ECE214: Electronic 1

Electronic Devices and Circuits

Module

Ma. Aimee F. Yabao

Instructor

College of Engineering and Architecture

BSECE
2024
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VISION
A provide of relevant and quality education
to a society where citizens are competent,
skilled, dignified and community- oriented.

MISSION
An academic institution providing
technological, professional, research and
extension programs to form principled men
and women of competencies and skills
responsive to local and global development
needs.

QUALITY POLICY
Northwest Samar State University commits
to provide quality outcomes-based
education, research, extension and
production through continual improvement
of all its programs, thereby producing world
class professionals.

CORE VALUES
Resilience. Integrity. Service. Excellence.

INSTITUTIONAL GRADUATE OUTCOMES

Creative and critical thinkers
Life-long learners
Effective communicators
Morally and socially upright individuals

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Module 6
Voltage Regulator, Dual Power Supply, Clippers, Clampers, and Voltage Multipliers

Module Description:
The DC output of an unregulated power supply has a tendency to change value under normal
operating conditions. Changes in AC input voltage and variations in the load are primarily
responsible for these fluctuations. In some power supply applications, voltage changes do not
represent a serious problem. In many electronic circuits, voltage changes may cause improper
operation. When a stable DC voltage is required, the power supply must employ voltage
regulation. This section focuses on the Zener diode voltage regulator.
Module Requirements:

At the end of this module, the students will be assessed by a long quiz/exam through
moodle/google classroom.

Learning Plan
Lesson no.: 1

Lesson Title: Voltage Regulators

Let’s Read (Discussion):

A stable DC voltage is achieved through a voltage regulator. The voltage regulator is the fourth
function in the power supply block diagram in Figure 4.21. LEDs now operate in place of
incandescent lamps in many cases. A semitransparent material is used with LEDs so that light
can escape and be visible.

A number of voltage regulator circuits have been developed for use in power supplies.
One very common method of regulation employs a Zener diode. Figure 4.22 shows this type
of regulator located between the filter and the load. The Zener diode is connected in parallel,
or shunt, with RL.

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This regulator requires only a Zener diode (DZ) and a series resistor (RS). Note that DZ is placed
across the filter circuit in the reverse-bias direction. Connected in this way, the diode goes into
conduction only when it reaches the Zener breakdown voltage V Z. This voltage then remains
constant for a large range of Zener current (IZ). Regulation is achieved by altering the
conduction of IZ through the Zener diode. The combined IZ and load current (IL) must pass
through the series resistor. This current value then determines the amount of voltage drop
across RS. Variations in current through RS are used to keep the output voltage at a constant
value.

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Figure 27–26 shows an unloaded voltage regulator that uses a 6.2-V zener diode. Notice that
the zener diode is reverse-biased with the positive terminal of Vin connected to the cathode of
the zener diode through the series limiting resistor, RS.
The zener diode provides an output voltage of 6.2 V. The zener current is calculated by
dividing the voltage across the series resistor, RS, by the value of RS. The calculations are

If the input voltage, Vin, varies, the zener current, IZ, also varies. However, VZ remains
relatively constant. Any fluctuation in the zener voltage, VZ, is due to the small change in the
voltage drop across the zener impedance, RZ.

Loaded Zener Regulators

The unloaded voltage regulator shown in Fig. 27–26 has few applications in electronics.
Usually, a load resistor is connected across the output, as shown in Fig. 27–27. This is a typical

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loaded voltage regulator. Since RL is across the zener, the load voltage equals the zener voltage,
or VL = VZ.
It is important to note in Fig. 27–27 that the voltage dropped across the series resistor,
RS, is Vin − VZ. Thus, the current, IS, through the series resistor is calculated as

The current IL through the load resistor is calculated as

Note that the output voltage equals the zener voltage, VZ.
Because the zener is in parallel with RL, the series current, IS, equals IZ = IL. This is
expressed in Formula (27–14):

Formula (27–14) can also be arranged to solve for the zener current, IZ.

To calculate the currents in a loaded voltage regulator, IS should be calculated first, then
IL, and, last, the zener current, IZ. IZ must be calculated indirectly because its dc resistance is
not a fixed quantity. In Fig. 27–27, IZ is found as follows:

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Zener Diodes and Their Characteristics

A zener diode is a special diode that has been optimized for operation in the breakdown region.
These devices are unlike ordinary rectifier diodes, which are never intended to be operated at
or near breakdown. Voltage regulation is the most common application of a zener diode. The
zener diode is connected in parallel with the load of the power supply. The zener voltage
remains constant despite load current variations. Figure 27–25a shows the schematic symbol
of a zener diode.

Volt-Ampere Characteristic Curve

Figure 27–25 b shows the volt-ampere characteristic curve for a typical silicon zener diode. In
the forward region, the zener acts like an ordinary silicon rectifier diode with a forward voltage
drop of about 0.7 V when conducting.
In the reverse-bias region, a small reverse leakage current flows until the breakdown
voltage is reached. At this point, the reverse current through the zener increases sharply. The
reverse current is called zener current, designated IZ. Notice that the breakdown voltage,
designated VZ, remains nearly constant as the zener current, IZ, increases. Because of this
characteristic, a zener diode can be used in voltage regulation circuits, since the zener voltage,
VZ, remains constant even though the zener current, IZ, varies over a wide range.
Most manufacturers specify the zener voltage, VZ, at a specified test current designated
IZT. For example, a 1N4742A zener diode has a rated zener voltage, VZ, of 12.0 V for a test
current, IZT, of 21 mA. The suffix A in the part number 1N4742A indicates a zener voltage
tolerance of ±5%.

Zener Ratings
An important zener rating is its power rating. In terms of power dissipation,

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where PZ equals the power dissipated by the zener, VZ equals the zener voltage, and IZ equals
the zener current.
For example, if a 12-V zener has 30 mA of current, its power dissipation, PZ, is

The power dissipation in a zener diode must always be less than its power dissipation
rating. The power rating of a zener is designated PZM. The maximum current that a zener can
safely handle is given in Formula (27–13):

where VZ equals the zener voltage, IZM equals the maximum-rated zener current, and PZM equals
the power rating of the zener. IZM is shown on the graph in Fig. 27–25b. Exceeding the value
of IZM will burn out the zener.

For this zener diode, the current IZ must never exceed 100 mA. If it does, the diode is likely to
fail due to excessive power dissipation.

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Lesson no.: 2

Lesson Title: Dual Power Supplies

Let’s Read (Discussion):

The dual power supply, or split power supply, has been developed as a voltage source for
integrated circuits. This supply has both negative and positive output with respect to ground.
The secondary winding of the transformer is divided into two parts. The center tap or neutral
serves as a common ground connection for the two outside windings. Each half of the winding
connects to a full-wave rectifier.

A dual power supply with a full-wave rectifier is shown in Figure 4.26. Note that the
output of this supply is +10.7 and −10.7 V. Diodes D1 and D2 are rectifiers for the positive
supply. They are connected to opposite ends of the transformer (T 1). Diodes D3 and D4 are
rectifiers for the negative supply. They are connected in a reverse direction to the opposite ends
of the transformer. The positive and negative output is with respect to the center tap of the
transformer.
For one alternation, the top of the transformer is positive and the bottom is negative.
Current flows through D4, RL2, RL1, and D1 and returns to the top of the transformer. The top
of RL1 becomes positive and the bottom of R L2 becomes negative. Solid arrows show the path
of current flow for this alternation.
The next alternation makes the top of the transformer negative and the bottom positive.
Current flows out through D3, RL2, RL1, and D2 and returns to the bottom of the transformer.
The top of RL1 continues to be positive, whereas the bottom of R L2 is negative. The direction
of current flow through RL1 and RL2 is the same for each alternation. The resulting output
voltage of the supply appears at the top and the bottom of R L1 and RL2.

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Lesson no.: 3

Lesson Title: Clippers and Limiters

Let’s Read (Discussion):

The diodes used in low-frequency power supplies are rectifier diodes. These diodes are
optimized for use at 60 Hz and have power ratings greater than 0.5 W. The typical rectifier
diode has a forward current rating in amperes. Except for power supplies, rectifier diodes have
little use because most circuits inside electronics equipment are running at much higher
frequencies.

Small-Signal Diodes

In this section, we will be using small-signal diodes. These diodes are optimized for use at high
frequencies and have power ratings less than 0.5 W. The typical small-signal diode has a
current rating in milliamperes. It is this smaller and lighter construction that allows the diode
to work at higher frequencies.

The Positive Clipper

A clipper is a circuit that removes either positive or negative parts of a waveform. This kind of
processing is useful for signal shaping, circuit protection, and communications. Figure 4-24a
shows a positive clipper. The circuit removes all the positive parts of the input signal. This is
why the output signal has only negative half-cycles.

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Here is how the circuit works: During the positive half-cycle, the diode turns on and
looks like a short across the output terminals. Ideally, the output voltage is zero. On the negative
half-cycle, the diode is open. In this case, a negative half-cycle appears across the output. By
deliberate design, the series resistor is much smaller than the load resistor. This is why the
negative output peak is shown as −Vp in Fig. 4-24a.

To a second approximation, the diode voltage is 0.7 V when conducting. Therefore, the
clipping level is not zero, but 0.7 V. For instance, if the input signal has a peak value of 20 V,
the output of the clipper will look like Fig. 4-24b.

Defining Conditions

Small-signal diodes have a smaller junction area than rectifier diodes because they are
optimized to work at higher frequencies. As a result, they have more bulk resistance. The data
sheet of a small-signal diode like the 1N914 lists a forward current of 10 mA at 1 V. Therefore,
the bulk resistance is:

Why is bulk resistance important? Because the clipper will not work properly unless
the series resistance RS is much greater than the bulk resistance. Furthermore, the clipper won’t
work properly unless the series resistance RS is much smaller than the load resistance. For a
clipper to work properly, we will use this definition:

This says that the series resistance must be 100 times greater than the bulk resistance
and 100 times smaller than the load resistance. When a clipper satisfies these conditions, we
call it a stiff clipper. For instance, if the diode has a bulk resistance of 30 Ω, the series resistance
should be at least 3 kΩ and the load resistance should be at least 300 kΩ.

The Negative Clipper

If we reverse the polarity of the diode as shown in Fig. 4-25a, we get a negative clipper. As
you would expect, this removes the negative parts of the signal. Ideally, the output waveform
has nothing but positive half-cycles.

The clipping is not perfect. Because of the diode offset voltage (another way of saying
barrier potential), the clipping level is at −0.7 V. If the input signal has a peak of 20 V, the
output signal will look like Fig. 4-25b.

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The Limiter or Diode Clamp

The clipper is useful for waveshaping, but the same circuit can be used in a totally different
way. Take a look at Fig. 4-26a. The normal input to this circuit is a signal with a peak of only
15 mV. Therefore, the normal output is the same signal because neither diode is turned during
the cycle.

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What good is the circuit if the diodes don’t turn on? Whenever you have a sensitive
circuit, one that cannot have too much input, you can use a positive-negative limiter to protect
its input, as shown in Fig. 4-26b. If the input signal tries to rise above 0.7 V, the output is
limited to 0.7 V. On the other hand, if the input signal tries to drop below −0.7 V, the output is
limited to −0.7 V. In a circuit like this, normal operation means that the input signal is always
smaller than 0.7 V in either polarity.

An example of a sensitive circuit is the op amp, an IC that will be discussed in later

chapters. The typical input voltage to an op amp is less than 15 mV. Voltages greater than 15
mV are unusual, and voltages greater than 0.7 V are abnormal. A limiter on the input side of
an op amp will prevent excessive input voltage from being accidentally applied.

A more familiar example of a sensitive circuit is a moving-coil meter. By including a

limiter, we can protect the meter movement against excessive input voltage or current.

The limiter of Fig. 4-26a is also called a diode clamp. The term suggests clamping or
limiting the voltage to a specified range. With a diode clamp, the diodes remain off during
normal operation. The diodes conduct only when something is abnormal, when the signal is
too large.

Biased Clippers

The reference level (same as the clipping level) of a positive clipper is ideally zero, or 0.7 V to
a second approximation. What can we do to change this reference level?

In electronics, bias means applying an external voltage to change the reference level of
a circuit. Figure 4-27a is an example of using bias to change the reference level of a positive
clipper. By adding a dc voltage source in series with the diode, we can change the clipping
level. The new V must be less than Vp for normal operation. With an ideal diode, conduction
starts as soon as the input voltage is greater than V. To a second approximation, it starts when
the input voltage is greater than V + 0.7 V.

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Figure 4-27b shows how to bias a negative clipper. Notice that the diode and battery have been
reversed. Because of this, the reference level changes to −V − 0.7 V. The output waveform is
negatively clipped at the bias level.

Combination Clipper

We can combine the two biased clippers as shown in Fig. 4-

28. Diode D1 clips off positive parts above the positive bias
level, and diode D2 clips off parts below the negative bias
level. When the input voltage is very large compared to the
bias levels, the output signal is a square wave, as shown in
Fig. 4-28. This is another example of the signal shaping that
is possible with clippers.

Variations

Using batteries to set the clipping level is impractical. One

approach is to add more silicon diodes because each produces
a bias of 0.7 V. For instance, Fig. 4-29a shows three diodes
in a positive clipper. Since each diode has an offset of around
0.7 V, the three diodes produce a clipping level of
approximately +2.1 V. The application does not have to be a
clipper (waveshaping). We can use the same circuit as a diode
clamp (limiting) to protect a sensitive circuit that cannot
tolerate more than a 2.1-V input.

Figure 4-29b shows another way to bias a clipper

without batteries. This time, we are using a voltage divider
(R1 and R2) to set the bias level. The bias level is given by:

In this case, the output voltage is clipped or limited when the

input is greater than Vbias + 0.7 V.

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Figure 4-29c shows a biased diode clamp. It can be used to protect sensitive circuits
from excessive input voltages. The bias level is shown as 15 V. It can be any bias level you
want it to be. With a circuit like this, a destructively large voltage of +100 V never reaches the
load because the diode limits the output voltage to a maximum value of +5.7 V.

Sometimes a variation like Fig. 4-29d is used to remove the offset of the limiting diode
D1. Here is the idea: Diode D2 is biased slightly into forward conduction so that it has
approximately 0.7 V across it. This 0.7 V is applied to 1 kΩ in series with D1 and 100 kΩ. This
means that diode D1 is on the verge of conduction. Therefore, when a signal comes in, diode
D1 conducts near 0 V.

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Lesson no.: 4

Lesson Title: Clampers

Let’s Read (Discussion):

The diode clamp, which was discussed in the preceding section, protects sensitive circuits. The
clamper is different, so don’t confuse the similar-sounding names. A clamper adds a dc voltage
to the signal.
Positive Clamper
Figure 4-30a shows the basic idea for a positive clamper. When a positive clamper has a sine-
wave input, it adds a positive dc voltage to the sine wave. Stated another way, the positive
clamper shifts the ac reference level (normally zero) up to a dc level. The effect is to have an
ac voltage centered on a dc level. This means that each point on the sine wave is shifted upward,
as shown on the output wave.

Figure 4-30b shows an equivalent way of visualizing the effect of a positive clamper.
An ac source drives the input side of the clamper. The Thevenin voltage of the clamper output
is the superposition of a dc source and an ac source. The ac signal has a dc voltage of V p added
to it. This is why the entire sine wave of Fig. 4-30a has shifted upward so that it has a positive
peak of 2Vp and a negative peak of zero.
Figure 4-31a is a positive clamper. Ideally, here is how it works. The capacitor is
initially uncharged. On the first negative half-cycle of input voltage, the diode turns on (Fig. 4-
31b). At the negative peak of the ac source, the capacitor has fully charged and its voltage is
Vp with the polarity shown.

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Slightly beyond the negative peak, the diode shuts off (Fig. 4-31c). The RLC time
constant is deliberately made much larger than the period T of the signal. We will define much
larger as at least 100 times greater:

For this reason, the capacitor remains almost fully charged during the off time of the
diode. To a first approximation, the capacitor acts like a battery of V p volts. This is why the
output voltage in Fig. 4-31a is a positively clamped signal. Any clamper that satisfies Eq. (4-
19) is called a stiff clamper.

The idea is similar to the way a half-wave rectifier with a capacitor-input filter works.
The first quarter-cycle charges the capacitor fully. Then the capacitor retains almost all of its
charge during subsequent cycles. The small charge that is lost between cycles is replaced by
diode conduction.

In Fig. 4-31c, the charged capacitor looks like a battery with a voltage of Vp. This is the
dc voltage that is being added to the signal. After the first quarter-cycle, the output voltage is a
positively clamped sine wave with a reference level of zero; that is, it sits on a level of 0 V.

Figure 4-31d shows the circuit as it is usually drawn. Since the diode drops 0.7 V when
conducting, the capacitor voltage does not quite reach Vp. For this reason, the clamping is not
perfect, and the negative peaks have a reference level of −0.7 V.

Negative Clamper

What happens if we turn the diode in Fig. 4-31d around? We get the negative clamper of Fig.
4-32. As you can see, the capacitor voltage reverses, and the circuit becomes a negative
clamper. Again, the clamping is less than perfect because the positive peaks have a reference
level of 0.7 V instead of 0 V.

As a memory aid, notice that the diode points in the direction of shift. In Fig. 4-32, the
diode points downward, the same direction as the shift of the sine wave. This tells you that it’s

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a negative clamper. In Fig. 4-31a, the diode points up, the waveform shifts up, and you have a
positive clamper.

Both positive and negative clampers are widely used. For instance, television receivers
use a clamper to change the reference level of video signals. Clampers are also used in radar
and communication circuits.

A final point. The less-than-perfect clipping and clamping discussed so far are no
problem. After we discuss op amps, we will look again at clippers and clampers. At that time,
you will see how easy it is to eliminate the barrier-potential problem. In other words, we will
look at circuits that are almost perfect.

Peak-to-Peak Detector

A half-wave rectifier with a capacitor-input filter produces a dc output voltage approximately

equal to the peak of the input signal. When the same circuit uses a small-signal diode, it is
called a peak detector. Typically, peak detectors operate at frequencies that are much higher
than 60 Hz. The output of a peak detector is useful in measurements, signal processing, and
communications.

If you cascade a clamper and a peak detector, you get a peak-to-peak detector (see Fig.
4-33). As you can see, the output of a clamper is used as the input to a peak detector. Since the
sine wave is positively clamped, the input to the peak detector has a peak value of 2V p. This is
why the output of the peak detector is a dc voltage equal to 2Vp.

As usual, the RC time constant must be much greater than the period of the signal. By
satisfying this condition, you get good clamping action and good peak detection. The output
ripple will therefore be small.

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One application is in measuring nonsinusoidal signals. An ordinary ac voltmeter is

calibrated to read the rms value of an ac signal. If you try to measure a nonsinusoidal signal,
you will get an incorrect reading with an ordinary ac voltmeter. However, if the output of a
peak-to-peak detector is used as the input to a dc voltmeter, it will indicate the peak-to-peak
voltage. If the nonsinusoidal signal swings from −20 to + 50 V, the reading is 70 V.

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Lesson no.: 6

Lesson Title: Voltage Multipliers

Let’s Read (Discussion):

A peak-to-peak detector uses small-signal diodes and operates at high frequencies. By using
rectifier diodes and operating at 60 Hz, we can produce a new kind of power supply called a
voltage doubler.

Voltage Doubler
Figure 4-34a is a voltage doubler. The configuration is the same as a peak-to-peak detector,
except that we use rectifier diodes and operate at 60 Hz. The clamper section adds a dc

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component to the secondary voltage. The peak detector then produces a dc output voltage that
is two times the secondary voltage.
Why bother using a voltage doubler when you can change the turns ratio to get more
output voltage? The answer is that you don’t need to use a voltage doubler at lower voltages.
The only time you run into a problem is when you are trying to produce very high dc output
voltages.
For instance, line voltage is 120 V rms, or 170 V peak. If you are trying to produce
3400 V dc, you will need to use a 1:20 step-up transformer. Here is where the problem comes
in. Very high secondary voltages can be obtained only with bulky transformers. At some point,
a designer may decide that it would be simpler to use a voltage doubler and a smaller
transformer.
Voltage Tripler
By connecting another section, we get the voltage tripler of Fig. 4-34b. The first two sections
act like a doubler. At the peak of the negative half-cycle, D3 is forward biased. This charges C3
to 2Vp with the polarity shown in Fig. 4-34b. The tripler output appears across C1 and C3. The
load resistance can be connected across the tripler output. As long as the time constant is long,
the output equals approximately 3Vp.
Voltage Quadrupler
Figure 4-34c is a voltage quadrupler with four sections in cascade (one after another). The first
three sections are a tripler, and the fourth makes the overall circuit a quadrupler. The first
capacitor charges to Vp. All others charge to 2Vp. The quadrupler output is across the series
connection of C2 and C4. We can connect a load resistance across the quadrupler output to get
an output of 4Vp.
Theoretically, we can add sections indefinitely, but the ripple gets much worse with
each new section. Increased ripple is another reason why voltage multipliers (doublers, triplers,
and quadruplers) are not used in low-voltage power supplies. As stated earlier, voltage
multipliers are almost always used to produce high voltages, well into the hundreds or
thousands of volts. Voltage multipliers are the natural choice for high-voltage and low-current
devices like the cathode-ray tube (CRT) used in older television receivers, oscilloscopes, and
computer monitors.
Variations
All of the voltage multipliers shown in Fig. 4-34 use load resistances that are floating. This
means that neither end of the load is grounded. Figures 4-35a, b, and c show variations of the
voltage multipliers. Figure 4-35a merely adds grounds to Fig. 4-34a. On the other hand, Figs.
4-35b and c are redesigns of the tripler (Fig. 4-34b) and quadrupler (Fig. 4-34c). In some
applications, you may see floating-load designs used (such as in the CRT); in others, you may
see the grounded-load designs used.
Full-Wave Voltage Doubler
Figure 4-35d shows a full-wave voltage doubler. On the positive half-cycle of the source, the
upper capacitor charges to the peak voltage with the polarity shown. On the next half-cycle,

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the lower capacitor charges to the peak voltage with the indicated polarity. For a light load, the
final output voltage is approximately 2Vp.
The voltage multipliers discussed earlier are half-wave designs; that is, the output ripple
frequency is 60 Hz. On the other hand, the circuit of Fig. 4-35d is called a full-wave voltage
doubler because one of the output capacitors is being charged during each half-cycle. Because
of this, the output ripple is 120 Hz. This ripple frequency is an advantage because it is easier
to filter. Another advantage of the full-wave doubler is that the PIV rating of the diodes need
only be greater than Vp.

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