it only. These networks
were designed to work over duplex links.

2. Point-to-Multipoint.
In a point-to-multipoint connection, more than two hosts share the same link. This type of
configuration is similar to the one-to-many connection type. Point-to-multipoint connections
find popular use in wireless networks and IP telephony.

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Course Title: Introduction to Internet of Things – BETCK105H Faculty: Dr. Arunkumar Joshi

1.2.2 Physical topology

Depending on the physical manner in which communication paths between the hosts are
connected, computer networks can have the following four broad topologies —
Star, Mesh, Bus, and Ring.

Star: In a star topology, every host has a point-to-point link to a central controller or hub.
The hosts cannot communicate with one another directly; they can only do so through the
central hub. The hub acts as the network traffic exchange.
The main advantages of the star topology are easy installation and the ease of fault
identification within the network. the main disadvantage of this topology is the danger of a
single point of failure. If the hub fails, the whole network fails.

Mesh: In a mesh topology, every host is connected to every other host using a dedicated link
(in a point-to-point manner). This implies that for n hosts in a mesh, there are a total of n (n -
1) / 2 dedicated full duplex links between the hosts. This is more expensive because of
massive number of links. The advantages are the robustness and resilience of the system.
Even if a link is down or broken, the network is still fully functional as there remain other
pathways. Other advantage are security and privacy of the data traffic, reduced data load on
each hosts.

Bus: A bus topology follows the point-to-multipoint connection. A backbone cable or bus
serves as the primary traffic pathway between the hosts. The hosts are connected to the main
bus using drop lines or taps. Advantage of this topology is the ease of installation. However,
there is a restriction on the length of the bus and the number of hosts that can be
simultaneously connected to the bus due to signal loss over the extended bus. Another
drawback of this topology is difficulty in fault localization / identification within the network.

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Course Title: Introduction to Internet of Things – BETCK105H Faculty: Dr. Arunkumar Joshi

Ring: A ring topology works on the principle of a point-to-point connection. Here, each host
is connected to its two immediate neighboring hosts on either side of it through repeaters at
each host. The repetition of this system forms a ring. The repeaters at each host capture
the incoming signal intended for other hosts, regenerates the bit stream, and passes it onto the
next repeater. Advantage of this is easy to identify fault. Disadvantage is possibility of single
point failure.

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Course Title: Introduction to Internet of Things – BETCK105H Faculty: Dr. Arunkumar Joshi

1.2.3 Network Reachability

Computer networks are divided into four broad categories based on network reachability:
personal area networks, local area networks, wide area networks, and metropolitan area
networks.

(i) Personal Area Networks (PAN): They are mostly restricted to individual usage. Example
of PANs may be connected wireless headphones, wireless speakers, laptops, smartphones,
wireless keyboards, wireless mouse, and printers within a house. Generally, PANs are
wireless networks, which uses low-range and low-power technologies such as Bluetooth. The
reachability of PANs lies in the range of a few centimeters to a few meters.

(ii) Local Area Networks (LAN): A LAN is a collection of hosts linked to a single network
through wired or wireless connections. Preferably LAN is used in buildings, organizations, or
campuses. Data access rates within the LANs range from 100 Mbps to 1000 Mbps, with very
high fault-tolerance levels. Commonly used network components in a LAN are servers, hubs,
routers, switches, terminals, and computers.

iii) Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN): The reachability of a MAN lies between that of a
LAN and a WAN. Typically, MANs connect various organizations or buildings within a
given geographic location or city. Best example of a MAN is an Internet service provider
(ISP) supplying Internet connectivity to various organizations within a city. Typical
networking devices/components in MANs are modems and cables.

iv) Wide Area Networks (WAN): WANs typically connect diverse geographic locations but
restricted within the boundaries of a state or country. The data rate of WANs is in the order of
a fraction of LAN’s data rate. Typically, WANs connecting two LANs or MANs may use
public switched telephone networks (PSTNs) or satellite-based links. Due to the long
transmission ranges, WANs tend to have more errors and noise during transmission and are
very costly to maintain and also having low fault tolerance.

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Course Title: Introduction to Internet of Things – BETCK105H Faculty: Dr. Arunkumar Joshi

1.3 Layered Network Models

The intercommunication between hosts in any computer network, depends on various task-
specific layers. Two of the most commonly accepted and used traditional layered network
models are the Open Systems Interconnection developed by the International Organization of
Standardization (ISO-OSI) reference model and the Internet Protocol suite.

1.3.1 OSI Model

The ISO-OSI model is a conceptual framework that partitions any networked communication
device into seven layers which performs distinct tasks. These seven layers, from bottom-up,
are as follows: 1) Physical layer, 2) Data link layer, 3) Network layer, 4) Transport layer, 5)
Session layer, 6) Presentation layer, and 7) Application layer.

(i) Physical Layer: The physical layer is responsible for taking care of the electrical and
mechanical operations of the host at the actual physical level. These operations include signal
generation, signal transfer, voltages, the layout of cables, physical port layout, topological
layout of the network (star, mesh, bus, or ring), communication mode (simplex, duplex, full
duplex) etc. The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a symbol.

(ii) Data Link Layer: The data link layer is mainly concerned with the establishment and
termination of the connection between two hosts, and the detection and correction of errors
during communication between two or more connected hosts. The protocol data unit
associated with this layer is referred to as a frame.

(iii) Network Layer: It provides a means of routing data to various hosts connected to
different networks through logical paths called virtual circuits. The primary tasks of this layer
include addressing, sequencing of packets, congestion control, error handling, and
Internetworking. The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a packet.

(iv) Transport Layer: The transport layer is tasked with end-to-end error recovery and flow
control to achieve a transparent transfer of data between hosts. This layer is responsible for

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Course Title: Introduction to Internet of Things – BETCK105H Faculty: Dr. Arunkumar Joshi

keeping track of acknowledgments during variable-length data transfer between hosts,

resending of data in case of failure. The protocol data unit associated with this layer is
referred to as a segment or datagram.

(v) Session Layer: It is responsible for establishing, controlling, and terminating of

communication between networked hosts. The session layer sees full utilization during
operations such as remote procedure calls and remote sessions. The protocol data unit
associated with this layer is referred to as data.

(vi) Presentation Layer: It is mainly responsible for data format conversions and encryption
tasks such that the syntactic compatibility of the data is maintained across the network. The
protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as data.

(vii) Application Layer: It is directly accessible by an end-user through software APIs

(application program interfaces) and terminals. Applications such as file transfers, FTP (file
transfer protocol), e-mails, and other such operations are initiated from this layer. The
application layer deals with user authentication, identification of communication hosts,
quality of service, and privacy. The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to
as data.

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Course Title: Introduction to Internet of Things – BETCK105H Faculty: Dr. Arunkumar Joshi

1.3.2 Internet Protocol Suite (TCP / IP Protocol Suite)

• The Internet protocol suite is a conceptual framework for communication and
networked systems on the Internet with abstract levels.
• It consists of four levels of abstraction / layers: 1) Link layer, 2) Internet layer, 3)
transport layer, and 4) application layer.
• This collection of protocols is commonly referred to as the TCP/IP protocol suite
(Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP))

i. Link Layer: This layer is synonymous with the collective physical and data link layer
of the OSI model.
• It enables the transmission of TCP/IP packets over the physical medium.
• This layer is independent of the medium in use, frame format, and network
access, and supporting different technologies such as the Ethernet, wireless
LAN, and the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM).

ii. Internet Layer: It is synonymous to the network layer of the OSI model.
• It is responsible for addressing, address translation, data packaging, data
disassembly and assembly, routing, and packet delivery tracking operations.
• Some core protocols associated with this layer are address resolution protocol
(ARP), Internet protocol (IP), Internet control message protocol (ICMP), and
Internet group management protocol (IGMP). Traditionally, this layer was
built upon IPv4, which is gradually shifting to IPv6.

iii. Transport Layer: It is synonymous with the transport layer of the OSI model.
• This layer performs the functions of error control, flow control, congestion
control, segmentation, and addressing in an end-to-end manner.
• This layer is built upon Transmission control protocol (TCP) and user
datagram protocol (UDP) are the core protocols.
• It provides choice of connection-oriented or connectionless services between
two or more hosts or networked devices.

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Course Title: Introduction to Internet of Things – BETCK105H Faculty: Dr. Arunkumar Joshi

iv. Application Layer: This layer is synonymous with the collective functionalities of
the OSI model’s session, presentation, and application layers.
• This layer enables an end-user to access the services of the underlying layers
and defines the protocols for the transfer of data.
• Some of the core protocols associated with this layer are Hypertext transfer
protocol (HTTP), file transfer protocol (FTP), simple mail transfer protocol
(SMTP), domain name system (DNS), routing information protocol (RIP), and
simple network management protocol (SNMP) are

Chapter – 4: Emergence of IoT

4.1 Introduction

 IoT is an anytime, anywhere, and anything (as shown in following Figure) network of
Internet-connected physical devices or systems capable of sensing an environment
and affecting the sensed environment intelligently.

 The original Internet intended for sending simple messages is now connected with all
sorts of “Things”. These things can be legacy devices, modern-day computers,
sensors, actuators, household appliances, toys, clothes, shoes, vehicles, cameras, and
anything which may benefit a product by increasing its scientific value, accuracy, or
even its cosmetic value.

 IoT may be considered to be made up of connecting devices, machines, and tools;

these things are made up of sensors/actuators and processors, which connect to the
Internet through wireless technologies.

Typically, IoT systems can be characterized by the following features:

 Associated architectures, which are also efficient and scalable.
 No ambiguity in naming and addressing.
 Massive number of constrained devices, sleeping nodes, mobile devices, and non-IP
devices.
 Intermittent and often unstable connectivity.

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Course Title: Introduction to Internet of Things – BETCK105H Faculty: Dr. Arunkumar Joshi

4.2 Evolution of IoT

The following Figure shows the sequence of technological advancements for shaping the IoT
as it is today. These sequence of technical developments toward the emergence of IoT are
described in brief:

ATM: ATMs or Automated Teller Machines are cash distribution machines, which are
linked to a user’s bank account. ATMs dispense cash upon verification of the identity of a
user and their account through a specially coded card. The central concept behind ATMs was
the availability of financial transactions even when banks were closed beyond their regular
work hours. The first ATM became operational and connected online for the first time in
1974.

Web: World Wide Web is a global information sharing and communication platform. The
Web became operational for the first time in 1991. Since then, it has been massively
responsible for the many revolutions in the field of computing and communication.

Smart Meters: The earliest smart meter was a power meter, which became operational in
early 2000. These power meters were capable of communicating remotely with the power
grid. They enabled remote monitoring of subscribers’ power usage and eased the process of
billing and power allocation from grids.

Digital Locks: Digital locks a part of home-automation systems. Present-day digital locks are
so robust that smartphones can be used to control them. Operations such as locking and
unlocking doors, changing key codes, including new members in the access lists, can be
easily performed, and that too remotely using smartphones.

Connected Healthcare: Here, healthcare devices connect to hospitals, doctors, and relatives
to alert them of medical emergencies and take preventive measures. The devices may be
simple wearable appliances, monitoring heart rate and pulse of the wearer, as well as regular
medical devices and monitors in hospitals.

Connected Vehicles: Connected vehicles may communicate to the Internet or with other
vehicles, or even with sensors and actuators contained within it. These vehicles self-diagnose
themselves and alert owners about system failures.

Smart Cities: This is a city-wide implementation of smart sensing, monitoring, and actuation
systems. Some of the facilities which may benefit are parking, transportation, infrastructure
and others in smart cities.

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Course Title: Introduction to Internet of Things – BETCK105H Faculty: Dr. Arunkumar Joshi

Smart Dust: These are microscopic computers. Smaller than a grain of sand each, they can
be used in numerous beneficial ways, where regular computers cannot operate. For example,
smart dust can be sprayed to measure chemicals in the soil or even to diagnose problems in
the human body.

Smart Factories: These factories can monitor plant processes, assembly lines, distribution
lines, and manage factory floors all on their own. This has helped in reduction in mishaps due
to human errors.

UAVs: UAVs or Unmanned Aerial Vehicles have emerged as robust public domain solutions
tasked with applications ranging from agriculture, surveys, surveillance, deliveries, stock
maintenance, asset management, and other tasks.

Use of IOT in Different Area are:

Smart parking, smartphone detection, traffic congestion, smart lighting, waste management,
smart roads, structural health, urban noise maps, river floods, water flow, silos stock
calculation, water leakages, radiation levels, explosive and hazardous gases, perimeter access
control, snow level monitoring, liquid presence, forest fire detection, air pollution, smart grid,
tank level, photovoltaic installations, NFC (near-field communications) payments, intelligent
shopping applications, landslide and avalanche prevention, early detection of earthquakes,
supply chain control, smart product management, and others.

Various technological interdependencies of IoT with different application domains and

networking paradigms

The above Figure shows the various technological interdependencies of IoT with other
domains and networking paradigms such as M2M, CPS, the Internet of environment (IoE),
the Internet of people (IoP), and Industry 4.0.

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Course Title: Introduction to Internet of Things – BETCK105H Faculty: Dr. Arunkumar Joshi

M2M (Machine-to-Machine paradigm)

• It signifies a system of connected machines and devices, which can talk amongst
themselves without human intervention.
• The communication between the machines can be for updates on machine status
(stocks, health, power status, and others), collaborative task completion, overall
knowledge of the systems and the environment, and others.

CPS (Cyber Physical System paradigm)

• It is a closed control loop - from sensing, processing, and finally to actuation - using a
feedback mechanism.
• CPS helps in maintaining the state of an environment through the feedback control
loop
• Humans have a simple supervisory role in CPS-based systems; most of the ground-
level operations are automated.

IoE (Internet of Environment paradigm)

• It is mainly concerned with minimizing and even reversing the ill-effects of Internet-
based technologies on the environment [3].
• The major focus areas of this paradigm include smart and sustainable farming,
sustainable and energy-efficient habitats, enhancing the energy efficiency of systems
and processes, and others

Industry 4.0:
• Industry 4.0 is commonly referred to as the fourth industrial revolution pertaining to
digitization in the manufacturing industry.
• This paradigm focuses on the concept of smart factories, where machines talk to one
another without much human involvement.
• It helps in better resource and workforce management, optimization of production
time and resources.

IoP (Internet of People paradigm):

• IoP is a new technological movement on the Internet which aims to decentralize
online social interactions, payments, transactions, and other tasks while maintaining
confidentiality and privacy of its user’s data.
• Example is introduction of the Bitcoin which has limited the power of banks,
corporations and governments.

4.2.1 IoT versus M2M

 M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm refers to communications and interactions

between various machines and devices.
 It uses cloud computing infrastructure, a server, or simply a local network hub for
interaction.

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Course Title: Introduction to Internet of Things – BETCK105H Faculty: Dr. Arunkumar Joshi

M2M IoT
Refers to communications and interactions IoT is vaster than M2M and consist of
between machines to machines. interactions such as the interactions between
devices/things and people, things and
applications, and people with applications.

M2M is part of the IoT and is considered as IoT is a main domain which consist of M2M
one of its sub-domains.
Telecom Networks is central & basic to the Internet connectivity is central to the IoT
M2M theme. theme.

4.2.2 IoT versus CPS

 Cyber physical systems (CPS) encompasses sensing, control, actuation, and feedback
as a complete package.
 A digital twin (is a virtual model designed to accurately reflect a physical object) is
attached to a CPS-based system.
 In CPS a digital twin is used parallel to a physical system, to make comparison of the
physical system’s output, performance, and health.
 Based on feedback from the digital twin, a physical system can be easily given
corrective directions/commands to obtain desirable outputs.

CPS IoT
CPS paradigm compulsorily need feedback IoT paradigm does not compulsorily need
or a digital twin system. feedback or a digital twin system.
CPS is more focused on controls IoT is more focused on networking
CPS may be considered as one of the sub- IoT is main domain
domains of IoT

4.2.3 IoT versus WoT

WoT IoT
Integrating objects, things, people, system & Creating a network of objects, things, people,
applications to Web system & application
It works at software layer to connect It works at hardware layer to connect
everything to Web everything to internet
Deals with protocols & web services Deals with sensors, actuators, communication
interfaces
It uses single protocol for different devices Every IoT device works with different
protocol
Communication over application layer Communication over network layer (IP)
(HTTP)
Ex: HTML, HTTP, REST Ex: Bluetooth, RFID, Zigbee
Lack of standard communication protocol Communication through RESTful API

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Course Title: Introduction to Internet of Things – BETCK105H Faculty: Dr. Arunkumar Joshi

4.3 Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies

IoT is a paradigm built upon complex interdependencies of technologies (both legacy and
modern), which occur at various planes of this paradigm.

The following Figure shows dividing the IoT paradigm into four planes: services, local
connectivity, global connectivity, and processing.

Four Types of IoT Planes

Service Plane: This plane is composed of two parts: 1) things or devices and 2) low-power
connectivity. Typically, the services offered in this layer are a combination of things and low
power connectivity. The things may be wearables, computers, smartphones, household
appliances etc. The low-power connectivity, which is responsible for connecting the things in
local implementation WiFi, Bluetooth Ethernet, or cellular etc.

Local Connectivity: This is responsible for distributing Internet access to multiple local IoT
deployments. Services such as address management, device management, security, sleep
scheduling, and others fall within the scope of this plane. This uses technologies like Proxy,
Gateway, Router etc.

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Course Title: Introduction to Internet of Things – BETCK105H Faculty: Dr. Arunkumar Joshi

Global Connectivity: This plane plays a significant role in enabling IoT in the real sense by
allowing for worldwide implementations and connectivity between things, users, controllers,
and applications. It decides how and when to store data, when to process it, when to forward
it, and in which form to forward it. The Web, data-centers, remote servers, Cloud, and others
make up this plane.

Processing Plane: The members in this plane may be termed as IoT tools. The various sub-
domains of this plane include intelligence, conversion (data and format conversion, and data
cleaning), learning (making sense of temporal and spatial data patterns), cognition
(recognizing patterns and mapping it to already known patterns), algorithms (various control
and monitoring algorithms), visualization (rendering numbers and strings in the form of
collective trends, graphs, charts, and projections) etc.

4.4 IoT Networking Components

Six broad categories IoT networking components along with figure.

(i) IoT Node:

 These are the networking devices within an IoT LAN.
 Each of these devices is typically made up of a sensor, a processor, and a radio, which
communicates with the network infrastructure.
 The nodes may be connected to other nodes inside a LAN directly or by means of a
common gateway for that LAN through gateways or proxies.

(ii) IoT Router:

 It is a networking equipment used for routing of packets between various entities in
the IoT network;
 It keeps the traffic flowing correctly within the network.

(iii) IoT LAN:

 The local area network (LAN) enables local connectivity within the range of a single
gateway.
 Typically, they consist of short-range connectivity technologies. IoT LANs may or
may not be connected to the Internet.
 Generally, they are localized within a building or an organization.

(iv) IoT WAN:

 The wide area network (WAN) connects various network segments such as LANs.
 They are geographically wide, with an operational range between a few kilometres to
hundreds of kilometres. IoT WANs connect to the Internet.

(v) IoT Gateway:

 It is simply a router connecting the IoT LAN to a WAN or the Internet.
 Gateways can implement several LANs and WANs.
 Their primary task is to forward packets between LANs and WANs, and the IP layer.

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Course Title: Introduction to Internet of Things – BETCK105H Faculty: Dr. Arunkumar Joshi

(vi) IoT Proxy:

 Proxies lie on the application layer and performs application layer functions between
IoT nodes and other entities.
 Typically, application layer proxies provide security to the network entities under it.

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