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Engineers Wallah Electrical Engineering

Short Notes
Subject : Measurement
Chapter 01: Error Analysis
1.1.1 Types of Errors
Basically, three types of errors are studied: -
1. Gross Errors
2. Systematic Errors
3. Random Errors

Gross Error:
Gross Errors mainly covers the human mistakes in reading instruments and recording and calculating measurement results.
Example: Due to oversight, the read of temperature as 31.5° while the actual reading may be 21.5°.
Gross Errors may be of any amount and then their mathematical analysis is impossible. Then these are avoided
by adopting two means:-
1. Great care is must in reading and recording the data.
2. Two, Three or even more reading should be taken for the quantity under measurement.
Systematic Error:
Systematic Errors are classified into three categories:
1. Instrumental Errors
2. Environmental Errors
3. Observational Errors
Instrumental Error:
These errors arise due to three main reasons.
1. Due to inherent shortcoming in the instrument.
Example: If the spring used in permanent magnet instrument becomes weak then instrument will always read high. Errors
may be caused because of friction, hysteresis, or even gear backlash.
2. Due to misuse of the instruments.
3. Due to Loading effects of instruments.
4. Calibration error
5. Ageing effect error
Environmental Error:
• These errors are due to conditions external to the measuring Device including conditions in the surrounding
instruments.
• These may be effects of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust, vibrations or of external magnetic or electrostatic
fields.
Observational Error:
There are many sources of observational errors:-
• Parallax, i.e., Apparent displacement when the line of vision is not normal to the scale.
• Inaccurate estimate of average reading.
• Wrong scale reading and wrong recording the data.
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• Incorrect conversion of units between consecutive reading.

Random Error:
The quantity being measured is affected by many happenings in the universe. The errors caused by happening or
disturbances about which we are unaware are Random Errors. It’s also known as residual Errors. We can’t estimate this
error by normal process.

Static Correction
It is a value which is added or subtracted from measured value to get actual value.
Static correction = Atrue – Ameasured
Characteristic of measuring instrument

Accuracy
It is the closeness to the true value variable. Accuracy can be improved by calibration.

Guaranteed Accuracy Error (GAE)

• When accuracy is expressed in terms of error called as guaranteed accuracy error.
• It is always given with respect to full scale deflection.
• It is decided by manufacturer
• It is always constant for any instrument.

Note: Accuracy is maximum at full-scale deflection and as we move to initial scale limiting error increases and accuracy
decreases.

Repeatability
It is the degree of closeness when the same input is measured multiple times by same instrument with observer under same
condition.

Reproducibility
It is a degree of closeness when same input is measured multiple time by same instrument with different observer under
different conditions.

Sensitivity
Sensitivity is the ratio of change in output to the change in input.
Change in output
Sensitivity =
Change in input
It is a figure of merit of the instrument.
1
S=
𝐼FSD
Note: • If instrument has high sensitivity, then it has lesser loading effect.
• Sensitivity is also called as scale factor

Deflection Factor (DF)

Deflection factor is also known as inverse sensitivity.
1
Deflection Factor =
Senstivity

Resolution
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For the smallest change in input if there is definite change in output is called resolution.
Full scale deflection
Resolution =
No of division

Note: Number of divisions increases then resolution increases for same range

Hysteresis Error
If the instrument shows two different readings for the same input value then it is called as hysteresis error.

Dead time and Dead zone

Due to inertia of moving system i.e., pointer. The pointer will take some time to deflect from zero initial position. That
minimum time is called dead zone.
For large input value there is no output, this position is called as dead zone.

Drift
It is an error which is constant through the range of scale there are two types of drift.
(i) Zero Drift (ii) Span Drift

Zero Drift
Entire calibration shifts gradually due to permanent set.

Span Drift
It is proportional change in indication all along the upward scale is called span drift.

Arithmetic Mean:
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + ....xn  xi
x= =
n n
Where x = arithmetic mean x1, x2, … xn = reading taken n = number of readings
Average range of error:
• Max error = Max- Mean
• Min error = Mean-Min
(Max error + Min error)
• Avg Range of error =
2
Deviation from the mean:
• Deviation is the departure of a given reading from the arithmetic mean of the group of readings. If the deviation
of the first reading, x1, is called d1, and that of the second reading, x2, is called d2, and so on,
• Then the deviations from the mean can be expressed as
d1 = x 1 – x
d2 = x 2 – x
dn = x n – x
Note that the deviation from the mean may have a positive or a negative value and that the algebraic sum of all
the deviations must be zero.
Average Deviation:
• The average deviation is an indication of the precision of the instruments used in making the measurements.
• Average deviation is the sum of the absolute values of the deviation divided by the number of readings.
d + d 2 + d3 + ... + d n  di
D= 1 = (For n > 20)
n n
Standard Deviation:
By definition, the standard deviation of an infinite number of data is the square root of the sum of all the individual deviations
squared, divided by the number of readings.
Mathematically:
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d12 + d 22 + d32 + ... + d n2  di2

= =
n n (For n < 20)
In practice, of course, the possible number of observations is finite. The standard deviation of a finite number of data is
given by

d12 + d 22 + d32 + + d n2  di2

= =
n −1 n −1

Variance:
• Variance or mean square deviation, which is the same as the standard deviation except that the square root is
not extracted.
• Variance, V = mean square deviation = (𝜎)2
Note:
0.4769
• Probable error = 0.6745 𝜎 or (where h is precision index)
h

• Standard deviation mean, m =
n

• Standard deviation of Standard deviation =  =
2

Relative static error & % Static Error

The quality of measurement is provided by the relative static error, i.e., the ratio of absolute static error (ΔA) to the true
value of the quantity under measurement (At). Therefore the relative static error is given by

absolute error Am − At A
r = = =
true value At At
Percentage static is given by the equation shown below:
% ∈r = ∈r × 100
At = Am – ∈r At
Am
At =
1+ r
Where, At = true value
Am = Measured value
Limiting Error:
Limiting Error is defined as the maximum deviation either in positive side or negative side in the measurement by an
instrument from the nominal value or true value.
Let us assume that the true value or nominal value of a quantity is At and the measured value by the instrument is Am, then.
Limiting Error ΔA = (Am – At).
For example, the nominal value of a resistor is 100 Ω with a limiting error of ±10 Ω. The magnitude of measurement will
be between the limits, (100 ±10)Ω i.e., 90 and 110Ω. Thus, the measurement of resistor by the instrument is guaranteed to
be between 90 & 110 Ω.
% Limiting error:
( Am − At )
% Limiting error =  100
At
% limiting error is a variable error
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Composite Error
% r1
x1 = a ±
% r2
x2 = b ±
% r3
x3 = c ±

(a) Additional/Subtraction
x = x1 ± x2 ± x3
 a b c 
% Limiting Errors (x) =   r1 +  r2 +  r3  %
a + b+ c a + b+ c a + b+ c 
(b) Product/Division Terms
x1 x2
x = or x = x1 x2 x3
x3
% x =  ( r1 +  r2 +  r3 ) %
(c) Power Terms
x1m x2n
x = p
or x = x1m x2n x3p
x3
% x =  (m  r1 + n  r2 + p  r3 ) %
Uncertainty Errors
Z = f ( x1 , x2 ,  xn )
u1, u2, … un are uncertainty errors
2 2 2
 z  2  z  2  z  2
uz =  x  u1 +  x  u2 +  +  x  un
 1  2  n
uz = uncertainty of z


Chapter 02: Basic Instruments

Classification of Instrument Based on Representation of output.
(1) Indicating Type : PMMC, MI EDM, ESV
(2) Recording : Storage oscilloscope, potentiometer recorder, magnetic tape recorder
(3) Integrating : Energy Meter
(4) Null : Potentiometer, Galvanometer

Absolute Instrument:
• These instruments measured the measurand in term of time constant or deflection of the instrument
• Absolute instrument is indirect reading instrument and th4se are used for standardization of instrument in laboratories
example Tangent Galvanometer

Zero order instrument:

→ H ( s ) ⎯⎯
R(s) ⎯⎯ → C (s )

C (s)
H (s ) = = constant
R (s )
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Example: Potentiometer

First order Instrument

C (s) 1
H (s) = =
R (s ) 1 +sT

Note : All temperature measuring devices are first order instruments.

Second order Instrument

C (s ) 2n
H (s ) = =
R (s) s2 + 2n s + 2n
n = natural frequency of oscillation
 = damping ratio.

All indicating instruments are second order instruments. Ideally indicating instrument are critically damped (𝜁= 1) but
practically these are underdamped (𝜁 = 0.6 to 0.8)

Deflecting Torque: (Td)

Torque required to deflect the pointer from zero initial position is known as deflecting torque.
It is produced by the quantity going to be measured.
Controlling Torque: (Tc)
• Controlling torque brings the pointer at steady state or equilibrium condition. (Tc = Td)
• In the absence of supply i.e., Td = 0, controlling torque brings the pointer back to its zero initial position.
Spring control Tc = kθ (where k = spring control)
At steady state Tc = Td
Note:
• If spring is broken of the time of measurement, then in all instrument pointer will reach to full scale deflection
except in PMMC.
• In PMMC, pointer will reach to zero initial position because current in PMMC passing through the spring
becomes zero as circuit will get open.
• Springs are made of “Phosphor bronze”. It should be conducting and non-magnetic.
Gravity Control
Tc = mgl sin θ
Tc  sin 
It should be placed vertically.
Note: In spring control 360° circular scale is possible.
In gravity control up to 90° scale is possible.
Damping Control
It is used to damp out the oscillations of the pointer at steady state condition so that the pointer may come into stable
operation.
Time of response of the instrument is decided by damping torque.
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Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument

PMMC Instrument:
d = BINA, c = k c 

  I (Linear Scale)
d  I (Works only for D.C)


SPMMC = (20Ω/v - 30Ω/v) SPMMC = sensitivity of PMMC
I

Td Td 
 S  
A weight 

"Torque"
ratio represent sensitivity ( unity )
weight

weight 
 Frictional error 
Torque 
Advantage:
Used in aeroplane, aerospace industry. ‘0’Hz frequency, uniform scale.
Disadvantage:
Only for D.C, not A.C.
Swamping Resistance
Swamping resistance has extremely low-temperature coefficient. Swamping resistance is made of manganin or constantan.
It is connected in series with the instrument. It is used to compensate the error due to temperature variation.

PMMC Ammeter:
Extend the range of PMMC ammeter. We connect low value resistance in parallel with meter.
Rsh = shunt resistance used for enhancement.
Rm = PMMC resistance
Rm Rm
R sh = R sh = Ω (m > 1)
 Iext  m −1
 I − 1
 
Shunt: Manganin (86% Cu + 12% Mn + 2% Ni)
• Ammeter is always connected in series.
• Internal Resistance of Ideal Ammeter is always ‘Zero’.

PMMC Voltmeter:
Rse = series resistance need to add for enhancement.
Rm = meter Resistance
Rse = Rm (m–1) kΩ
Rse
m =1+
Rm
1 Rm
Sensitivity of voltmeter (SV) = =  / volt
I FSD VFSD
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Rm + Rse
Sensitivity of enhanced voltmeter, Sv =  / volt
VFSD
If Rm increases, then sensitivity increases. Due to increase of sensitivity loading effect decreases therefore error decreases.

• Internal Resistance of Ideal Voltmeter is ‘infinite’.

• Voltmeter is always connected in parallel.
• To reduce the positive temperature co-efficient, swamping resistance is connected.
Application of PMMC

Rectifier type instruments can be used for both a.c. and d.c. voltage and current measurement. This instrument consists of a
rectifier and a PMMC instrument.
Reading of rectifier type instrument = form factor × reading of PMMC

Half wave rectifier meter Full wave rectifier type meter

Fig. Circuit diagram

(1) H.W.R type: Fig. Circuit diagram
Average value = form factor × RMS (2) F.W.R type Instrument:

2 Vrms 2 2 Vrms
I avg = I avg =
(
 Rs + R f + Rm ) (
 Rs + 2 R f + Rm )
I avg = 0.45 I rms I avg = 0.9 I rms

S A.C = 0.45S DC S A.C = 0.9 S DC

Rs = 0.45Vrms  Sdc − Rm − R f Rs = 0.9Vrms  Sdc − Rm − 2 R f

Moving Iron (MI) Instruments

Moving iron instruments works on the principle of change in self-inductance of coil.
It has a spring type control torque.
1 2 dL
d =
1 2 dL
I = I
2 d 2k c d

d  I 2 (Work for both A.C & D.C)

M.I type, scale follow square law.
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Advantage:
• Works on AC & DC both.
• It has lowest hysteresis error used only for power frequency range.
• M.I type, wattmeter does not exist.
• M.I type Ammeter: Condition to eliminate error due to frequency.

Lm Lsh
=
R m R sh m = sh

• M.I type voltmeter: to make voltmeter frequency independent a compensating capacitor of suitable value is
connected across series multiplier resistance (Rse)

Lm
C = 0.41 2
RSe

• Condition for linearity.

dL
 = constant
d
Disadvantage of MI instrument.
(i) Scale is non-uniform
(ii) Due to electromagnet, it has a weak operating field.
(iii) Torque to weight ratio is less. Therefore, it has lesser sensitivity than PMMC.
(iv) It has hysteresis error due to iron disc frequency error is present in MI instrument.
(v) High stray magnetic field error due to weak magnetic field. To minimize this error shielding is required.

Note: In Moving iron instrument eddy current damping technique is not used because the produced eddy current will
distort weak operating field therefore, we use air friction damping technique.

Electro Dynamometer type Instrument (Electromagnetic Moving Coil Instrument)

EDM type instrument works on the principle of change in mutual inductance.
dM
d = IFC  IMC  cos IFC & IMC 
d
• For measurement of current & voltage both F.C & M.C are connected in series.
dM
d = I 2 (A.C + D.C) (Non - uniform)
d
• Scale does noy follow square law.
• For measurement of power both Fixed Coil & Moving Coil are connected in parallel.
Application
EDM type instrument can be used as
(i) Voltmeter
(ii) Ammeter
(iii) Wattmeter
(iv) Power factor meter
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(v) Frequency meter

Advantages
(i) EDM type instrument can be used with high precision grade accuracy up to 10 kHz
(ii) No eddy current and hysteresis error.
(iii) It can work on AC as well as DC.
(iv) Calibration for AC and DC are same for EDM type instrument. Therefore it is a transfer instrument.

Disadvantage
• EDM has non-uniform scale.
• Due to low operating magnetic field, it has low torque to weight ratio therefore it has lowest sensitivity.
Note:
• Induction instrument works for AC only and PMMC instrument works for DC only Remaining all the instruments
work for both AC as well as DC.
• In PMMC, power consumption is very low because it draws current only at the time of measurement therefore
there will be less temperature raise and in consequence less temperature error.

Loading Effect
The loading effect can be defined as the effect of the load impedance on the source. Loading effect radius the voltage effect
of voltage source.
If the sensitivity of the instrument is high i.e., with the high resistance, the loading effect will be less.
Ideally, an ammeter has a zero resistance and practically it has very low resistance. There will be no loading effect due to
the ammeter, but a small amount of voltage drop occurs due to the internal resistance.

Thermal Instrument or Electrothermic

Hot wire type Instrument:
Heat is independent of frequency. Therefore, thermal instruments can be used up to radio frequency (MHz).
Spring controlling system is used.

l  Heat

l  I 2 Rt

l  I 2 Hot wire type “Ammeter”

l  V 2 Hot wire type “Voltmeter”

Advantage:
• Works on A.C on D.C both.
• It measures True R.M.S.
• There is no Hysteresis error
Disadvantage:
• Non-uniform scale.
• Slow & sluggish
• More power consumption.
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Seeback Effect:
When two dissimilar materials having different temperature coefficient are connected to form a junction then due to
temperature difference a thermal emf produced across the metal. This effect is called seeback effect.
Reverse of seeback effect is Peltier effect.
(2) Thermocouple:
It works on the principle of seeback effect
(3) Temperature:
• Change in Resistance.
• Example: RTD, Thermistor
Electrostatic Voltmeter (ESV)
(1) Linear Motion Type:
• It works on the change in capacitor.

1 dc 1 V 2 dc
Fd = V 2 x= 
2 dx 2 K c dx
• Suitable for High Voltage measurement.
(2) Circular Motion Type:
1 dc
d = V 2
2 d c = K c 
Advantage:
• Works on A.C + D.C
• No Hysteresis error
• No eddy current
• Low power consumption.
• Best suitable for High Voltage
Disadvantage:
Non-uniform, no electrostatic Ammeter, Largest in size, not suitable for L.V.
• To extend the range of ESV – Potentiometer Method.

L
Vext = Vm   = m  Vm
l
• To using series capacitor:
Cm
Cse = (m > 1)
m −1

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Chapter 03: Measurement of Resistance and AC Bridges

3.1.1 Measurement of Resistance

R  1

• A and A’ current terminals

• P and P’ voltage terminals

Method for low Resistance:

• Potentiometer method
• Ammeter-voltmeter method
• Kelvin Double bridge method
Potentiometer method
Ammeter on load side

Voltage across the ammeter, Va = IRa (where Ra is resistance of ammeter)

Rm is the measured value of resistance
V VR + Va IR + IRa
Rm = = = = R + Ra
I I I
 R 
True value of resistance, R = R m 1 − a 
 Rm 
Rm − R Ra
Relative error, r = =
R R

Voltmeter on load side

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Measured value of resistance,

V V V R
Rm = = = =
I I R + IV V / Rv 1 + R / Rv

 1 
True value of resistance, R = R m  
 1 − Rm / Rv 
If Rv ≫ Rm then Rm/Rv is very small.

 R 
 R = Rm 1 + m 
 Rv 

Rm − R Rm2
Relative error, r = =
R Rv R

R
If Rm  R then  r = −
Rv

Ra R
Note: The relative error of above two cases are equal when =
R Rv
R = Ra Rv

Kelvin double bridge:

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PS qr  P P 
R= + −
Q p + q + r  Q q 

Note: We short link resistance (r = 0) to convert kelvin bridge into wheat stone bridge.
Measurement of Medium Resistance

1  R  100k

Method for medium Resistance:

• Wheatstone Bridge Method
• Substitution Method
• Voltmeter – Ammeter Method
• Ohmmeter method
Wheatstone bridge:

Circuit diagram
PS
R=
Q

VS (R)
Deflection of galvanometer (for small unbalance),  = Sv where Sv is voltage sensitivity.
( R + S )2
Bridge sensitivity
SvV
SB =
P Q
+2+
Q P
For a bridge with equal arms, R = S = P = Q
SvV
SB =
4
Ohmmeter
We use Ohmmeter to determine approximate resistance of circuit components. Ohmmeter is aid to precision bridge
laboratories because it is convenient to measure resistance directly.
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Series Ohmmeter

It consists of d’Arsonval movement connected in parallel with shunt resistance R2. This parallel circuit is in series with
resistance R1 and a battery of emf E. The series circuit is connected to terminal A and B of the unknown resistance Rx.
When Rx = 0Ω then position of the pointer is marked 0Ω (short circuit condition).
When Rx = ∞Ω then the current in the meter drop to zero and position of the pointer is marked 0Ω (open side condition).
Shunt Ohmmeter

It can consist of a battery in series with an adjustable resistor R1 and a basic d’Arsonval movement (meter). The unknown
resistance is connected across terminals A and B, parallel with the meter.
When Rx = 0Ω then meter current is zero. (Short Circuit).
When Rx = ∞Ω then current will through the meter.
This ohmmeter therefore has ‘zero’ mark on the left hand side of the scale and infinite mark on the right hand side of the
scale.

Measurement of High Resistance

R  100k

G is Guard terminal and it is used to eliminate leakage current.

→ Method for high resistance:
• Direct Deflection Method
• Loss of charge method
• Meggar
• Megohm Bridge method
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Meggar
Megger is working on the principle of ratio meter which is similar to PMMC. It is used for measurement of high resistance
in the range of M. It consisting of two moving coils (C1 and C2) which are perpendicular to each other, placed in a
permanent magnetic field. A hand device generator is used to provide supply to the coil C1 and C2 . Flux due to the current
flowing in the coil and permanent magnetic flux interact and produced deflecting torque which is calculated in term of test
resistance.

BI1l sin  = BI 2l cos 

I 2 V / ( RT + R2 )
tan  = =
I1 V / R1
For small angel tan  
 R1  1
=  ; 
 R2 + RT  RT
R1 and R2 are current limiting device.
Note: Meter is open means resistance is infinite. If meter is short circuit means resistance is zero.

Application
It is most practically used in the substation for measurement of insulation resistance of cables, transformers, generators and
motors. Tt is basically design for high resistance measurement. In practical it is also used for measurement of low resistance
like earth conductor resistance, continuity of circuits and circuits breaker continuity.

Note: 2500 Volt are generated by hand cranked generator.

There is no control spring for producing control torque.
Guard terminal is use for by passing the surface leakage current so that the accuracy of instrument gets improved.

Loss of charge method

High resistance like the resistance of the cable is measured by using loss of charge method.
t
RT =
V 
C ln e  
 Vc 
0.4343t
RT =
V 
C log10  
 Vc 
Where RT is resistance to be measured. (t is in second)
 17

Comparison between D.C & A.C Bridge:

D.C Bridge A.C Bridge
Used only for Resistance Used in frequency, L, C, Q-factor
D’Arsonval Galvanometer at ‘0’ Hz Frequency Vibrational Galvanometer power frequency (5 Hz-1kHz)
Supply- D.C Battery Supply 1) Low Power Oscillator 2) High Power Generator
Only Magnitude Balance Both phase & Magnitude balance
Headphone – Audio frequency (up to 20 kHz)
Example: Wheatstone bridge, kelvin double bridge.
Tuneable Amplifier (TAD) – Radio Frequency (MHz)

AC BRIDGES
AC Brdiges:
1. Maxwell Inductance Bridge
2. Maxwell Inductance capacitance bridge
3. Hay's Bridge
4. Owen's bridge
5. Anderson's Bridge
6. Desauty's Bridge
7. Schering Bridge
8. Wiens Bridge
AC Bridge Sources:
• For low frequency applications – power line
• For high frequency applications – high frequency electronic oscillator
AC Bridge Detectors:

Detectors Frequency
D C Galvanometer 0 Hz dc
Vibration Galvanometer 5Hz-1kHz
Head phone Galvanometer 250 Hz – 4kHz
Tuneable Amplifier Galvanometer detector 10 Hz to 100k Hz
CRO In MHz Range

Ac Bridge: Balance Condition

 18

• All four arms are considered as impedance (frequency dependent components)

• The detector is an ac responding device: headphone, ac meter
• Source: an ac voltage at desired frequency

Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedance of bridge arms at balance point:

E BA = E BC or I1Z1=I2Z2

Complex Form: Z1Z4 = Z2 Z3

Polar Form: Z1Z4 ( 1 + 4 ) = Z2 Z3 ( 2 + 3 )

Magnitude Balance: Z1Z4 = Z2 Z3

Phase Balance: 1 + 4 = 2 + 3

Maxwell (L-C) bridge
Maxwell’s inductance capacitance bridge is limited to measurement of medium Q coils (1 < Q < 10)
It measure inductance by comparing with standard capacitance.

R2 R3
R1 =
R4
L1 = R2 R3C4
L1
Q = C4 R4 =
R1
Maxwell: Inductance Bridge:

 R1 + jL1   R4 =  R2 + jL2   R3
Under balance condition R1R4 = R2 R3
 19

R2 R3
R1 =
R4
L1R4 = L2 R3
L R
L1 = 2 3
R4
Hay’s bridge
Hay’s bridge is suitable to measure inductance of high value of quality factor coils. Q > 10

2 R2 R3 R4C42
R1 =
1 + 2 R42C42
R2 R3C4
L1 =
1 + 2 R42C42
1
Q=
C4 R4
Owen’s bridge

L1 = R2 R3 C4
− R1 − R3
=
C4 C2
C
R1 = R3 4
C2
• This bride has two capacitors
• This bridge is suitable for medium Q-factor measurement.
• Owen’s bridge is used for incremental inductance measurement from known value of the fixed capacitance (C4).
• Hay’s bridge is suitable to measure inductance of high volve of quality factor coils. Q > 10
 20

5. Anderson Bridge
• Anderson bridge uses a fixed capacitance ‘C’ and for the bridge balance the resistance r and r1 are selected as variable.
• These are used for measurement of low Q coil. (Q > 1)
• This bridge is used for accurate measurement of inductance over ‘mH’ to wide range.
• Bridge will give two balance equations because of ‘fixed point’
Note: It is more complex bridge and shielding of the bridge is complicated.

R3
L1 = C  r ( R4 + R2 ) + R2 R4 
R4 
R R
R1 = 2 3 r1
R4
De-Sauty’s Bridge
• This bridge is suitable for perfect capacitor value measurement only.
• It is not used to measure the dielectric losses.

R3 ( R2 + r2 ) − R1
r1 =
R4
R4C2
C1 =
R3

Schering Bridge
Schering Bridge is used for capacitance and dissipation factor measurements.
D-factor = tan δ = ωRC
 21

= Derating factor
= Dissipation factor
Dielectric losses, relative permittivity and properties of insulating material is also measured by this bridge.

R4C2
C1 =
R3
RC
r1 = 3 4
C2
Note:
(i) Pure capacitor (No-dielectric loss)

(ii) Practical capacitor (with dielectric losses)

Wein’s Bridge
• Measurement of frequency is done by Wien’s bridge.
• This bridge is not suitable for measurement of frequency of signals having harmonics, because bridge balance is
difficult.
• It is used for measurement of frequency from 100 Hz to 100 kHz.
 22

1
=
R1R2C1C2
1
f =
2 R1R2C1C2
R4 R2 C1
= +
R3 R1 C2
If R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C. Then R4/R3 = 2 and f = 1/2 πRC
Measurement of self- Measurement of Mutual Measurement
Measurement of Capacitance
inductance inductance of frequency
Maxwell’s Inductance Heaviside Mutual Inductance
D Sauty’s Bridge Wien’s Bridge
Bridge Bridge
Maxwell’s Inductance Schering Bridge (It is also used for Campbell’s Modification of
Capacitance Bridge measurement of relative permittivity) Heaviside Bridge
Carey Foster Bridge (use for
Heaviside Campbell equal
Hay’s Bridge measurement of capacitance in terms
ratio bridge
mutual inductance)
Anderson’s Bridge Campbell Bridge
Owen’s Bridge

Note:
1
(Q) Quality factor D= = tan 
Q
𝑋𝐿 R
𝑅 XL
R XL
XL R
XC R
R XC

R XC
XC R


 23

Chapter 04: Measurement of Energy and Power

MEASUREMENT OF ENERGY
Single Phase Energy Meter (Induction Type)
• AC induction energy meter working on principle of induction is used to cumulatively record energy consumed by the
load and hence it is an integrating type meter.
• Potential coil of an energy meter must be highly inductive so that the error in measurement of energy is minimized.

Equivalent Circuit

Recording or Registering Mechanism

Reduced gear train are used for recording the number of revolutions made by the disc. So that energy consumed by load is
recorded cumulatively so energy meter working is integrating instrument.
Important Formulae
Number of revolutions made by disc N
(i) Energy meter constant ( K ) = =
Energy recorded in KWhr P(kW)  t (hour)
Total number of revolution
(ii) Measured energy (Wm ) =
K
VI cos  t
(iii) True energy (WT ) =  KWhr
1000 3600
Where, V = Voltage and I = Current, t is in second
Measured energy − True energy
(iv) % Error ( r ) = 100%
True energy
 r = positive means meter is running fast,  r = negative means meter is running slow.
(v) Pmeasured = VI sin(  − )
 24

Where  is angle between voltage across potential coil and current in potential coil.
PT = True power = VI cos 
Error in power = Pm − PT
= VI sin(  − ) − VI cos 
= VI sin(  − ) − cos 
For error in power to be zero  should be equal to 90°, therefore we need highly inductive potential coil.
Lag coil or shading ring are used to maintain 90° phase displacement between potential coil voltage and flux passing
through the disc.
(vi) Braking torque is directly proportional to speed of disc.
At constant load speed is constant, therefore the torque of disc is equal to braking torque.


Energy = (speed) dt

E =  N dt

1
(vii) Speed of disc 
distance of permanant magnet from center of disc
(viii) Creeping: If the friction is over compensated then the disc starts rotating slowly without any current in the circuit
coil. Creeping can be reduced by proving holes or slots on the opposite sides of disc or by placing a small iron piece
on disc.
(ix) For over voltage compensation we use saturable shunt magnet between the limbs of shunt magnet.
(x) During overloading current coil flux increases which can damage the meter. For diversion of excess flux saturable
series magnet is kept between the limb of series magnet.
Phantom Loading
Phantom loading is use in the calibration of wattmeter and energy meter. The pressure coil and current coil are separately
exited by supply. In this method rated voltage is applied to potential coil through small voltage source and the current
energises the current coil at very small voltage. The total current supplied for the phantom loading is the sum of the pressure
coil current which is supplied at normal voltage and the current of the current coil supply at low voltages.

Measurement of Power
EDM Type Wattmeter
dM dM V dM Pavg . dM
(i) Td = I1I 2 cos  = I cc .I pc cos  = I . cos  = .
d d RS d RS d 
(ii) RS = potential coil resistance

Pavg dM
(iii) =    Pavg
kc RP d 
• Wattmeter measures average active power.
• Wattmeter works on the principle of electro-dynamo meter (EDM).
• It is consisting of fixed and moving coil.
• The thickness of current coil is larger compare to potential coil because CC carries large load current.
• Moving coil is connected with high resistance in series for measurement of load and supply voltage hence called
potential coil.
• PC of wattmeter must be highly resistive so that error in the measurement of power is minimized whereas PC of
energy meter must be of highly inductive so that error in the measurement of energy is reduced.
 25

• In EDM wattmeter spring provides controlling torque and air friction damping technique is used.
Blondel’s theorem:
• ‘n’-phase, ( n + 1) wire –
Balance Unbalance
1-watt-meter required ‘n’ wattmeter required
‘n’-phase, ‘n’ - wire –
Balance Unbalance
(n – 1) watt-meter required (n – 1) watt-meter required
3-phase Active Power

• P3 =| 3VL I L | cos  = W1 + W2

3-phase Reactive Power

• Q3 = 3 | VL I L | sin  = 3(W1 − W2 ) …(lag)

• Q3 = 3 | VL I L | sin  = − 3(W1 − W2 ) …(lead)

Power Factor
3(W1 − W2 )
 = tan −1 …(lag load)
(W1 + W2 )
3(W1 − W2 )
 = − tan −1 …(lead load)
(W1 + W2 )
Power Factor = cos𝜙
𝜙 cos𝜙 W1 W2 W = W1 + W2 Observation

0° 90° 3 3 W1 = W2
VL I L VL I L 3VL I L
2 2
VL I L 3
30° 0.866 VLIL VL I L W1 = 2W2
2 2

3 3 W1 = W
60° 0.5 VL I L 0 VL I L
2 2 W2 = 0

VL I L VL I L W1 = +ve
90° 0 − 0
2 2 W2 = –ve

Error in Wattmeter
(a) Potential coil on source side
(This connection is preferred for small load current)
 26

PT = True Power = VI cos 

Pm = Measured Power = PT + I 2 rc
Pm − PT
% r =  100
PT
I 2 rc
=  100
PT
(b) PC on load side

PT = True power = VI cos 

Pm = Measured power PT + I 22 Rs
I 22 Rs V2
% r =  100 =  100
PT Rs PT
This type of wattmeter is preferred for large load type.
• Potential coil with inductance (L)

I1 = I

dM dM
Defection torque = I1I 2 cos  = I1I 2 cos( − )
d d
Pmeasured = (V  cos )  ( I )  cos( − ) 

= VI cos  cos( − )
= measured power
True Power cos 
= =
(i) Correction factor Measured Power cos  cos( − )
(ii) Percentage error ( %  r )

%  r = (tan  tan )  100

(iii) For lagging load ( = + ve)

Pmeasured = Ptrue + (VI sin ) tan 

Pmeasured  Ptrue
 27

(iv) For lagging load ( = − ve)

Pmeasured = Ptrue − VI sin  tan 

Pmeasured  Ptrue
• Multiplication factor of wattmeter (Mf)
Voltage setting  Current setting  Power factor
Mf =
Maximum range of scale
Note: In case of laboratory wattmeter iron shielding is used around the meter which will divert the external magnetic field
so that error is reduced.

Low Power Factor Wattmeter

Low power factor wattmeter is an instrument which is used measure power in low power factor. During open circuit test
power transformer power factor is less than 0.5 we use low power factor wattmeter.
Low power factor wattmeter is same as that of an electrodynamometer type wattmeter with slight modifications for the
compensation of errors.
Compensation of error due to pressure or voltage coil current is done by an additional winding known as compensating
winding is used and is connected in series with the pressure coil. It is identical to the current coil and tightly wound with it
to produce a field that acts in oppositions to the field of the current coil due to load current.

 28

Chapter 05: CRO & Electronic Measurement

5.1 CRO or Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

Fig. Circuit diagram of CRT

• CRO or CRT is working on the principle of thermosonic emission i.e. emitteing of electron from a heated surface.
• By changing the control grid potential intensity or brightness of beam is controlled.
• If more negative potential is provided to the control grid than electrons entering into the CRT is completely stopped.
• By chagning the pre accelerating and accelerating anode potential Va the velocity of the electron is increased.
Potential Energy = Kinetic Energy
1
qVa = mv 2
2
2qVa
v=
m
Where v = velocity of electron m/s
Va = anode voltage V
−19
a = change of electron, e = 1.602  10 C
−31
m = mass of electron kg = 09.1  10 kg
• Electronic focus control is use in CRO. Electronic focus control work on the principle of double concave electron
lens. It is used to focus all the electrons.
• Horizontal deflection plate is kept in vertical position and it is applied with sawtooth or sweep signal which is used
to shift the beam in horizontal time sale position.
• Vertical deflection plate is applied with test signal so that beam is moving vertically depedning on pattern of the test
signal. Vertical deflection plate is kept in horizontal position.
• Synchronizer is used for changing the time period of saw tooth signal until its time period become equal to the test
signal time period so that stationary waveform is available on the screen.
 29

• Different phosphorous coating is used on the screen which converts heat energy into light energy depends on
application.
• Bandwidth (Hz) × Rise time (sec) = 0.35
• Probe is a connecting channel between two devices. Probe must have high input resistance and low output resistance
so that there will be no loading effect.
• Time constant of probe and time constant of CRO must be equal to make probe independent of frequency.
( R p  C p ) = ( RCRO  CCRO )

Deflection Sensitivity (s)

Vd .x.
y=
2d .Va
y xl
Sensitivity, S = =
Vd 2dVa
1 Vd 2dVa
Deflection factor = = =
S y xl

Va = anode voltage (accelerating voltage applied of pre accelerator)

l = distance between centre of vertical deflection to screen
x = length of vertical deflection plate.
y = deflection height on screen
d = distance between vertical deflection plate.
Lissajous Pattern
• When we apply sinusoidal signal on horizontal deflection plate and vertical deflection plate both than the waveform
pattern appearing on the screen is called Lissajous pattern.
• It is use for finding phase angle difference between two signal and for calculation of unknown frequency.
• At any instant of time electron beam follows according to the phasor summation of signal applied to horizontal
deflection plate and vertical deflection plate.
Case I : 𝜙 = 0°, 360° → Straight line (First & Third quadrant)
Case II : 𝜙 = 90°, 270° → Circle
Case III : 𝜙 = 180° → Straight line (Third & second quadrant)
Case IV : 0 < 𝜙 < 180° → direction of rotation is in C.W.
Case V : 180° < 𝜙< 360° → direction of rotation is in CCW.
Case VI : 0 < 𝜙 < 90° → ellipse (First & Third quadrant)
Case (VII) : 90° < 𝜙< 180°→ ellipse (Third & Second quadrant)

(i)
 30

y  x 
 = sin −1  internal  = sin −1  internal 
 yexternal   xexternal 
(ii) LP in 2nd and 4th quadrant

x 
 = 180 − sin −1  1 
 x2 
y 
 = 180 − sin −1  1  second possibility = (360 − )
 y2 
Measurement of frequency by CRO:
• Frequency ratio.
fy = Maximum no. of horizontal Intersection drawn to LP
fy = Maximum no. of vertical Intersection drawn to LP
fy = Maximum no. of horizontal tangent drawn to LP
fx = Maximum no. of vertical tangent drawn to LP
fy Number of Horizontal Tangencies
=
fx Number of Vertical Tangencies
f high Total no. of Bright spot in LP
=
flow 1
f high Total no. of Corner in LP
=
flow 1
Example:
 31

Digital Voltmeter
Specifications of DVM
Resolution (R):
Resolution is the term used to describe the smallest input value that a digital meter can measure.
1
R= in fraction
10 N
V
R = maxN in volts
10
N = Number of full digits
Sensitivity:
Sensitivity is the lowest input value that a digital meter can measure within the specified range.
Number of digits in display = N + 1 where N is the number of full digits which may display any digit from 0 to 9 and one
left most digit is called half digit which may display only 0 or 1.

1
3 Digits display:
2
3V 30 V 300 V
Resolution of minimum voltage 0.001 0.01 0.1
Maximum voltage 2.999 29.99 299.9
3
3 Digits display:
4
3V 30 V 300 V
Resolution of minimum voltage 0.001 0.01 0.1
Maximum voltage 2.999 29.99 299.9
4-Digits display:
1V 10 V 100 V
Resolution of minimum voltage 0.0001 0.001 0.01
Maximum voltage 0.999 9.999 99.99
Over Ranging
1
The extra digit is switched ON is called over ranging.
2

1
3-Digit Display 3 Digits display
2
Percentage error due to extra count is given by,
Count  Full scale value
Error = Percentage error due to reading +
Number of counts
 32

Q-Meter
Q-Meter works on the principle of series.
Applications of Q-Meter
1. Measurement of unknown capacitance

−Cd
• Error due to distributed capacitance %error =  100%
Cd + C
• The magnitude of % error introduced in measurement of Q by inserting a resistor r.
−r
% error due to insertion resistance r =  100%
Rcoil + r


 33

Chapter 06: Instrument Transformers

Current Transformer

N2
• Turns ratios = (n) = ,
N1
I P actual
• Actual/Transformation ratio = (R) =
I S actual
 X + Xs 
• Secondary burden angle → (S) = tan −1  e 
 Re + Rs 
Ip
• Nominal ratio K =
Is
I w cos  + I m sin 
R= +n
IS
•

not valid for  = 0 because some approximation is made
• Iw = Io sin α
• Im = Io cos α

•
Ip = ( nI S )2 + I m 2
when S = 0 for R burden
R
• Ratio corelation factor =
K
K−R
• Ratio error =  100%
R
Ip 180
• Phase angle error (degree) = (𝜙) = 
nI s 
• Phase angle between IP & IS = (180º – 𝜙)
• Magnetising MMF = Im × primary turns
• Iron loss = EP × Iw
E
• EP = 2
n
• ES = I S  Z S
• Bar primary = 1 turn
• VA rating of a current transformer expressed the burden on it.
Burden current transformer
The external load applied to the secondary of a current transformer is called the burden.
The burden can be expressed as
(i) Total impedance in ohms of the circuit or the total volt-amperes (VA)
(ii) Power factor at aa specified value of current or voltage and frequency.
 34

Potential Transformer

N1
• Turns ratio = (n) =
N2
V V
• Nominal ratio (k) = P = 1
VS V2
VP V1
• Actual transformation ratio = (R) = =
VS V2
X 
• Secondary burden angle = (Δ) = tan −1  1 
 R1 


 35

Chapter 07: Transducer

Transducer is a device which converts non-electrical quantity into electrical quantity.
Classification of Transducer
(i) Primary and secondary Transducer
Primary transducers:
When the input signal is directly sensed by the transducer and physical phenomenon is converted into the electrical
form directly then such transducer is called the primary transducer.
Secondary Transducers:
When the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor and then its output being of some form other than
input signal is given as input to a transducer for conversion into electrical from, then such a transducer falls in the
category of secondary transduces.
(ii) Active and Passive Transducer
Active Transducer: If output electrical signal is produced by transducer itself is called active transducer. These are
self-generating type transducer. Example: Thermocouples, Tacho generator, Photovoltaic cells, Piezo electrical
crystals.
Passive Transducer: These transducers consume power from external sources for transduction are called passive
transducers. Example: Resistive, Inductive, capacitive transducers.
(iii) Analog and Digital Transducer
Analog Transducers: These transducers convert the input quantity into an analog output which is a continuous
function of time. Thus, a strain gauge, an L.V.D.T a thermocouple or a thermistor maybe called as “Analog
Transducers” as they give an output which is a continuous function of time
Digital Transducers: These transducers convert the input quantity in to an electrical output which is in the from of
pules
Potentiometer

Ri  li

R0  l0
R0
V0 = Vi 
Ri
l0
V0 = Vi 
li
V0 R0 x
= = (x is change in displacement due to which there is change in voltage)
Vi Ri l0
Vi V0 V V
S = Senstivity = = .....V/ S = Senstivity = i = 0 .....V/
Ri R0 Ri R0
Stroke: Maximum displacement measured by the potentiometer is called stroke.
Stroke = li
 36

LVDT (Linear Displacement Differential Transducer)

LVDT works on Principle of Transformer more precisely it works on the principle of modifying the spatial distribution of
an alternative magnetic field. It consists of primary winding and two secondary windings the core inside the transformer
can move according to the displacement which is supposed to be measured. The secondaries of LVDT connected back-to-
back so that output voltage is the phasor difference of two secondary coils. Depending on movement of the core it produces
positive and negative output voltage proportional to the displacement.
Advantages:
1. It has infinite resolution
2. LVDT has high sensitivity
3. Here we do not need amplification
4. There is no effect of friction
5. Low power consumption.

V0 = Vs1 – Vs2
V Volt
Sensitivity S = 0
x mm
Hall-effect Transducer
If a current carrying conductor placed in magnetic field experiences force so that the internal charges within the material
are displaced which produces electrical field. Electrical field is perpendicular to the direction of current and magnetic field.
Due to electric field an emf is develop across surface of the metal which is call hall voltage.
Hall voltage:
BI
VH =
nqW
B = Magnetic flux density
I = Current flowing through sensor
n = No of charge carrier per unit volume
q = charge
W = thickness of sensor
Hall Coefficient RH:
E
RH =
J B
J is current density
E is induced electric field
B is magnetic strength
Applications:
1. VH  BE : Therefore, it is used as multiplier of 2-signals.
 37

2. VH  B : Therefore, it is used to measure magnetic field.

3. It is used to find type of semiconductor.
4. It is used to measure displacement up to micro-meter range.
Piezo Resistive Transducer
The piezo resistive effect is a change in the electrical resistivity of a semiconductor or metal when mechanical strain is
applied.
Note: Piezoresistive effect cases a change only in electrical resistance not in electrical potential.
l
Longitudinal strain = l =
l
−D
Lateral strain =  D =
D

Poissons Ratio = (  ) = D
l
 R 
 
Gauge factor = GF =  R 
 l 
 l 
l
E = strain =
l
 /  Lateral strain
Gauge factor = 1 + 2 +  = Poisson’s ratio =
 longitunal strain

If (change in resistivity) is neglected than gauge factor = 1 + 2

 / 
For metal 0
l / l
d / 
For semiconductor have high value.
dl / l

Stress
Note: Young’s modulus =
Strain

Piezo Electric Transducer

If pressure is applied on material (like Quartz, Barium titanate, Rochelle salt etc.) then voltage will be produced. It is an
active transducer.

q C
Charge sensitivity = d =  
F N
E V  V-m 
Voltage sensitivity = g = = 0  
P t p  N 
 38

V0 = g  P  t
V0  P (P is pressure, E is electric field)

RTD
• RTD has positive temperature coefficient of resistance, and this is 1st order device.
• It uses mercury as a liquid thermal expansion material which is used to measures temperature upto 400 °C.
• Solid thermometer used platinum, copper, nickel measures up to 900°C.
• Platinum has more stability & it has higher sensitivity compared to other materials. These are used in electrical
heaters, micro-ovens and small size boilers.
• Wheatstone bridge is used for converting non-electrical into electrical i.e., changes in the temperature will cause
change in the resistance and hence bridge became unbalanced this unbalanced voltage is calibrated in terms of
temperature change.
Thermocouple
If two different metals farming a junction operating at different temperature an emf is produced across the junction which
is proportional to the temperature difference.

Thermocouple Positive Negative Temperature

type
Conductor Conductor Range (°C)

J Chromel Iron Constantan 0 to +760

K Chromel Alumel –200 to + 1370

E Chromel Constantan – 100 to + 1000

S Platinum (10%) Rhodium Rhodium 0 to 1750

Thermistor
• It is a combination of Nickel, Chromium and Copper and metal alloys it has highest sensitivity and small in size in
the range of mm. Used to measure both positive and negative temperature.
• It is used in multiple application like temperature control in electrical heaters and electronic circuits for Q point
(Quotient point in BJT) stabilization.
• It has negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
• By using self-heating property, it is used to measure other than temperature like vacuum, liquid and gases flow rate,
thermal conductivity etc.
• In case of temperature measurements, it is corrected with a fixed resistor across the thermistor for compensation of
self-heating property.
1 1 
 − 
e 
T To 
RT = Ro
β = constant = (3000 – 4000)
T, T0 = temperature in Kelvin
R0 = Resistance at T0
 39

dRT
Sensitivity = S = Ω/K
dT
Radiation Pyrometers
• It is working on the principle of black body radiation.
• If a high temperature metal surface is able to radiate thermal waves the thermal energy flow between 2 radiated
metals of A and B is given by relation.
q =  (TA4 − TB4 )
 = Stefen Boltzmann Constant
q = Thermal energy flow
TA, TB ⇒ Temperature of metals A, B
Bimetallic Strip
It consists of two metals normally made of nickel and chromium which has different thermal expansion coefficient when
the temperature is change the metal will expand and produces bending moment, this principle is used in the bimetallic strips.
Application
Used in MCB

Note:
Parameter Applications
Resistance
(i) Potentiometer device Pressure, displacement
(ii) Resistance strain gauge Force, torque, displacement.
(iii) Resistance thermometer Temperature, radiant heat
(iv) Thermistor Temperature, flow
(v) Photoconductive cell Photosensitive relay
Capacitance
(i) Variable Displacement, pressure
(ii) Capacitor microphone Speech, music, noise
(iii) Dielectric gauge Liquid level, thickness
Inductance
(i) Magnetic circuit Pressure, force, displacement
(ii) Differential transformer Pressure, displacement position
(iii) Eddy current gauge Displacement, thickness
 40

Voltage and Current

(i) Hall effect pickup Magnetic flux current, power
(ii) Ionization chamber Particle counting, radiation
Self-Generating Transducers
(i) Thermocouple and thermopile Temperature, heat flow, radiation.
(ii) Moving coil generator Velocity, vibrations.
(iii) Piezoelectric pickup Sound, vibrations, acceleration, pressure changes

