Okay, let's break down these slides step-by-step in simple terms.

This presentation covers how

the Earth works internally, focusing on mantle convection, the magnetic field, and how
continents move over long timescales.

Slide 1: Title Slide

 Title: The Evolution of the Earth (EES202)

 Presenter: Dr. Ashwani Kant Tiwari from the Department of Earth and Environmental
Sciences at IISER Bhopal.

 Specialization: Earthquake Seismology (the study of earthquakes and seismic waves).

 Logo: Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Bhopal.

 In simple terms: This is the first slide of a lecture for the course "The Evolution of the
Earth." The professor specializes in studying earthquakes.

Slide 2: Important dimensionless numbers

 Topic: Key numbers used in fluid dynamics (the study of how fluids move) to describe
flow.

 Listed Numbers:
1. Rayleigh Number (Ra): Tells if convection (heat transfer by movement) will
occur.

2. Reynolds Number (Re): Tells if the flow is smooth (laminar) or chaotic

(turbulent).

3. Nusselt Number (Nu): Measures how much heat is transferred by convection

compared to conduction (direct transfer).
4. Prandtl Number (Pr): Compares how fast motion changes spread versus how
fast heat spreads.
 In simple terms: To understand how materials inside the Earth (like the mantle or outer
core) flow, scientists use these special numbers. They help compare different forces and
properties to predict the behavior of the flow without worrying about specific units.

Slide 3: Rayleigh Number (Ra)

 Concept: Explains the Rayleigh number in detail. Convection happens when the upward
push from heating (buoyancy) is stronger than the fluid's resistance to flow (viscosity)
and its ability to transfer heat without moving (thermal conduction/diffusivity).

 Formula: Ra = (α * g * d³ * ΔT) / (κ * ν)
 o α (alpha): How much the material expands when heated.

o g: Gravity.

o d: Thickness of the layer.

o ΔT (Delta T): Temperature difference driving convection.

o κ (kappa): Thermal diffusivity (how fast heat spreads by conduction).

o ν (nu): Kinematic viscosity (fluid's resistance to flow relative to its density).

 Key Idea: There's a "critical" Rayleigh number (Rac). If Ra > Rac, convection happens.
If Ra < Rac, heat only transfers by conduction.

 In simple terms: The Rayleigh number checks if a fluid layer will churn (convect) due to
heating from below. It compares the driving force (buoyancy) to the resisting forces
(stickiness/viscosity and slow heat spread). If the number is high enough, convection
starts.

Slide 4: Possible Rayleigh numbers for the mantle

 Data: Shows estimated Rayleigh numbers for Earth's mantle.

o Upper Mantle (670 km thick): Ra ≈ 10⁶ (one million)

o Whole Mantle (2900 km thick): Ra ≈ 6 × 10⁷ (sixty million)

 Source: Fowler, C. M. R., 1990 (a textbook or research paper).

 In simple terms: The calculated Rayleigh numbers for the Earth's mantle are very high,
much larger than the critical value needed to start convection (which is typically around
1000-2000). This is strong evidence that the Earth's mantle is convecting.

Slide 5: Reynolds Number (Re)

 Concept: Measures the ratio of inertial forces (tendency of moving fluid to keep moving)
to viscous forces (fluid's internal friction or stickiness). It tells if the flow is smooth or
chaotic.

 Formula: Re = (ρ * u * d) / η = (u * d) / ν

o ρ (rho): Density.

o u: Velocity of flow.
o d: Depth/thickness of the layer.

o η (eta): Dynamic viscosity (stickiness).

o ν (nu): Kinematic viscosity (η/ρ).

  Key Idea: Re << 1 means flow is laminar (smooth). Re >> 1 means flow is turbulent
(chaotic).

 Mantle Value: Re for the mantle is extremely small (10⁻¹⁹ – 10⁻²¹).

 In simple terms: The Reynolds number tells us if flow is like smooth honey (laminar) or
a raging river (turbulent). Because the mantle is incredibly viscous (sticky) and moves
very slowly, its Reynolds number is tiny. This means mantle flow, although it's
convection, is extremely smooth and orderly, not turbulent.

Slide 6: Nusselt Number (Nu)

 Concept: Measures how effective convection is at transporting heat compared to
conduction alone.

 Formula: Nu = (Heat transported by convection) / (Heat transported by conduction

alone) = (Q * d) / (k * ΔT)
o Q: Heat flow rate.

o d: Thickness.

o k: Thermal conductivity (how well heat conducts).

o ΔT: Temperature difference.

 Relationship to Ra: Nu is approximately proportional to the cube root of (Ra / Rac).

 Mantle Value: For the mantle, with Ra being much larger than Rac, Nu is estimated to be
around 10.

 In simple terms: The Nusselt number tells us how much convection speeds up heat
transport. A value of 1 means only conduction. For the mantle, Nu ≈ 10 means convection
moves heat about 10 times faster than conduction would by itself.

Slide 7: Prandtl Number (Pr)

 Concept: Compares momentum diffusivity (related to viscosity, ν) to thermal diffusivity
(κ). It's a property of the material itself.

 Formula: Pr = ν / κ (Note: Slide uses Pe, likely a typo for Pr or Péclet number, but
context implies Prandtl).

 Mantle Value: For the mantle, ν is huge (~10¹⁸ m²/s) and κ is small (~10⁻⁶ m²/s), so Pr is
enormous (~10²⁴).

 Interpretation: A very high Pr means that velocity disturbances smooth out much, much
faster than temperature disturbances.
  In simple terms: The Prandtl number compares how fast changes in motion spread
through the fluid versus how fast temperature changes spread. The mantle's number is
gigantic. This means the mantle responds almost instantly (in terms of flow) to any force,
but temperature changes take a very, very long time to spread.

Slide 8: Models of Mantle Convection

 Context: While convection is accepted, its exact pattern is debated, especially concerning
mantle discontinuities (like the one at 660 km depth, caused by mineral phase changes).

 Key Question: Can convection currents cross these boundaries? The 660 km boundary is
near the maximum depth of earthquakes in subducting slabs.

 Two Main Models:

1. Layered convection: Separate convection cells in the upper mantle (above 660
km) and lower mantle (below 660 km).

2. Whole Mantle Convection: Convection currents flow through the entire mantle,
crossing the 660 km boundary.

 In simple terms: We know the mantle churns, but does it do so in one big loop from top
to bottom (whole mantle), or are there separate loops in the upper and lower parts
(layered)? This depends partly on what happens at the 660 km depth boundary.

Slide 9: Mantle Convection Models (Diagrams)

 Visuals: Shows diagrams contrasting the two models.

o (a) Whole-mantle: Cold sinking slabs penetrate the 660 km boundary, reaching
deep into the lower mantle. Hot plumes rise from the core-mantle boundary
(CMB) to the surface.
o (b) Layered: Sinking slabs pool at the 660 km boundary. Separate convection
occurs above and below this depth.

 Graphs: Show profiles of viscosity (gets much higher in lower mantle), density,
temperature, and the melting temperature (solidus) with depth for each model.

 In simple terms: These pictures show the two ideas. Whole-mantle convection has
material flowing all the way through. Layered convection keeps the upper and lower
mantle flows separate. The graphs show how properties like 'stickiness' (viscosity) and
temperature change with depth.

Slide 10 & 11: Mantle Mineral Assemblages

 Content: Detailed tables showing the main minerals present in a typical mantle rock
(Garnet Lherzolite) at different depths and pressures.
  Key Transitions:
o ~410 km: Olivine changes to Wadsleyite (denser structure). Positive slope (+5.5
MPa/°C) means this happens deeper in colder areas (like slabs).
o ~520 km: Wadsleyite changes to Ringwoodite. Positive slope (+3.0 MPa/°C).

o ~660 km: Ringwoodite breaks down into Bridgmanite and Magnesiowustite.

Negative slope (-0.5 to -3.5 MPa/°C) means this happens shallower in colder
areas (like slabs). This negative slope might impede slab penetration.

o D" discontinuity (deepest mantle): Bridgmanite might change to post-

perovskite.

 In simple terms: As you go deeper into the mantle, the intense pressure forces minerals
to rearrange into denser forms. These tables list the minerals at different depths.
Important changes happen at 410, 520, and 660 km. The way these transition depths
change with temperature (the slope) affects whether cold, sinking tectonic plates can push
through these boundaries.

Slide 12: Lowermost Mantle Structure

 Focus: The complex region just above the Earth's core (the D" layer).

 Diagram Features:
o D" layer: A boundary layer with complex structure.

o LLSVP (Large Low S-wave Velocity Province): Huge regions where seismic
waves slow down, interpreted as large piles of hot (and possibly chemically
distinct) material rising from the core. Two main ones exist under Africa and the
Pacific.
o ULVZ (Ultra-Low Velocity Zone): Very thin patches right at the CMB where
seismic waves slow dramatically, possibly due to partial melting.

o Descending slab: Cold tectonic plate sinking to the deep mantle.

o PV (Perovskite/Bridgmanite) & PPv (Post-Perovskite): Dominant minerals in

the lower mantle and their phase change near the CMB.

 In simple terms: The very bottom of the mantle, near the core, is a weird place. There
are two giant, hot blobs (LLSVPs) and maybe some pockets of partially molten rock
(ULVZs). Cold plates sinking from the surface might reach this deep.

Slide 13: Mantle Plumes (Definition)

  Definition: A mantle plume is a rising mass of abnormally hot, buoyant rock originating
from deep within the mantle.

 Origin of Idea: Proposed by J. Tuzo Wilson (1963) to explain chains of volcanoes like
Hawaii, where islands get progressively older along the chain (suggesting the plate
moved over a fixed hot spot).

 Shape: The plume's shape depends on its viscosity compared to the surroundings. Lower
viscosity plumes often form a large "head" and a narrow "tail."

 In simple terms: Mantle plumes are like giant lava lamps inside the Earth, where
columns of extra hot rock rise from deep down. They can create volcanoes on the surface
(hotspots).

Slide 14: Mantle Plume (Diagram)

 Visual: Shows a common model/lab visualization of a starting plume with a large,
bulbous head and a thinner trailing tail. It also shows how the plume head can incorporate
some of the surrounding mantle material as it rises.

 Source: Condie, K. C. (2021) - likely a textbook.

 In simple terms: This is what scientists think a plume looks like as it starts: a big
mushroom head followed by a stem (tail).

Slide 15: Plume Characteristics (Model)

 Content: Shows results from a computer simulation of a plume rising from the D" layer
over 176 million years.

 Key Features: Shows the plume head forming, rising, and spreading out beneath the
lithosphere, fed by a persistent tail. The model uses realistic properties like very high
mantle viscosity that decreases significantly with temperature.
 In simple terms: This computer model shows how a plume might develop over
geological time, starting deep near the core and rising to spread out under the Earth's
surface plates.

Slide 16: Plume Source

 Location: Evidence suggests most plumes originate from the deep mantle, specifically
from the LLSVPs or the D" layer at the core-mantle boundary.

 Evidence:
1. Volume: The huge volume of lava erupted from plume heads (like flood basalts)
requires a very large source region, likely deep.
 2. Fixed Hotspots: Hotspots seem relatively stationary compared to the moving
plates, suggesting they are anchored deep below the main mantle convection.

3. Heat Flow: The amount of heat carried by plumes is significant (around 12% of
Earth's total) and roughly matches estimates of heat flowing out of the cooling
core.

 In simple terms: Plumes probably start way down deep, near the core, perhaps from
those giant hot LLSVP blobs. The evidence comes from the sheer size of their volcanic
output, their apparent fixed positions, and the amount of heat they bring up.

Slide 17: LLSVPs and Hotspots

 Map: Shows the location of the two main LLSVPs (red areas of slow seismic velocity
near the CMB under Africa and the Pacific).

 Overlay: Plots locations of major volcanic events linked to plumes: yellow stars (Large
Igneous Provinces - LIPs, ancient massive eruptions) and green circles (young hotspots
like Hawaii, Iceland).

 Correlation: Many hotspots and LIPs appear to be located near the edges of the
LLSVPs.

 In simple terms: This map visually connects the deep LLSVPs (red blobs) with surface
volcanism (stars and circles). Many plumes seem to rise from the edges of these deep
structures, supporting the idea that LLSVPs are the source regions for plumes.

Slide 18: What the future holds? (Research Questions)

 Topic: Highlights some major unanswered questions about the Earth's deep interior.

o Why do surface gravity patterns (geoid) relate to features at the core-mantle

boundary?
o How much heat and material exchange really occurs between the core and
mantle?

o What causes the directional properties (anisotropy) of the solid inner core?

o How exactly does the inner core crystallize and grow? Is it steady or episodic?

 In simple terms: There's still a lot we don't know about the deep Earth, like how the core
and mantle interact, why the inner core has certain properties, and how it's growing.

Slide 19: Temperature distribution in the Mantle (Heat Sources)

 Heat Budget: Provides rough estimates for the sources of Earth's internal heat.

o ~40% from radioactive decay of elements in the crust and mantle.

 o ~40% from secular cooling (leftover heat from Earth's formation and slow cooling
of the mantle).

o ~20% from the cooling of the core.

 In simple terms: Earth is hot inside due to radioactivity (like a slow nuclear furnace),
leftover heat from its formation, and heat leaking from the even hotter core.

Slide 20: Global Heat Flow Balance

 Diagram: A more detailed flowchart of Earth's heat budget in Terawatts (TW, a unit of
power).
 Values: Total heat loss ~46 TW.

o Radiogenic heat: ~20 TW (broken down into crust and mantle contributions).

o Heat flow from core: ~5-15 TW.

o Mantle cooling: ~8-28 TW (this represents the heat lost as the mantle itself cools
over time).

o Tidal heating: ~0.4 TW (minor contribution from gravitational forces).

 In simple terms: This chart breaks down Earth's heat loss more precisely. About 46
trillion watts flow out. Roughly half comes from radioactivity, and the other half comes
from the planet slowly cooling down (both the mantle and the core contribute to this
cooling part).

Slide 21: The Core (Title)

 Transition: Indicates the focus is shifting specifically to the Earth's core.

Slide 22: Core State and Composition

 Key Point: Outer core is liquid, inner core is solid. This is because pressure increases the
melting point of iron significantly with depth. Although the inner core is hotter, the
pressure is so high that it's below its melting point.

 Scenarios:
o (a) Homogeneous Core: If the core had uniform composition, the inner core
would simply grow as the Earth cools, with the boundary always at the melting
point of iron at that pressure.

o (b) Different Composition: More likely, the outer core contains lighter elements
(like sulfur, oxygen, silicon) mixed with iron. Alloys generally have lower
melting points than pure elements. This allows the inner core (likely purer iron) to
 be solid while the outer core alloy remains liquid at the same temperature and
pressure.

 In simple terms: The immense pressure at the center keeps the inner core solid even
though it's incredibly hot. The outer core is liquid, possibly because it has other elements
mixed in with the iron, lowering its melting point.

Slide 23: Earth's Magnetic Field (Diagram)

 Visual: Cutaway view of the Earth showing the solid inner core, the liquid outer core
with swirling convection currents (influenced by rotation - Coriolis effect), and the
resulting magnetic field lines extending out into space.

 In simple terms: This picture shows the generally accepted model: churning liquid iron
in the outer core, organized by Earth's spin, creates the magnetic field, much like an
electric dynamo.

Slide 24: Magnetic Poles and Dipoles

 Basics: Reminds us that magnets have north and south poles, occur in pairs (dipoles), and
align with magnetic fields. A theoretical single pole is a monopole.

 In simple terms: Basic facts about magnets needed to understand Earth's field.

Slide 25: Dipole Model of Earth's Field

 Approximation: Earth's main magnetic field looks roughly like that of a dipole (bar
magnet) located at the center, tilted relative to the rotation axis.

 Important Note: The "Geomagnetic North Pole" (where the dipole axis emerges in the
north) is actually a magnetic south pole in physics terms because the north-seeking end of
a compass needle points towards it.
 Origin: Hints that the field is generated by currents, not a permanent magnet.

 In simple terms: Earth's field is mostly like a tilted bar magnet. The confusing part is
that what we call the North Magnetic Pole is actually the place a compass's north end
points to, meaning it's technically a south magnetic pole.

Slide 26: Convection in the outer core and the Earth's magnetic field
 Evaluating Models: Discusses why different models for the field's origin don't work.

1. Permanent Magnet (Core or Earth): Ruled out because the field changes,
reverses, and the core/mantle are too hot (above the Curie temperature) to hold
permanent magnetism.
 2. Electric Currents: This is the accepted model (geodynamo). Requires a
continuous power source because currents in a conductor naturally decay.
Paleomagnetism (magnetic records in old rocks) shows the field has existed for at
least 3.5 billion years (3500 Ma).

 In simple terms: We can rule out Earth having a giant permanent magnet inside. The
field changes and flips, and the interior is too hot. The only plausible explanation is
electric currents constantly generated by the motion of the liquid outer core (the
geodynamo).

Slide 27: Models for Earth's Magnetic Field (Diagrams)

 Visuals: Shows the magnetic field lines expected from the different models: (a) central
dipole magnet, (b) magnetized core, (c) magnetized Earth, (d) current loop (representing
the dynamo). Model (d) is the relevant one.

 In simple terms: Pictures showing what the magnetic field would look like for the
different ideas discussed.

Slide 28: Earth's Magnetic Field (Geodynamo explanation)

 Process: Explains the "Geomagnetic Dynamo" or "Geodynamo."

o Driver: Convection (turbulent flow) in the liquid, electrically conducting outer

core, driven by heat (from core cooling, radioactivity) and chemical changes
(lighter elements released as inner core freezes).

o Mechanism: Motion of the conducting fluid through the existing magnetic field
generates electric currents (like a generator). These currents, in turn, create their
own magnetic field, reinforcing the original field.

o Self-Sustaining: As long as there's energy to drive convection, the process

sustains itself. Coriolis effect (due to Earth's rotation) helps organize the flow.

 In simple terms: The churning motion of liquid iron in the outer core, driven by heat and
freezing of the inner core, acts like an electrical generator. This motion creates electric
currents that produce the Earth's magnetic field. It's a self-powering system as long as the
churning continues.

Slide 29: Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) Equation

 Concept: Introduces the physics (MHD) describing how magnetic fields behave in
moving, conducting fluids.

 Key Force: Lorentz force acts on moving charges in a magnetic field.

  Equation: Describes how the magnetic field (B) changes over time (∂B/∂t). It depends
on:

o Diffusion Term (∇²B): Represents the natural decay of the magnetic field due to
electrical resistance. This term is inversely proportional to electrical conductivity
(σ).

o Dynamo Term (∇ × (v × B)): Represents the generation of magnetic field by the

motion (v) of the fluid interacting with the field (B).

 Core Conditions: The outer core is highly conductive and fluid velocity (v) is sufficient,
making the dynamo term much larger than the diffusion term.

 In simple terms: This is the math behind the dynamo. It shows a competition between
the field naturally dying out (diffusion) and the fluid motion regenerating it (dynamo
term). In the core, the regeneration term wins, allowing the field to persist.

Slide 30: Fluid Flow Components in the Core

 Flow Types: The flow in the outer core has two main components:

o Radial: Upwelling and downwelling due to convection (driven by cooling and

latent heat from inner core freezing).

o Rotational: Due to Earth's spin and likely differential rotation (inner parts
spinning slightly faster or slower than outer parts).

 Toroidal Field: The rotational shear drags existing magnetic field lines sideways,
wrapping them around the rotation axis. This creates a strong, hidden "toroidal" field
within the core that we don't directly measure at the surface.

 In simple terms: The liquid core motion is both up-and-down (convection) and
rotational. The rotation stretches the magnetic field lines into rings wrapped around the
Earth's axis inside the core (the toroidal field).

Slide 31: Magnetic Polarity Reversals

 Phenomenon: Earth's magnetic field periodically flips polarity (North magnetic pole
becomes South and vice versa).

 Diagram: Shows field lines during normal and reversed states.

 Chronology: A timeline showing the history of reversals over the last ~4.5 million years,
based on magnetic records in rocks. Major periods are "chrons" (e.g., Brunhes - current
normal chron, Matuyama - previous reversed chron), shorter intervals are "subchrons."

 In simple terms: Earth's magnetic poles swap places every few hundred thousand years
on average. The timeline shows when these flips happened in the recent geological past.
Slide 32: What causes geomagnetic reversal?
 Hypothesis: Reversals are likely initiated by instabilities or changes in the convection
pattern within the outer core, possibly triggered by events at the core-mantle boundary
(e.g., large sinking blobs from the mantle) or the inner core boundary (e.g., plumes rising
off the inner core). These disrupt the dynamo process long enough for the field to
reorganize in the opposite polarity.

 Excursions: Sometimes the field starts to flip but doesn't complete the reversal (an
excursion). These might be more localized instabilities. Full reversals are global events.

 Last Reversal: ~780,000 years ago.

 In simple terms: We don't know exactly why the field flips, but it's likely due to
disruptions in the outer core's flow pattern that temporarily mess up the dynamo. The last
big flip was a long time ago.

Slide 33: The progressive development of magnetic anomalies...

 Concept: Explains how magnetic measurements over the seafloor show anomalies
(deviations from the expected field).

 Formation:
o Positive Anomaly: Seafloor basalt formed during normal polarity adds its
magnetization to the Earth's current field, resulting in a stronger measured field.

o Negative Anomaly: Basalt formed during reversed polarity has magnetization

opposing Earth's current field, resulting in a weaker measured field.

 In simple terms: As new ocean floor forms and cools at ridges, it gets magnetized in the
direction of Earth's field at that time. When we measure the magnetic field over the
ocean, areas magnetized normally show a slightly stronger field (positive anomaly), and
areas magnetized reversely show a slightly weaker field (negative anomaly).

Slide 34: Magnetic Anomaly Pattern (Seafloor Stripes)

 Visual: Shows how the alternating polarities recorded in the spreading seafloor create a
pattern of parallel "stripes" of positive and negative magnetic anomalies on either side of
a mid-ocean ridge.

 Symmetry: The pattern is symmetrical about the ridge.

 Width: The width of the stripes corresponds to the duration of the normal or reversed
polarity intervals (chrons/subchrons).

 In simple terms: The seafloor spreading process records the magnetic reversals like a
tape recorder, creating a symmetric pattern of magnetic stripes on the ocean floor.
Slide 35: Magnetic Reversal Chronology (from Lavas)
 Method: How the timing of reversals was first established. Scientists studied stacks of
volcanic rocks (basalt layers) on land. They measured the polarity of each layer and
determined its age using radiometric dating.

 Result: This created a magnetic reversal chronology (timescale) for the last few million
years.

 Terminology: Chrons (major intervals), Subchrons (shorter intervals).

 In simple terms: Scientists first built the reversal timeline by studying dated lava flows
on land, layer by layer.

Slide 36: Extending the Chronology (using Seafloor Anomalies)

 Method: Assuming a relatively constant rate of seafloor spreading, the pattern of
magnetic anomalies (stripes) on the seafloor can be matched to the known chronology.
This allows the timescale to be extended much further back in time than is possible with
easily datable land lavas.

 Limit: The oldest intact seafloor is about 200 million years old (Ma), so the marine
magnetic record extends back that far.

 Diagram: Shows the reversal timescale extended back 170 Ma.

 In simple terms: By using the magnetic stripe pattern on the seafloor and assuming
spreading rates, geologists extended the reversal history back about 200 million years.

Slide 37: The Earth's Magnetic Field (Summary)

 Components: Summarizes the sources and parts of the field.

o Main Source: Core dynamo.

o Other Sources: External currents (ionosphere/magnetosphere), crustal rocks.

o Main Dipole Field: The dominant component, tilted ~11.5° from the rotation
axis.

o Geomagnetic Poles: Where the dipole axis intersects the surface.

o Magnetic (Dip) Poles: Where the actual field lines are vertical.

o Temporal Change: All pole positions change over time.

 In simple terms: A recap of where the field comes from and the different types of
"poles" used to describe it.

Slide 38: Dipole Inclination and Poles (Diagrams)

  Visuals:
o Left: Shows the tilt of the dipole axis relative to the geographic (rotation) axis,
distinguishing geographic and geomagnetic poles/equators.
o Right: Shows how the inclination (angle of the field lines relative to horizontal)
changes with latitude, being vertical (90°) at the magnetic poles and horizontal
(0°) at the magnetic equator. Also includes a schematic of core currents generating
the field.

 In simple terms: Pictures illustrating the tilted dipole and how the angle of the magnetic
field changes depending on where you are on Earth.

Slide 39: Elements of Magnetic Field

 Quantification: Defines the standard components ("elements") used to fully describe the
magnetic field vector at a point on the surface.

o F: Total field strength (intensity).

o ΔH: Horizontal component strength.

o ΔZ: Vertical component strength.

o D (Declination): Angle between geographic north and magnetic north (horizontal

component).

o I (Inclination): Angle between the total field vector and the horizontal plane (dip
angle).

 Diagram & Formulas: Show the geometric relationships between these components.

 In simple terms: To precisely measure the magnetic field anywhere, you need these
specific components: its total strength, its direction horizontally (declination), and its dip
angle (inclination).

Slide 40: Magnetic Field Description

 Summary: Reinforces that the field is described by D, I, and F. Explains the inclination
values at the magnetic poles (+90° N, -90° S by convention) and equator (0°). Notes
typical field strengths (vertical component ~30,000 nT at equator, ~60,000 nT at poles;
nT = nanoTesla).

 In simple terms: Recap of how inclination varies and typical strengths of the Earth's
field.

Slide 41: Finding Paleopole Position

  Paleomagnetism Application: Explains how ancient magnetic measurements in rocks
(paleomagnetism) can be used to find the location of the magnetic pole at the time the
rock formed.

o Declination (D): Points along a great circle towards the paleopole (gives
direction/paleolongitude).

o Inclination (I): Determines the distance to the paleopole along that great circle
(gives paleolatitude).

 Diagram: Illustrates how D and I measured in a rock sample (cube) define the path and
distance to the ancient pole (P). Stacked rocks show changing pole positions over time.

 In simple terms: By measuring the direction (Declination) and dip (Inclination) of the
ancient magnetism locked in a rock, scientists can figure out where the magnetic pole
was relative to that rock when it formed.

Slide 42: Example: calculation of palaeomagnetic latitude

 Formula: tan(I) = 2 * tan(λ) [where I = inclination, λ = magnetic latitude]. This formula
relates the measurable inclination to the latitude based on an ideal dipole field.

 Example: A rock currently at 47°N has a measured paleomagnetic inclination of 30°.

Using the formula, its calculated paleolatitude (λ) when it formed was ~16.1°N.

 Interpretation: This implies the rock (and the continent it's part of) has moved 31°
northwards since it was magnetized.

 In simple terms: Shows a real calculation using the formula to find out where a rock
originally formed based on its magnetic properties, demonstrating continental drift.

Slide 43: Paleomagnetism and how it can form

 Visual Explanation:
o (a) Geologist finding a rock whose recorded magnetism (D and I) differs from
today's field.

o (b) How lava records the field: When molten, magnetic minerals are randomized
by heat. As it cools below the Curie temperature (point where minerals can hold
magnetism) and solidifies, the minerals align with the Earth's field at that time
and become locked in, preserving a "Thermal Remanent Magnetization" (TRM).

 In simple terms: Explains visually how rocks, especially volcanic ones, capture a
snapshot of the Earth's magnetic field as they cool down.

Slide 44: Polar Wander Path

  Concept: If you determine the paleomagnetic pole position from rocks of different ages
on the same continent, and plot these pole positions on a map, they trace out a path. This
is called an "Apparent Polar Wander Path" (APWP).

 Interpretation: The path shows how the magnetic pole appeared to move relative to that
continent over time.

 Key Use: If APWPs from two different continents are different for the same time period,
it means the continents must have moved relative to each other. If the paths coincide, the
continents likely moved together. This was crucial evidence for plate tectonics.

 In simple terms: By tracking the ancient pole positions recorded in rocks of different
ages from one continent, we get a path showing how the pole seemed to move from that
continent's perspective. Comparing these paths between continents proves the continents
themselves moved.

Slide 45: Apparent Polar Wonder (Diagrams)

 Interpretation Choices:
o (a) If continents were fixed, the APWP would represent the actual path the pole
took. All continents would show the same path (Fig 3.17 shows different paths,
ruling this out).

o (b) If the pole stays relatively fixed (near the rotation axis), then the APWP
represents the continent's motion relative to the pole. Different paths for different
continents reflect their independent movements.

 Reconstruction: Shows that the APWPs for North America and Europe look different
but become similar when the Atlantic Ocean is closed (continents reconstructed),
confirming they were once joined and drifted apart.
 In simple terms: Since different continents have different polar wander paths, it means
the continents moved, not the poles (mostly). When we put the continents back together
like puzzle pieces, their ancient polar wander paths often match up.

Slide 46: APWPs and Tectonic Scenarios

 Application: Shows idealized APWPs expected for different geological histories:

o (a) A single, stable continent moving smoothly.

o (b) Continents colliding and sticking together (path segments merge).

o (c) A full Wilson Cycle: Rifting apart, drifting, then coming back together
(complex path with loops or cusps).

o (d) Movement along a large fault.

  In simple terms: The shape of a polar wander path can give clues about the geological
history of a continent, such as when it collided with others or when it rifted apart.

Slide 47: Problems

 Exercises: Provides practice problems applying the relationship between latitude and
inclination (tan(I) = 2 * tan(λ)) for an ideal dipole field.

 In simple terms: Math problems to test understanding of how magnetic inclination

relates to latitude.

Slide 48: The Supercontinent Cycle and Mantle Plume Events

 Topic Introduction: Sets the stage for discussing the relationship between the cycle of
supercontinent assembly/breakup and large-scale mantle plume activity.

 In simple terms: This section will link mantle plumes (hot upwellings) to the long-term
cycle of continents joining together and breaking apart.

Slide 49: The Supercontinent

 Definition: Large landmasses incorporating most/all existing continents.

 Reconstruction Methods: Early methods (matching borders, fossils, geology) and

modern methods (paleomagnetism/APWPs, hotspot tracks).

 Cycle: Supercontinent formation and breakup is episodic.

 Examples: Pangea (youngest), Gondwana (part of Pangea), Rodinia (older),

Nuna/Columbia (possibly the first).

 In simple terms: Defines supercontinents and lists the major ones known throughout
Earth's history, mentioning how we figure out their shapes.

Slide 50: A supercontinent cycle

 Definition: The process of breakup of one supercontinent, dispersal of fragments, and
their reassembly into a new supercontinent.

 History: Well-documented for the last two cycles (Pangea, Rodinia).

 Link to Mantle: Closely tied to mantle convection, upwellings (LLSVPs), and plumes.

 References: Mentions further reading on specific aspects.

 In simple terms: Describes the repeating cycle of continents breaking apart and coming
back together, emphasizing its connection to deep Earth processes like mantle convection
and plumes.

Slide 51: Pangea

  Map: Shows a reconstruction of the most recent supercontinent, Pangea (existed roughly
320-185 million years ago). Highlights surrounding oceans (Panthalassa, Tethys) and
inferred subduction zones.

 In simple terms: A map of what the world looked like when almost all land was joined
together in Pangea.

Slide 52: Gondwana

 Map: Shows a reconstruction of Gondwana, the southern supercontinent (South America,
Africa, Antarctica, Australia, India, Arabia) that formed earlier and later became part of
Pangea.

 In simple terms: A map of the southern half of Pangea, which existed as a separate entity
before Pangea fully assembled.

Slide 53: Methods of Supercontinent Reconstruction

 Focus: Emphasizes paleomagnetism as the key quantitative tool for reconstructing
supercontinents older than Pangea (since the intervening ocean floor is gone).

 Paleomagnetism Recap: Measuring ancient magnetism (remanent magnetization) in

rocks. Importance of identifying primary magnetization and removing secondary
overprints. Accounting for polarity reversals.

 In simple terms: Explains that for really old supercontinents, paleomagnetism (studying
ancient magnetic fields in rocks) is the best tool we have to figure out how the continents
were arranged.

Slide 54: APWPs and Tectonic Scenarios (Repeat)

 Repetition: Same diagram as slide 46, showing how APWP shapes reflect tectonic
history.
 In simple terms: Reminds us that polar wander paths help decode past continental
movements.

Slide 55: Breakup of a Supercontinent (Model)

 Visual: Shows frames from a computer model simulating mantle convection beneath a
supercontinent.

 Process Shown: Supercontinent acts as an insulator -> heat builds up underneath -> hot
upwelling forms -> rifting/breakup occurs -> continents drift apart -> eventually
converge over downwellings to form a new supercontinent.
  In simple terms: This simulation suggests that supercontinents might cause their own
destruction by trapping heat, leading to upwelling and rifting. Then, mantle flow patterns
eventually bring the continents back together elsewhere.

Slide 56: Supercontinent Cycle and Mantle Plumes (Relationship)

 Flowchart: Summarizes a proposed causal link:

1. Supercontinent forms.

2. It shields/insulates the mantle below.

3. Heat builds up, causing large-scale mantle upwelling (plumes).

4. Upwelling leads to supercontinent breakup.

5. Fragments disperse, then eventually reassemble.

 Timescales: Suggests hundreds of millions of years for each phase.

 In simple terms: This diagram proposes a feedback loop: supercontinents trap heat,
causing plumes that break them up, leading eventually to the formation of a new
supercontinent.

Slide 57: GREAT EVENT 6: ONSET OF THE SUPERCONTINENT CYCLE

 Significance: The supercontinent cycle is a major feature of Earth's history, likely unique
to planets with plate tectonics.

 Timing: First true supercontinent (Nuna/Columbia) assembled around 1.7-1.5 billion

years ago (Ga), following breakup of earlier large crustal blocks. Required sufficient
continental crust and operating plate tectonics. Followed by Rodinia (~1 Ga) and Pangea
(~0.3 Ga).
 In simple terms: Highlights the start of the supercontinent cycle as a major event in
Earth's history, enabled by plate tectonics, starting perhaps 1.7 billion years ago.

Slide 58: Timing of Rifting and Collisions

 Histograms: Graphs showing the frequency of major continental collision (mountain
building) and rifting events over the last 1.4 billion years.

 Correlation: Peaks in collisions align with times of supercontinent assembly

(Pangea/Gondwana, Rodinia). Peaks in rifting align with times of supercontinent
breakup.

 In simple terms: These graphs show that mountain building (collisions) happened most
often when supercontinents were forming, and continents split apart (rifting) most often
when supercontinents were breaking up, supporting the cycle idea.
Slide 59: Stages of the Supercontinent Cycle (Diagram)
 Visual Summary: A simple circular diagram illustrating the main stages: Rifting ->
Divergence -> Convergence -> Collision -> Stable Supercontinent -> Rifting...
 In simple terms: A cartoon summarizing the continuous cycle of continents breaking
apart, moving, and coming back together.

This covers the main points of each slide in a simplified way! Let me know if any specific slide
needs more clarification.