Chapter 2: Matrix Algebra

Math 18, Winter 2025

Lecture A00 (Anzaldo)

1
Section 2.1 - Matrix Operations

Definition. Take any m × n matrix A:

 
a11 a12 a13 ··· a1n
 a21 a22 a23
 ··· a2n 

A =  a31 a32 a33
 ··· a3n 

 .. .. .. .. 
 . . . . 
am1 am2 am3 ··· amn

ˆ aij or Aij is the (i, j)-entry of A, that is, the entry in the ith row and jth column of A.

ˆ a11 , a22 , a33 , . . . are the diagonal entries of A and form the main diagonal of A.

Definition. A diagonal matrix is a square matrix whose non-diagonal entries are all zero. A
zero matrix , denoted by 0, is a matrix whose entries are all zero. Two m × n matrices A and
B are equal if Aij = Bij for all i = 1, 2, . . . , m and j = 1, 2, . . . , n.

Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication

Let A and B be m × n matrices and c be a scalar. Then

ˆ (A + B)ij = Aij + Bij

ˆ (cA)ij = c(Aij )

   
1 2 0 −1
Example. Compute −2 3 4 + 10 2 .
5 6 1 7

2
Section 2.1 - Matrix Operations

Properties of Matrix Addition and Scalar Multiplication

Let A, B, C be matrices of the same size and r, s be any scalars. Then

ˆ A+B =B+A ˆ r(A + B) = rA + rB

ˆ (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) ˆ (r + s)A = rA + sA

ˆ A+0=A=0+A ˆ r(sA) = (rs)A

Matrix Multiplication
If we compose two linear transformations, what is the standard matrix of the composite function?
Let A be an m×n matrix and B be an n×p matrix. Take the linear transformation T : Rn → Rm
where T (⃗x) = A⃗x for ⃗x ∈ Rn and U : Rp → Rn where U (⃗x) = B⃗x for ⃗x ∈ Rp .
The composition T ◦ U : Rp → Rm is defined by

(T ◦ U )(⃗x) = T (U (⃗x))
= T (B⃗x)
= A(B⃗x)
= A(x1⃗b1 + x2⃗b2 + · · · + xp⃗bp )
= x1 (A⃗b1 ) + x2 (A⃗b2 ) + · · · + xp (A⃗bp )
h i
⃗ ⃗
= Ab1 Ab2 · · · Abp ⃗x. ⃗

Definition. Let A be an m × n matrix and B be an n × p matrix. Then the product of A

h i h i
and B is defined by AB = A ⃗b1 ⃗b2 · · · ⃗bp = A⃗b1 A⃗b2 · · · A⃗bp .

 
 0 4

1 3 2
Example. Let A = and B = 2 −1. Compute AB, if possible.
0 −1 5
3 1

3
Section 2.1 - Matrix Operations

Row-Column Rule for AB

Let A be an m × n matrix and B be an n × p matrix. Then
n
X
(AB)ij = aik bkj = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + · · · + ain bnj .
k=1

 
 0 4

1 3 2
Example. Let A = and B = 2 −1. Compute AB using the row-column rule
0 −1 5
3 1
instead.

Properties of Matrix Multiplication

Let A be an m × n matrix and B, C be matrices so that the following sums and products are
defined. Then

ˆ A(BC) = (AB)C

ˆ For any scalar r,

ˆ A(B + C) = AB + AC
r(AB) = (rA)B = A(rB).

ˆ (B + C)A = BA + CA ˆ Im A = A = AIn

However, in general,

ˆ AB ̸= BA

ˆ AB = AC ̸⇒ B = C

ˆ AB = 0 ̸⇒ A = 0 or B = 0

4
Section 2.1 - Matrix Operations

Definition. Let A be a square matrix and k be a positive integer. Then Ak = AA · · · A, i.e.

the product of k copies of A.

Definition. Let A be an m × n matrix. The transpose of A, denoted by AT , is the n × m

matrix whose ith column is the ith row of A. That is AT ij = Aji

 
1 2
Example. Find the transpose of 3 4.
5 6

Properties of the Transpose

Let A and B be matrices such that the following sums and products are defined. Then

T
ˆ AT = A

ˆ (A + B)T = AT + B T

ˆ For any scalar r, (rA)T = r AT

ˆ (AB)T = B T AT .

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Section 2.2 - The Inverse of a Matrix

Definition. An n × n matrix A is invertible or nonsingular if there exists an n × n matrix C

such that AC = I and CA = I. If such a C exists, then it is unique and we call it the inverse
of A. The inverse of A is denoted by A−1 . If A is not invertible, then A is singular .

 
a b
Theorem. Let A = . Let det A = ad − bc, which is called the determinant of this
c d
2 × 2 matrix A. Then A is invertible iff det A ̸= 0. If A is invertible, then
 
−1 1 d −b
A = .
det A −c a


1 2
Example. Let A = . Find A−1 , if it exists.
3 4

Theorem. If A is an invertible n × n matrix, then for each ⃗b ∈ Rn , A⃗x = ⃗b has the unique
solution ⃗x = A−1⃗b.

Example. Solve the following linear system using the previous theorem.

x + 2y = 5
3x + 4y = 6

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Section 2.2 - The Inverse of a Matrix

Theorem. Let A and B be invertible n × n matrices. Then

−1
ˆ A−1 is invertible and (A−1 ) = A.

−1 T
ˆ AT is invertible and AT = (A−1 ) .

ˆ AB is invertible and (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 .

ˆ More generally, if A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak are invertible n × n matrices, then A1 A2 · · · Ak is

invertible and (A1 A2 · · · Ak )−1 = A−1 −1 −1
k · · · A2 A1 .

Definition. An n × n elementary matrix is a matrix obtained by performing a single elemen-

tary row operation to In .

Example. Find the 2 × 2 elementary matrix corresponding to each of the following elementary
row operations.

1. −2R1 + R2 → R2 2. R1 ↔ R2 3. 3R2

 
1 2
What happens when you multiply on the left by each of the elementary matrices above?
3 4
1. 2. 3.

Are the elementary matrices above invertible?

1. 2. 3.

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Section 2.2 - The Inverse of a Matrix

Theorem. An×n is invertible iff A is row equivalent to In .

How to Find the Inverse of an Invertible Matrix

−1
 
Row reduce A I until youobtain I on the
 left −1
side.
 The right side will be A , that is, the
reduced row echelon form of A I will be I A .

 
1 0 −2
Example. Find the inverse of A = 4 1 0 , if possible.
1 1 7

8
Section 2.3 - Characterizations of Invertible Matrices

Theorem. (Invertible Matrix Theorem) Let A be an n × n matrix. Then the following

statements are equivalent:

ˆ A is invertible. ˆ The columns of A span Rn .

ˆ A is row equivalent to In .
ˆ The map ⃗x 7→ A⃗x is onto.
ˆ A has n pivot positions.
ˆ There’s an n × n matrix C such that
ˆ A⃗x = ⃗0 has only the trivial solution.
CA = I.
ˆ The columns of A are linearly indepen-
dent. ˆ There’s an n × n matrix D such that
AD = I.
ˆ The map ⃗x 7→ A⃗x is one-to-one.
ˆ A⃗x = ⃗b has a solution for all ⃗b ∈ Rn . ˆ AT is invertible.

Example. Determine whether A is invertible. What are some statements that you can conclude
from the previous theorem?  
1 2 3
A = 4 5 6
7 8 9

9
Section 2.3 - Characterizations of Invertible Matrices

Invertible Linear Transformations

Definition. The map T : Rn → Rn is invertible if there exists a map S : Rn → Rn such that
T (S(⃗x)) = ⃗x and S(T (⃗x)) = ⃗x for all ⃗x ∈ Rn . In this case, S is unique and we call it the
inverse of T , denoted by T −1 .

Theorem. Let T : Rn → Rn be a linear transformation with standard matrix A. Then T is

invertible iff A is invertible. In this case, T −1 is also a linear transformation and its standard
matrix is A−1 .

Example. Let T : R2 → R2 be the linear transformation T (x, y) = (x + 2y, 3x + 4y). Find T −1 ,

if it exists.

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