Mathematics for Architects Fall 2024-25

Chapter 1

Functions, Domain and Range, Limits, Continuity of functions.

1.1 Definition of Function:

A (real-valued) function f, is a rule that assigns to each element x of a subset of a unique real
number y. This is usually written as
y = f (x)
The subset of the real numbers from which x is chosen is denoted D f , called the domain of f.
The corresponding set of values of y is called the range of f, denoted R f .
The variable x is called the independent variable and y is the dependent variable.

For example, the formula C = 2πr expresses the circumference C of a circle as a function of
its radius r. There is exactly one value of C for each value of r. C is function of r.
Natural domain: The natural domain of a function is the largest set (in the sense of
containment) over which the function is defined.

Range: The corresponding set of values of dependent variable y is called the range of .
x
Example 1: Find the natural domain of (i) f ( x ) = , (ii) g ( x) = x − 1 and
x+2
(iii) h( x ) = ln x .

Solution: (i) D f = (−, ) − {−2} since x + 2  0 .

(ii) Dg = [1, ) since x − 1  0 .
(iii) Dh = (0, ) since x  0 .

1.2 Graphs of functions: In order to draw the graph of a function at first choose some values
of independent variable from the domain. Then find the corresponding values of dependent
variable. Combine them to form the points and then plot the points. At last joining the points
draw the graph.
Graphs of some elementary functions are given bellow:

y = x , D = ( −,  ) , R= ( −,  ) y = x 2 , D = ( −,  ) , R = 0,  )

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y = x 3 , D = ( −,  ) , R = ( −,  ) y= D = ( −,  ) − 0 , R= ( −,  ) − 0
x

y = e x , D = ( −,  ) , R = ( 0,  ) y = ln x , D = ( 0,  ) , R = ( −,  )

y = x , D =  0,  ) , R =  0,  ) y = sin x , D = ( −,  ) , R =  −1, +1

y = cos x , D = ( −,  ) , R =  −1, +1 y = | x | , D = ( −,  ) , R = 0,  )

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1.3 Limit of function

If we can make f (x) as near as to a number L by choosing x sufficiently close to a number a
(from either side), but x  a , then L is said to be the limit of f (x) as x tends to a.
This is denoted
lim f ( x) = L .
x→a
We also write f ( x) → L as x → a .
When x approaches a and x<a (i.e. from the left of a), then we obtain the left-hand limit,
denoted by
lim f ( x) .
−
x →a
Similarly, if x approaches a from the right (i.e. x>a), we have the right-hand limit written
lim f ( x) .
+
x →a
Thus,
lim f ( x) = L if and only if lim f ( x) = lim f ( x) = L .
x→a x→a − x→a +

x2 − 1
Example 2: Evaluate lim = .
x →1 x −1
Solution:
x2 −1
x x −1
0.9 1.9
0.999 1.999
0.99999 1.99999
1.1 2.1
1.001 2.001
1.00001 2.00001

From the above table it appear that

x2 − 1 x2 −1
(a) lim − =2 and lim =2
x →1 x − 1 x →1+ x −1
x2 −1
Thus, lim = 2.
x →1 x − 1

Example 3: Figure 1 shows the graph of a function 𝑓. At which numbers is 𝑓discontinuous?

Why?
y

Figure 1

1 2 3 4 5 x

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Solution: It looks as if there is a discontinuity when a=1 because graph has a break there. The
official reason that 𝑓 is discontinuous at 1 is that 𝑓(1) is not defined.
The graph also has a break when a=3, but the reason for the discontinuity is different.
Here, 𝑓(3) is defined, but lim 𝑓(𝑥)⬚does not exists (because the left and right limits are
𝑥→3
different). So, 𝑓 is discontinuous at 3.
What about a=5? Here, 𝑓(5) is defined and lim 𝑓(𝑥)⬚ exists (because the left and right
𝑥→5
limits are the same). But
lim 𝑓(𝑥)⬚≠ 𝑓(5)
𝑥→5

So 𝑓 is discontinuous at 5.

Example 4: (a) From the graph of 𝑓, state the number at which 𝑓 is discontinuous and
explain why?
(b) For each of the numbers stated in part (a), determine whether 𝑓 is continuous
from the right or from the left, or neither.
y

-4 -2 0 2 4 6
x

Answer: (a) – 4, - 2, 2, 4; 𝑓(- 4) is not defined and lim 𝑓(𝑥)⬚does not exist for a = -2, 2
𝑥→𝑎
and 4
(b) - 4, neither; -2, left; 2, right; 4, right.

Limit at infinity
If we can make f (x) as near as to L by choosing x large enough, then we write
lim f ( x) = L .
x→
Similarly we can define lim f ( x).
x→−
1 1
Observe that lim =0 and lim = 0.
x→ x x→− x

3x 2 + 1
Example 3: Evaluate lim .
x → x 2 − x

3x 2 + 1 3 + 1/ x2
Solution: lim 2 = lim = 3.
x → x − x x → 1 − 1 / x

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1.4: Continuity of function

A function f (x) is said to be continuous at x = a if the following three conditions are
satisfied
(i) f (a ) is defined.
(ii) lim f ( x) exits
x→a
(iii) lim f ( x) = f (a ) .
x →a

 2
 x + 1, x  0
Example 4: Discuss the continuity of f ( x) =  at x = 0.
2

 x − 1, x  0
Solution:
Here we have (i) f (x ) is defined at x = 0 and f (0) = 0 + 1 = 1 .
(ii) lim f ( x) = lim ( x 2 + 1) = 1 and
x→0− x→0−
2
lim f ( x) = lim ( x − 1) = −1 .
x→0+ x→0+
Thus the limit does not exist and hence f (x) is not continuous at x = 0.

5 x − 1, x 1
Example 5: Discuss the continuity of f ( x) =  at x = 1 .
3x + x 2 , x  1
Solution:
For x = 1 , f ( x) = 3x + x 2 and f (1) = 3(1) + 1 = 4 .
lim f ( x) = lim (5 x − 1) = 5(1) − 1 = 4 .
− −
x→1 x→1

and lim f ( x) = lim (3x + x 2 ) = 3(1) + 1 = 4 .

x→1+ x→1+
Thus,
lim f ( x) = 4 = f (1) .
x→1
So, f (x) is continuous at x = 1.

Exercises 1

1. Find the natural domain of the following functions:

x−9 𝑥+2 x2 − 9 x
(a) y = (b) 𝑦 = 3𝑥−1 (c) y = (d) y =
2x + 1 x+3 ( x − 5 x + 6)
2

𝑥
(e) 𝑦 = (𝑥−1)(𝑥−2) (f) y = 3x − 2 (g) 𝑦 = √2𝑥 − 1 (h) y = 6 − 2 x
1
(i) y = (j) y = ln( 4 − x) (k) 𝑦 = ln (4 − 2𝑥) (l) 𝑦 = ln (𝑥 + 2)
x −1
(m) y = ln( x + 3) (n) y = exp(3x)

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2. Sketch the graph of the following functions:

(a) 3x + y = 1 (b) 5 x + 2 y = 6 (c) y = x 2 (d) y = − x 2

(e) y = ( x + 2) 2 (f) y = ( x − 1) 2 (g) y = x 2 + 4 x + 5 (h) y = x 2 − 4 x + 3 .

3. Evaluate the limit of the following functions if exists. (using definition)

 x − 2, x3
(i) f ( x) =  Check lim f ( x ) exists or not.
3 x − 8, x  3 x→3

t 3 , t0
(ii) g (t ) =  , find lim g (t ) (if possible).
t − 1, t0 t→ 0

4. Evaluate the following limits where possible: (standard)

x2 + x − 2 x2 − 9 x−4
(a lim (b) lim (c) lim
x →−2 x2 − 4 x → −3 x + 3 x →4
x −2

5. Evaluate the following limits where possible: (limit at infinity)

x 4 + 4x 3 + 1 x2 + 3 x 4 + 5x + 3
(a) lim (b) lim (c) lim
x → 3x 4 − 5 x 2 + 2 x →−  x 4 + 5 x + 3 x→ x2 + 3
 3x − 1 2 x 
(d) lim  −  (e) lim ( x + 1 − x − 1) .
x→− x − 1 x + 1 x→

 x 2 + 1, x  1
6. Discuss the continuity of f (x ) at x = 1, where f ( x ) = 
2 x, x 1

5 − 3x, x2
7. Discuss the continuity of f (x ) at 𝑥 = 2 , where f ( x) = 
2 x + 3, x2

5 x 2 − 1, x0
8. Examine the continuity of f (x ) at x = 0 , where f ( x) = 
3 x + 2, x0

2 x , x3
9. Discuss the continuity of f (x) at 𝑥 = 3 , where f ( x) = 
9 − x, x3

10. Discuss the continuity of f (x) at x =1, where

 x, x 1
f ( x) =  .
2 x − 1, x  1